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Characterisation of earthen elements. A comparison between earth block

masonry, rammed earth and cob

Conference Paper · October 2012

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2 authors:

Lorenzo Miccoli Urs Mueller

Xella Technology and Research RISE Research Institutes of Sweden
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SWrucWural Analysis of HisWorical ConsWrucWions – Jerzy Jasieńko (ed)

© 2012 DPNH ProcławH PolandH ISSN 0860-2395H ISBN 978-83-7125-216-7
=
CeAoACTbofpATflk=lc=bAoTebk=bibMbkTpK==
A=ClMmAofplk=BbTtbbk=bAoTe=BilCh=
MAplkovI=oAMMba=bAoTe=Aka=ClB=
iorenzo jiccoliNI rrs jüllerO

ABpToACT=
=
barth=represents=one=of=the=oldest=construction=materialsI=which=are=still=utiliòed=both=in=developed=and=
developing= countriesK= thile= research= on= stone= and= brick= masonry= has= recently= benefited= from=
significant=advancesI=knowledge=on=the=material=properties=and=failure=mechanisms=of=earthen=building=
construction=is=limited=and=fragmentedK=fn=this=paper=a=comparison=of=the=mechanical=performance=of=
structural=elements=built=in=adobe=Eearth=blockF=masonryI=rammed=earth=and=cob=is=presentedK=barth=can=
be=processed=in=many=waysI=the=three=construction=techniquesI=howeverI=represent=the=most=important=
typologiesI= which= constitute= totally= different= properties= based= on= differences= in= their= granulometryI=
moisture=state=during=preparationI=homogeneityI=structural=performanceI=additive=or=stabiliserK=fn=order=
to= gain= better= knowledge= on= the= structural= behaviour= an= extensive= compression= and= diagonal=
compression= EshearF= tests= campaign= was= performedK= auring= diagonal= compression= experimentsI=
a=technique=based= on= a= photogrammetric= system= was= applied= in= order= to= monitor= deformationK= cirst=
compression= results= show= brittle= mechanical= behaviour= in= the= case= of= adobe= masonry= and= rammed=
earth=elementsI=whereas=cob=exhibits=a=very=different=stressJstrain=patternW=cob=can=deform=beyond=the=
elastic=range=with=a=gradual=drop=in=capacityK=qhis=behaviour=is=strongly=influenced=by=the=presence=of=
fibresK=aespite=its= low=compressive=strengthI=cob=thus= presents=a= relatively=good=performance=within=
the= earthen= material= range= as= far= as= shear= behaviour= is= concernedK= qhis= parameterI= together= with= its=
long=postJpeak=plastic=phaseI=is=relevant=if=its=use=in=seismic=areas=is=consideredK=qhe=study=is=part=of=
our= work= in= the= framework= of= the= ongoing= project= kfhbo= funded= by= the= buropean= `ommission=
dealing=with=improving=immovable=`ultural=eeritage=assets=against=the=risk=of=earthquakesK=
=
heywords: barthen materialsI Compression testI aiagonal compression test
=
=
NK fkTolarCTflk=
=
ft=is=estimated=that=PM=to=QMB=of=the=world=population=currently=lives=or=works=in=structures=built=in=or=
with= earthK= barth= structures= require= high= maintenance= as= they= are= prone= to= erosion= under= rainfallI=
spalling= and= crossJsectional= reduction= when= salts= are= transported= by= capillary= actionI= and= are= also=
susceptible=to=cracking=both=under=low=tensile=and=low=compressive=stressesK=then=these=dwellings=are=
located= in=regions= with= high= earthquake=riskI= their= intrinsically= low=resistance= to= dynamic= actions= is=
further= worsened=by=such=durability=issuesK= A=number= of=construction=and=repair=practices=negatively=
affect=earthen=buildings=and=make=them=susceptible=to=high=damage=even=under=low=seismic=forces=xNzK=
iack=of=continuity=at=corners=and=at=wall=junctionsI=the=presence=of=heavy=roofs=that=are=not=supported=
by= ring= beamsI= and= also= that= roofs= are= often= not= connected= to= walls= are= some= typical= recurring=
examplesK= pome= countries= where= the= populationI= particularly= the= rural= oneI= still= inhabits= earthen=
building=have=been=affected=by=highly=destructive=earthquakesI= for= instance=qurkey=Ebròinkan=NVVOFI=
fran= EBam= OMMPFI= meru= Emisco= OMMTFI= `hile= E`onception= OMNMFK= Although= damage= to= dwellings= and=
their= collapse= is= usually= the=cause= of= human= lossesI= earthquakes= are=as= well= devastating=to=the= built=
cultural=heritage=in=these=regionsK=As=a=matter=of=factI=it=is=often=overlooked=that=a=considerable=amount=

