General Chemistry II

Phase Changes

Phase changes are transformations of matter from one physical state to another. They occur when energy (usually in the
form of heat) is added or removed from a substance. They are characterized by changes in molecular order; molecules in
the solid phase have the greatest order, while those in the gas phase have the greatest randomness or disorder.

Melting - A phase change from solid to liquid. Condensation - A phase change from gas to liquid.
Vaporization - A phase change from liquid to gas. Freezing - A phase change from liquid to solid.
Sublimation - A phase change from solid to gas. Deposition - A phase change from gas to solid.

Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a substance.

When a substance is heated, the added energy is used by the substance in either of two ways:
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the particles move faster. The increase in
kinetic energy is accompanied by an increase in temperature.
b. The added heat is used to break attractive forces between particles. There is no observed increase in
temperature when this happens. Often a change in the physical appearance of the substance is observed, such
as a phase change.

Conversely, the removal or release of heat results in two ways:

a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The motion of the particles slow down. A decrease in temperature is
observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase change may occur. No change in temperature is observed.

COOLING CURVE HEATING CURVE

The amount of heat needed to convert the solid to the liquid state at the melting point is called the heat of fusion of the
substance. Molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid. Like melting points, heats of
fusion are influenced by the strength of attractive forces that exist between particles in the solid. The stronger the
attractive forces that hold the particles of the solid together, the larger is the heat of fusion.

Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid
at a given temperature, usually, at the boiling point. The molar heat of vaporization of water at 100oC is 40.8 kJ/mol.

A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under different conditions of
temperature and pressure. It gives the possible combinations of pressure and temperature at which certain physical
state or states a substance would be observed. Each substance has its own phase diagram.
The critical point The critical point terminates the liquid/gas phase line. It is the set of temperature and pressure on a
phase diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance merge together into a single phase. Beyond the
temperature of the critical point, the merged single phase is known as a supercritical fluid. The temperature and
pressure corresponding to this are known as the critical temperature and critical pressure.

Melting (or freezing) curve – the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between liquid and solid
states. It shows the effect of pressure on the melting point of the solid. Anywhere on this line, there is equilibrium
between the solid and the liquid.

Vaporization (or condensation) curve – the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous
and liquid states. It shows the effect of pressure on the boiling point of the liquid. Anywhere along this line, there will be
equilibrium between the liquid and the vapor.

Sublimation (or deposition) curve – the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and
solid states. It represents the effect of increased temperature on a solid at a very low constant pressure, lower than the
triple point.

HEAT CHANGE WITHOUT CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

q = mΔHfus ( if solid to liquid) or q = mΔHvap ( if liquid to gas)
Where:
m = mass of sample in grams
ΔHfus = heat of fusion
ΔHvap = heat of vaporization
HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
q = m S ΔT
Where:
m = mass of sample in grams
S = specific heat of the sample in the appropriate physical state
T = change in temperature in heat of fusion

Data for water used in the heating curve:

• Heat capacity of ice (Cice) = 37.6 J/K mol
• Specific heat of ice (Swater) = 2.03 J/g ◦C
• Heat capacity of water (Cwater)= 75.3 J/K mol
• Specific heat of water (Swater) = 4.184 J/g ◦C
• Heat capacity of steam (Csteam)= 35.8 J/K mol (at constant pressure of 1 atm)
• Specific heat of steam (Ssteam) = 1.99 J/g ◦C
• Melting point = 273.15 K (0 ◦C )
• Heat of fusion of ice (ΔHfus)= 6.01 kJ/mol
• Boiling point = 373.15 K.
• Heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)= 40.79 kJ/mol
• Heat of sublimation (ΔHsub)= 46.8 kJ/mol

You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g imbedded in an ice block. How much heat is absorbed by the piece of
metal as it warms in your hand from the temperature of the ice block at 1.5 ◦C to your body temperature of 37.0 ◦C? The
specific heat of copper is 0.385 J/g- ◦C. Assume that the metal is pure copper.
q = m S ΔT
= (3.10 g)(0.385 J/g- ◦C)(37.0 ◦C – 1.5 ◦C)
= 42.4 J