================================================
N
=mhaI=BAj=cederal=fnstitute=for=jaterial=oesearch=and=qestingI=lorenòoKmiccoli]bamKde=
O
=mhaI=`Bf=pwedish=`ement=and=`oncrete=oesearch=fnstituteI=pwedenI=ursKmueller]cbiKse=Eformerly=BAjF=
UQN=
 =

of=heritage=sitesI=of=which=many=are=endangeredI=are=built=in=earthK=pome=vernacular=earthen=building=
techniques=are=no=longer= in=practiceI=and=the=knowledge=of=how=to=build=in=such=materials= has=been=
lostK=barthen=techniques=considerably=differ=as=far=as=material=composition=and=construction=methods=
are= concernedK= thile= some= guidelines= and= standards= for= building= with= earthen= materials= do= exist= as=
Apqj=bOPVO=L=bOPVP=j=xOzI=fpNPUOT=xPz=and=kqb=bKMUM=Adobe=xQzI=these=often=lack=design=chartsK=
joreoverI=values=specified=do=not=take=the=high=variability=of=earthen=materials=in=terms=of=mechanical=
properties= into= considerationI= which= is= dependent= on= a= number= of= parameters= affecting= physical= and=
chemical= bonds= at= microstructural= levelI= eKgK= granulometry= or= fibre= content= xRzI= compaction= and=
moisture=contentK==
kewly=introduced=seismic=regulations=for=countries=where=earthen=buildings=are=still=present=within=the=
built= environment=EjoroccoI=makistanF=are=often=based=on=those=of=developed=countries=and= exclude=
earth=as=a=building=materialK=then=seismic=regulations=for=earthen=buildings=do=exist=Ekew=wealandFI=
these=tend=to=group=all=earthen=materials=into=oneK=fn=additionI=they=are=relevant=to=newJbuild=and=not=to=
existing= historic= structuresK= oepair= and=retrofitting= of= earthen=structures= are=often=carried=out= without=
being=recorded=and=when=based=on=elastic=stiffness= designI=additional= elements=introduced=are=being=
found=to=be=too=stiff=in=comparison=with=earthen=materialsK=lbservation=in=most=recent=earthquakes=and=
in=shaking= table= tests= suggests= that= the= introduction= of= concrete= xSz= or= steel= elements= xTz= as= well= as=
retrofitting= with= steel= mesh= and= cement= plaster= xSz= negatively= affects= the= behaviour= of= earthen=
structures= under= seismic= loadingW= stiffer= elements= attract= more= load= and= pound= the= original= earthen=
building=elements=to=the=groundK=qhus=even=simple=repair=measures=which=might=have=been=introduced=
with=the=original=intent=of=improving=the=behaviour=of=the=building=under=static=loads=might=harm=the=
structure=under=dynamic=loadsK=kumerical=modelling=provides=an=effective=tool=by=means=of=which=the=
behaviour= of= earthen= buildings= and= typical= damage= typologies= under= seismic= loading= can= be=
understood= furtherI= and= by= means= of= which= retrofitting= proposals= can= be= assessed= before= being=
adoptedI= but= sufficient= material= characterisation= to= use= as= input= to= numerical= models= is= currently=
missingK=thile=some=models=for=earthen=structures=can=be=builtI=their=correlation=to=realJlife=situations=
or=experiments=as=a=means=of=validation=has=yet=to=be=thoroughly=analysedK=
=
OK AfMp=Aka=lBgbCTfsbp=
=
fn= comparison=to=recent= advances= in=research= on=stone= and=brick=masonryI= knowledge= on=the= material=
properties= and= failure= mechanisms= of= earthen= materials= is= limited= and= scattered= xUzK= qhe= current= paper=
focuses=on=the=determination=of= material=parameters=and=the=behaviour= of=earthen=panels=and=other= test=
specimens= under= different= loading= conditionsK= qhe= entire= experimental= program= was= performed= in= the=
laboratories=of=BAjI=dermanyK=qhe=types=of=wall=segments=considered=in=the=experiments=consist=of=one=
leaf= adobe= masonry= with= earthen= mortar= and= of= monolithic= rammed= earth= and= cob= walls= EqabK= NFK=
fnvestigations= were=carried=out= at= micro=and=macrostructural=levels= in= order= to=acquire=the=mechanical=
behaviour= of= constituent= materials= as= well= as= that= of= the= structural= elements= EpanelsFK= qhe= goal= of= the=
experiments=is=to=acquire=a=basic=knowledge=of=the=mechanical=properties=of=different=earthen=materialsK=
=
PK bumbofMbkTAi=moldoAM=
=
PKNK Materials=
=
Table=N=ppecimens’=constituent=materials=
=

Type=of= Material= ppecifications= Mass=density=

application= ρ=[kgLmPz=

jasonry=panel= barth= polid=blocks=produced=by=a=mechaniòed=hand=moulding=procedure= NUSP= NUTM=

block= Eno=compressionI=plastic=consistencyF;=siòe=EOQM=x=NNR=x=TOF=mm=

barthen= phrinkage=O=BI=particle=siòe=up=to=Q=mmK=pand=particle= NUUR=

mortar=

oammed=earth= oammed= phrinkage=MKR=BI=particle=siòe=range=MJNS=mmI=panels=produced= ONVM=

panel= earth= with=soil=moist=material=

`ob=panel= `ob= barthI=water=and=straw=fibres=of=OMM=to=PMM=mm=in=length= NQTR=

UQO=
 =

barthen=materials=for=the=experiments=are=sourced=from=a=local=manufacturer=of=prefabricated=earthen=
building=productsK= jaterial= specificationsI= mineralogy= and=granulometric= properties= for= the= different=
wall=construction=typologies=are=listed=in=qabsK=NI=O=and=PK=
qhough=certain=material=properties=are=specified=by=the=manufacturerI=detailed=parameters=required=for=
the=structural=characterisation=of=the=constituent= materials=were=determined=in=the=BAj= laboratoriesK=
barth= blocksI= earth= mortar= and= rammed= earth= are= readymade= products= from= the= manufacturerK= `obI=
howeverI= was= prepared= at= the= BAj= premises= with= soil= from= the= manufacturer= of= the= other= earthen=
products=and=straw=fibres=mixed=to=a=mass=of=plastic=consistencyK=jixing=was=performed=in=a=concrete=
mixerK=After=mixingI=ETMM=×=TMM=×=NMMMF=mm=high=panels=were=built=following=traditional=cob=building=
practiceK=After=drying=of=the=small=wallsI=the=test=specimens=were=cut=out=by=means=of=a=sawK=
=
Table=O=jineralogy=properties=of=earthen=materialsK=nuantitiesW=HHH=Z=highI=HH=Z=mediumI=H=Z=low=
=

Material= drain=constituents= Clay=fraction=

aolomite=

pmectiteJ
celdspar=

pmectite=
enstatite=

Chlorite=
nuartz=

Calcite=

haolin=
ClinoJ

fllite=
illite=
barthen=block= HHH= H= H= J= J= = HHH= HH= HH= J=
barthen=mortar= HHH= H= H= J= H= = H= HH= HHH= HH=
oammed=earth= HH= H= H= HHH= J= = H= HH= HHH= H=
`ob= HHH= H= J= J= J= HH= = HHH= HH= =
=
Table=P=dranulometric=properties=of=the=used=earthen=materials=EmassJBF=
=

Material= dravel=and=pand=[=MKMSP=mm= pilt===MKMMOJMKMSP=mm= Clay=Y=MKMMO=mm=

barthen=block= QP= QR= NO=
barthen=mortar= RR= PT= NQ=
oammed=earth= SQ= OR= NN=
`ob= NU= SN= ON=
=
PKOK Manufacturing=process=
cor=the=static=compressive=experimentsI= wall=segments=of=siòe=RMM==×=ROM=×=NNM=mm=were=produced=
made=of=S=earthen=unit=coursesI=in=accordance=with=bk=NMROJNW=NVVU=xVzK=eoweverI=the=courses=were=
connected=by=OM=to=OR=mm=jointsI=and=thus=thicker=than=recommended=by=the=standardI=since=large=joint=
widths=are=often=observed=in=historic=earth=block=masonryK=barth=block=masonry=specimens=were=built=
without= preJwetting= the= earth= blocks= for= compression= testsK= cor= the= shear= tests= specimen= with= nonJ
wetted=as=well=as=wetted=blocks=were=builtK=jonolithic=panels=were=built=in=the=same=siòeK=oammed=
earth=walls=were=produced=with=formworkI=whereas=cob=wall=segments=were=cut=from=bulk=specimenI=
which=are=built=in=typical=cob=style=with=raw=earthI=water=and=straw=fibres=EOMM=to=PMM=mm=longFK=After=
dryingI=segments= of=QOM=×=QOM=×=NNR=mm=in=siòe= were=cut=from=the=bulk=specimensI=thus=preserving=
the=original=texture=of=the=cobK=After=productionI=the=panels=were=stored=in=a=climate=room=at=OP°`=and=
RM= B=oe= with= the=aim= of= equilibrating=the=moisture=content= of= the= wallsK= ppecimens= were=removed=
from=the=climate=room=shortly=before=the=strength=testing=took=placeK==
=
QK ClMmobppflk=TbpT=
=
QKNK Test=setup==
`ompression=tests=were=performed=using=a=universal=testing=machineK=mrior=to=the=testsI=two=fJgirders=
were=attached=to=the=lower=and=upper=side=of=the=wall=segments=in=order=to=introduce=the=compression=
forces=into=the=specimensK=Accurate=parallelisation=of=the=girders=was=achieved=by=using=a=low=strength=
cement=mortar=joint=between=the=girders=and=the=wall=segmentK=qests=were=performed=with=the=levelled=
specimensI=where=the=smaller=sides=of=the=wall=segments=were=parallel=to=the=chosen=loading=plates=of=
the=testing=machineK=cor= each=wall=typeI=Q=to=R=specimens=were=testedK=`ompressive=tests=were=carried=
UQP=
 =