Sample Problem 1: How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of ice at 0˚C into water at the same temperature?
Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in temperature and involves a solid phase, then the formula to
be used is q = m ΔHfus .
q = m ΔHfus
= (2600 g) (6.01 kJ)
= 15,626 kJ

Sample Problem 2: How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of water at 100˚C into steam at the same
temperature?
Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in temperature and involves a liquid phase, then the formula to
be used is q = m ΔHvap
q = m ΔHvap
= (2600 g) (40.79 kJ)
= 106,054 kJ
Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0 ◦C to 182 ◦C.
Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g ◦C over the entire liquid range and the specific heat of steam is 1.99
J/g OC.
Solution: The heat change (q) is calculated for each stage.
The calculation is broken down in three steps.
Step 1: Heating of water from 0◦C to 100 ◦C
q1 = m S Δt
= (346 g) (4.184 J/g OC) (100 OC – 0 OC)
= 1.45 x 105 J
= 145 kJ
Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 ◦C (a phase change)
q2 = m ΔHvap
= (346 g) (40.79 kJ)
= 14113 kJ
Step 3: Heating steam from 100 ◦C to 182 ◦C.
q3 = m S Δt
= (346 g) (1.99 J/g ◦C) (182 OC – 100 ◦C)
= 5.65 x 104 J = 56.5
kJ The overall energy required is given by
qT = q1 + q2 + q3
= 145 kJ + 14113kJ + 56.5 kJ = 14314.5kJ

Practice: Calculate the heat released when 68.0 gram of steam at 124 degree C is converted to water at 45 degree C.
What is the heat in Joules required to convert 25 grams of -10 °C ice into 150 °C steam?

Useful information:
heat of fusion of water = 334 J/g
heat of vaporization of water = 2257 J/g
specific heat of ice = 2.09 J/g·°C
specific heat of water = 4.18 J/g·°C
specific heat of steam = 2.09 J/g·°C

Solution:

The total energy required is the sum of the energy to heat the -10 °C ice to 0 °C ice, melting
the 0 °C ice into 0 °C water, heating the water to 100 °C, converting 100 °C water to 100 °C
steam and heating the steam to 150 °C.

To get the final value, first calculate the individual energy values and then add them up.

Step 1: Heat required to raise the temperature of ice from -10 °C to 0 °C Use the formula

q = mcΔT

where
q = heat energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
ΔT = change in temperature

q = (25 g)x(2.09 J/g·°C)[(0 °C - -10 °C)]

q = (25 g)x(2.09 J/g·°C)x(10 °C)
q = 522.5 J

Heat required to raise the temperature of ice from -10 °C to 0 °C = 522.5 J

Step 2: Heat required to convert 0 °C ice to 0 °C water

Use the formula for heat:

q = m·ΔHf

where
q = heat energy
m = mass
ΔHf = heat of fusion

q = (25 g)x(334 J/g)

q = 8350 J

Heat required to convert 0 °C ice to 0 °C water = 8350 J

Step 3: Heat required to raise the temperature of 0 °C water to 100 °C water

q = mcΔT

q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)[(100 °C - 0 °C)]

q = (25 g)x(4.18 J/g·°C)x(100 °C)
q = 10450 J

Heat required to raise the temperature of 0 °C water to 100 °C water = 10450 J

Step 4: Heat required to convert 100 °C water to 100 °C steam

q = m·ΔHv

where
q = heat energy
m = mass
ΔHv = heat of vaporization

q = (25 g)x(2257 J/g)

q = 56425 J

Heat required to convert 100 °C water to 100 °C steam = 56425

Step 5: Heat required to convert 100 °C steam to 150 °C steam

q = mcΔT
q = (25 g)x(2.09 J/g·°C)[(150 °C - 100 °C)]
q = (25 g)x(2.09 J/g·°C)x(50 °C)
q = 2612.5 J

Heat required to convert 100 °C steam to 150 °C steam = 2612.5

Step 6: Find total heat energy

HeatTotal = HeatStep 1 + HeatStep 2 + HeatStep 3 + HeatStep 4 + HeatStep 5

HeatTotal = 522.5 J + 8350 J + 10450 J + 56425 J + 2612.5 J
HeatTotal = 78360 J

Answer:

The heat required to convert 25 grams of -10 °C ice into 150 °C steam is 78360 J or 78.36 kJ.