out= under= displacement= controlK= qhe= loading= speed= was= adjusted= in= a= way= that= the= failure= point= was=
reached=after=OM=to=PM=minutesK=aeformations=were=monitored=by=isaqs=parallel=and=perpendicular=to=
the=loading=direction=on=both=sides=of=the=panel=specimenK=
=
QKOK Test=results==
qhe =setup =and =the =results =of =the =tests =are =shown =in =cigK =NK =cor =earth =block =masonry =wall =panels =the =
strength=values=ranged=between=OKU=and=PKR=jmaK=qhe=displacement=was=in=the=range=MKR=to=NB=with=
usually=an=abrupt=failureK=cailure=patterns= of=the=panels=are=depicted=in=cigK=NI= failure=was= visible=by=
vertical=or=diagonal=cracksK=pometimes=cone=shaped=failure=pattern=could=be=observedK=oammed=earth=
panels=reached=the=highest=compressive=strength=of=all=three=types=of= earth=constructionsK=qhe=values=
ranged=between=PKQ=and=Q=jmaK=qhe=deformations=of=the=panels=were=similar=to=those=of=earth=block=
masonryK=cailure=was=abrupt=after=maximum=stress=was=reachedK=
=

=========== =
========== =
cigK=N=barth=block=masonryI=rammed=earth=and=cob=specimens=under=compressionK=bxamples=of=failure=modes=
Ecracks=marked=in=yellow=linesF=
=
qhe=failure=pattern=showed=cone=shaped=cracking=patternI=at=least=one=sideI=sometimes=on=both=sidesK=
`ob=showed=a=completely=different=behaviour=under=compressive=load=than=the=other=two=construction=
typesK=jaximum=strength=ranged=from=NKQ=to=NKT=jmaK=aeformations=measured=were=high=reaching=up=
to= S= B= of= vertical= strain= xNMzK= aue= to=the= content= of= straw= the= material= showed= a= ductile= behaviour=
under= compressive= load= with= no= distinctive= maximum= yielding= pointK= `rack= patterns= after= the= tests=
were=almost=randomly=and=only=in=one=sample=a=cone=shaped=failure=was=indicatedK=
=
QKPK bvaluation=and=comparison=of=results=
oesults= obtained= from= the= compression= tests= are= given= qabK= QI= where= bNLP= is= voung’s= modulus=
measured =at =NLP =maximum =loadI =as =well =as =for =the =vertical =EnormalF =strain =εNLPK= qhe= stressJstrain=
envelope=for=earth=block=masonry=shown=in=cigK=O=exhibits=a=short=phase=of=postJpeak=strain=softening=
under=compressionI= due=to=its=brittle=behaviour=under= monoaxial=loadK=oammed=earth=shows=a=brittle==
=
Table=Q=oesults=from=compressive=strength=tests=End=Z=not=determinedF=
=

= Compressive= Tensile= voung’s=modulus= sertical=strain= moisson=ratio=

strength=[Mmaz= strength=[Mmaz= bNLP=[Mmaz= εNLP=[Bz= [–z=
Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa=
barth=block= RKNM= MKPN= MKRM= MKNQ= ONVT= TN= MKMTN= MKMMO= MKQP= MKMT=
jortar= PKNS= MKQQ= MKPM= MKMU= NMST= NVN= MKRMM= MKMNM= nd= nd=
barth=block=masonry= PKOU= MKQM= nd= nd= UMP= OMQ= MKNQR= MKMQR= MKPT= MKNP=
oammed=earth= PKTP= MKOP= nd= nd= QNQP= VSN= MKMPN= MKMMT= MKOT= MKMQ=
`ob= NKRV= MKMP= MKPO= MKMS= SRN= QQN= MKNOP= MKMUP= MKNR= MKMQ=
=
behaviourI=in=some=Ebut=not=all=and=not=markedlyF=cases=with=a=hardening=phase=present=in=the=first=part=
of= the= stressJstrain= envelopeK= qhe= compressive= stressJstrain= envelope= of= cob= shows= its= deformation=
beyond=the=elastic=range=with=a=gradual=drop=in=capacityI=presenting=a=ductile=behaviour=after=its=elastic=
UQQ=
 =

limitK=qhe=distinctive=maximum=strain=could=visible=be=observed=before=and=after=the=testK=qhere=was=
a=strict=dependency=between=the=components=and=the=observed=material=behaviourK=fn=this=context=it=is=
interesting= to= make= a= comparison= with= results= obtained= by= nuagliarini= et= alK= xRzI= who= studied= the=
compressive=failure=behaviour= of=adobe=blocks= which=differed=constituentsK= qheir= results=showed=that=
the= addition= of= straw= increased= the= ductility= of= the= material= considerablyI= while= the= introduction= of=
sandI= particularly= in= high= amountsI= tended= to= significantly= lower= its= compressive= strengthK= qhis=
difference= in= behavioural= pattern= was= similar= to= that= observed= for= the= different= earthen= materials=
investigatedI= thus= giving= an= indication= of= the= effect= of= constitutive= materials= on= compressive= stressJ
strain=behaviour=of=materials=resulting=from=different=construction=techniquesK=
=

=
=
cigK=O=`omparison=between=the=three=earthen=materials=under=compressionI=stressJstrain=envelope=
=
RK afAdlkAi=ClMmobppflk=TbpT=
=
RKNK Test=setup==
aiagonal= compression= tests= were= performed= in= compression= mode= following= Apqj=b=RNVJNM= xNNzK=
According=to=the=testI=to=induce=shear=forces=wall=segments=were=turned=by=QR°=around=the=middle=axis=
with=one=diagonal=of=the=wall=segment=being=perpendicular=to=the=loading=plates=of=the=testing=machineK=
qhe =stress =was =introduced =by =loading =shoesK =marticular =attention =was =directed =to =the =problem =of =the =
load= distribution= along= the= corners= in= order= to= avoid= an= excessive= concentration= of= compression=
stresses= at= these=surfacesK= qhe= loading=shoesI= placed=between=the= jack= and=the= cornerI= was= designed=
according=to=the=standard=and=failure=of=the=panels=never=occurred=due=to=excessive=compression=stress=
at= the= cornersK= pix= to= eight= specimens= were= tested= for= each= wall= construction= typeK= qhe= load= was=
applied=at=a=rate=of=NPM=kLsK=qhe=test=consisted=in=monotonic=loading=up=to=failureK=
aisplacement= transducers= were= used= for= measuring= strain= and= placed= according= to= the= standardI= one=
pair= on= the= front= and= one= pair= on= the= back= side= of= the= panelK= cor= selected= specimen= additionally=
a=photogrammetric=camera=system=EAoAjfpF=was=measuring=the=twoJdimensional=deformation=during=
the=testK=cor=this=a=frame=of=caK=PR=×=OR=cm=of=the=center=of=the=panel=was=observedK=mrior=to=the=test=the=
specimen=were=plastered=with=a=thin=white=earthen=render=and=sprayed=with=a=markerK=qhe=deformation=
of= the= samples= was= measured= by= stereographic= recording= of= the= movement= of= the= singular= marker=
points=and=additionally=by=one=set=of=isaqs=placed=on=the=back=side=of=the=panelK=
qhe= test= is= usually= used= for= block= masonry= but= was= used= in= this= study= for= the= pseudo= monolithic=
building= elements= rammed= earth=and= cobK= fn= monolithic= materials= the= diagonal= test= should= introduce=
compression=forces=until=horiòontal=strain=creates=a=vertical=crackK=As=could=be=seen=in=the=resultsI=this=
is=true=for=the=beginning=of=the=failureK=qhe=actual=failureI=howeverI=revealed=for=all=earthen=materials=
a=strong=shear=componentK=
=
RKOK Test=results=
As=mentioned=before=masonry=panels=were=prepared=with=wetted=and=with=nonJwetted=blocksK=mast=and=
current= practice= is= actually= not= to= wet= earth=blocks=for= buildingJup= earthen=masonryK= eoweverI= earth=
blocks= show= generally= high= water= absorption= and= suck= out= moisture= from= the= fresh= mortarI= which=
influences=the=bond=between=the=two=wall=components=greatlyK=qhis= naturally=has=also=a=big=influence=
on= the= shear= strength= of= the= masonryK= As= a= comparisonI= therefore= O= sets= of= sample= panels= were=
preparedI=one=set=with=nonJwetted=and=another=set=with=wetted=blocksK=
jasonry= panels= with= nonJwetted= blocks= showed= very= low= shear= strength= valuesI= which= were= in= the=
range=of=MKMU=and=MKNN=jmaK=qhe=stress=strain=curves= usually=showed=one= or=several=yielding=points=
UQR=
 =

where=the=blocks=began=to=slide=gradually=and=until=friction=set=in=and=increased=stress=again=until=final=
failureK=jasonry=panels=with=wetted=blocks=showed=much=higher=shear=strength=values=than=with=nonJ
wetted=blocksK=cor=the=three=tests=strength=values=MKOR=and=MKQ=jma=were=reachedI=which=is=two=to=three=
times= higher= than= in= the= case= of= nonJwetted= blocksK= qhe= stressJstrain= curve= of= two= of= the= three=
specimens=showed=a=distinctive=yielding=pointI=when=elasticity=of=the=samples=was=exceeded=and=first=
cracks=appearedK=ptress=was=then=increasing=until=the=sample=failedK=qhe=maximum=deformation=values=
were=approximately=the=same=for=both=sets=of=panelsK=qhis=type=of=stressJstrain=response=can=be=linked=
to=the=actual=failure=mode=of=the=specimenK=qhe=sample=specimen=yields=the=stress=until=a=first=vertical=
crack=appears=by=exceeding=the=maximum=elastic=horiòontal=strainK=qhe=crack=ran=not=only=along=joints=
but=also=through=blocksK=At=the=second=yielding=point=the=sample=failed=by=sliding=of=the=blocks=along=
the=joints=until=complete=collapseK=qhis=failure=pattern=could=also=be=observed=on=rammed=earth=panels=
EcigK= PFK= oammed= earth= panels= yielded= the= highest= results= for= shear= strength= of= all= three= different=
construction=typesK=salues=ranged=between=MKSR=and=MKUR=jmaK=qhe=maximum=strain=was=much=higher=
than=with=earth=block=masonry=and=usually=between=N=and=OB=before=complete=failureK=
=

==== =
==== =
cigK=P=barth=block=masonryI=rammed=earth=and=cob=specimens=under=diagonal=compression=
=
Almost=all=the=panel=specimen=safe=for=one=showed=a=distinctive=yielding=point=after=the=elastic=range=
on=the=stressJstrain=curvesK=lbservation=from=video=footage=showed=the=development=of=failureW=
– ko=visible=changes=in=the=elastic=range=of=the=strain;=
– Appearance=of=a=vertical=crack=close=to=the=first=yielding=point;=
– aevelopment=of=a=system=of=small=parallel=running=vertical=cracks=with=an=increase=in=load;=the=
systems= usually= run= diagonal= from= one= end= of= the= upper= loading= shoe= to= the= other= end= of= the=
lower=one;=
– `ombination= of= the= single= shear= cracks= to= one= coherent= crack= running= diagonally= through= the=
sample= at= the= maximum= load;= sometimes= the= diagonal= shear= crack= run= partially= through= the=
vertical=crack;=
– `ollapse=of=the=sampleK=
60

50
4

3
40
2
ioad [kk]

30

N
20

10

N 2 3 4
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
Shear strain [%] =
=

cigK =Q=oesults=from=photogrammetric=analysis=by=AoAjfp= and=the=corresponding=stressJstrain=curve=showing=

the=deformation=of=two=rammed=earth=panelsK=vellowI=red=and=white=colours=indicate=crackingK=kote=the=diagonal=
======================deformation=in=the=elastic=range=which=is=parallel=to=the=rammed=earth=layers=
UQS=
 =

ft=is=noteworthy=that=even=though=a=first=vertical=crack=appeared=in=the=panels=an=increase=in=load=was=
still=possibleK=kot=in=every=sample=the=vertical=crack=was=combined=with=the=diagonal=crack=systemK=fn=
two=of=the=seven=samples=tested=both=cracks=appeared=to=be=independentK=ft=is=probably=safe=to=say=that=
the= final= failure= was= not= caused= by= compression= but= mostly= by= shear= failure= as= in= the= earth= block=
masonry=wall=panelsK=qhe=photogrammetric=analysis=by=the=AoAjfp=Pa=system=essentially=confirmed=
the= findings= from= the= stressJstrain= curves= and= the= analysis= of= the= failure= modeK= cigK= Q= shows=
exemplarily=the=results=of=one=of=the=rammed=earth=panels=testedK==
qhough=only=a=section=of=the=entire=panel=was=visualiòed=the=development=of=cracks=on=the=stressJstrain=
curve= followed= the= scheme= as= described= aboveK= fnteresting= was= the= appearance= of= a= diagonal=
deformation =Ein =cigK =Q =indicated =by =red =linesF =in =the =elastic =range =of =the =curveK =qhe =direction =of =the =
deformation=was=in=the=layering=of=the=rammed=earthK=pome=of=these=deformations=became=cracks=by=
increasing=the=load=to=the=maximum=valueK=bven=though=cob=wall=panels=EcigK=RF=revealed=the=lowest=
strength= values= in= the= compression= testsI= the= results= from= the= diagonal= compression= EshearF=
experiments=where=much=better=than=that=of=the=earth=block=masonry=panels=and=only=slightly=below=the=
values =for =rammed =earth =panelsK =qhe =strength =figures =ranged =from =MKQM =to =MKSR =jma =EcigK =SFK =qhe =
maximum=strain=wasI=as=in=the=compression=testsI=the=highest=of=the=three=earth=construction=techniques=
ranging=from=O=to=RBK==
=
25

16 an d 78
3 4
20 2
ioad [kk]

15
N

10

N 2 3 4
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
Shear strain [%]
=
=
cigK=R=oesults=from=the=photogrammetric=analysis=EAoAjfpF=and=the=corresponding=loadJstrain=curve=showing=
the=deformation=of=two=cob=panelsK=vellowI=red=and=white=colors=indicate=cracking=
=
A=first=yielding=point=on=the=stressJstrain=curveI=as=observed=for=the=masonry=and=rammed=earth=panels=
could=not=be=recognised=on=the=curves=of=the=cob=specimen=EcigK=RFK=qhe=typical=course=was=an=elastic=
range =with =a =low =shear =modulus =followed =by =a =plasticJtype =deformation =of =the =sample =specimenK =
qypical=vertical=cracks=due=to=the=compression=load=as=observed=with=the=other=two=construction=types=
were= not= identifiable= hereK= rsually= the= specimens= collapsed= after= reaching= maximum= load= by= shear=
failureK=`racks=were=always=running=diagonally=from=one=end=of=the=upper=loading=shoe=to=the=other=
end=of=the=lower=shoe=EcigK=PFK=qhe=results=by=AoAjfp=showed=that=majority=of=the=cracking=occurred=
not= in= the= end= of= the= elastic= range= but= on= the= way= to= the= plateau= of= the= maximum= load= EcigK= RFK=
eoweverI= when= the= maximum= load= was= reached= cracking= was= prominent= and= failure= followed= suitI=
even=though=deformation=was=still=possible=since=the=specimen=parts=were=still=held=together=by=strings=
of=straw=fibreK==
=
RKPK bvaluation=and=comparison=of=results=
oesults=obtained=for=diagonal=compression=tests=and=calculated=according=to=Apqj=bRNVJNM=xNNz=are=
given=below=in=qabK=RI=where=dNLP=is=the=shear=modulus=of=elasticity=measured=at=NLP=maximum=loadI=as=
well=as=for=the=shear=strain=γNLPK=qhe=maximum=shear=strength=of=the=specimens=was=calculated=from=the=
maximum=loadK=cigK=S=shows=a=comparison=of=the=behaviour= between= earth=block= masonryI=rammed=
earth= and= cob= in= terms= of= results= for= diagonal= compression= loadsK= As= in= the= case= under= vertical=
compressionI= cob= presented= a= marked= and= significant= postJpeak= strain= phase= before= failureI= with=
a=gradual= drop= in= capacityK= oammed= earthI= as= in= compressive= testI= shows= a= hardening= phase= at= the=
UQT=
 =

beginning= with= failure= starting= from= compaction= planesK= ft= is= important= to= remark= that= earth= block=
masonry= samplesI= which= were= manufactured= without= wetting= the= earth= blocks= showed= insufficient=
bonding= between= mortar= and= blocksK= qhis= might= have= caused= micro= damages= when= handling= and=
preparing=the=specimen=for=the=testK=qhis=also=had=certainly=a=strong=influence=in=the=low=shear=strength=
values=exhibited=by=the=masonry=specimenK=
=
Table=R=oesults=from=diagonal=compression=tests=in=comparison=Et=Z=earth=blockI=wetted;==
pqa=Z=standard=deviationF=
=

= phear=strength=τu=[Mmaz= phear=modulus=d= NLP=[Mmaz= phear=strain=γNLP=[Bz=

Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa= Mean= pTa=
barth=block=masonry= MKMV= MKMN= QN= R= MKMTQ= MKMNT=
barth=block=masonry=EtF= MKPQ= MKMS= SSM= OTT= MKMOM= MKMNN=
oammed=earth= MKTN= MKNN= OPOS= TNM= MKMNN= MKMMP=
`ob= MKRM= MKNM= QOM= NPT= MKMQN= MKMMS=

=
=
cigK=S= `omparison=between=earth=block=masonryI=rammed=earth=and=cob=under=diagonal=compressionI=envelope=of=
stressJstrain=curvesK=kote=the=difference=in=results=with=earth=block=masonryI=when=wetted=and=dry=blocks=were=used=
=
SK ClkCirpflkp=
=
qhis= part= presents= an= analysis= of= the= mechanical= properties= of= traditional= earthen= construction=
materialsI=based=on=results= obtained=from=compressive=and=shears=testsK=Basic=parameters=concerning=
seismic=behaviour=were=determinedI=including=shear=strengthI=shear=modulus=and=elastic=modulusK=qhe=
compressive=tests=on=wall=panels=were=carried=out=with=displacement=controlI=and=it=was=thus=possible=
to= determine= post= peak= strain= performanceK= aiagonal= compression= test= were= performed= under= force=
controlK= fn= terms= of= compressive= strengthI= the= maximum= value= of= PKTP= jma= was= obtained= for= the=
rammed=earth=specimensI=whereas=the=compressive=strength=of=earth=block=masonry=and=cob=was=found=
to=be=UUB=and=QPBI=respectivelyI=of=that=of=rammed=earthK==
fn= the= second= part= of= the= research= programI= diagonal= compression= testing= was= carried= outI= yielding=
a=maximum= shear= strength= value= of= MKTN= jma= for= the= rammed= earth= specimensI= MKRM= for= cob= and=
a=significantly= lower= value= for= earth= block= masonryK= cor= earth= block= masonry= the= construction=
technique=is=essential=for=performanceK=tith=the=same=materials=but=with=dry=and=wetted=earth=blocks=
prior= to= laying= the= wall= panels= yielded= different= results= in= the= shear= tests= EqabK= RFK= joistening= the=
blocks=prevents=early=water=reduction=in=the=mortarI=thus=improving=the=bond=between=mortar=and=earth=
block =and =enabling =the =increase =of =the =shear =strength =of =a =masonry =wall =two =to =three =timesK =ln =the =
other=handI=for=historical=buildings=the=masonry=often=shows=a=poor=bond=between=block=and=mortarI=
indicating= that= blocks= were= not= wetted= and= therefore= a= low= value= for= shear= strength= has= to= be=
anticipatedK==
A= general= conclusion= which= can=be= drawn= is= that= cobI= which= exhibits= lower= compressive= resistanceI=
shows= relatively= ductile=post= peak= behaviour= when= compared= with=the=brittle= behaviour= of= the= earth=
block=masonry=and=rammed=earth=specimensW=cob=can=deform=beyond=the=elastic=range=with=a=gradual=
drop= in= capacityK= qhis= behaviour= is= strongly= influenced= by= the= presence= of= fibresK= aespite= its= low=
compressive= strengthI= cob= thus= presents= a= relatively= good= performance= within= the= earthen= material=
UQU=
 =

range=as=far=as=shear=behaviour=is=concernedK=qhis=parameterI=together=with=its=long=post=peak=plastic=
phaseI=is=relevant=if=its=utilisation=in=seismic=areas=is=consideredK=Buildings=in=these=areas=are=bound=to=
be= subjected= to= lateral= displacements= and= the= ability= of= a= building= to= deform= without= collapsing= is=
essential=for=saving=human=lives=and=the=repair=of=a=structureK=
=
AChkltibadMbkTp=
=
qhis=research=was=funded=by=the=buropean=`ommission=under=contract=koK=OQQNOPK=
=
=
obcbobkCbp=
=
xNz sargas= gKI= Bariola= gKI= Blondet= jKI= jehtaI= mKhK= ENVUSF= peismic= strength= of= adobe= masonryK=
jaterials and ptructures=NVEQFW=ORPJORUK=
xOz Apqj=bOPVO=L=bOPVP=j=EOMNMF=ptandard guide for design of earthen wall building systems=
xPz fpNPUOT= ENVVPF= fndian standard guidelines for improving earthquake resistance of earthen
buildingsK=
xQz kqb=bKMUM=Adobe=EOMMMF=qechnical Building ptandardI meruK=
xRz nuagliarini= bKI= ienci= pK= EOMNMF= qhe= influence= of= natural= stabiliòers= and= natural= fibres= on= the=
mechanical=properties=of=ancient=ooman=adobe=bricksK=gournal of Cultural eeritage=NNEPFW=PMVJPNQK=
xSz qorrealva= aKI= sargas= keumann= gKI= Blondet= jK= EOMMVF= barthquake= resistant= design= criteria= and=
testing= of= adobe= buildings= at= montificia= rniversidad= `atòlica= del= meruK= fnW= mrocK of the detty
seismic adobe project 2MMS colloquium=qhe=detty=`onservation=fnstituteI=PJNMK=
xTz pchröder= eK= EOMNMF= iehmbau J jit iehm ökologisch planen und bauenK= siewegHqeubnerI=
tiesbadenK=
xUz gaquin =mKAKI =Augarde =`KbKI =derrard =`KjK =EOMMTF =eistoric =rammed =earth =structures =in =ppainW =
construction=techniques=and=a=preliminary=classificationK=fnW=senkatarama=oeddy=BK=sKI=jani=jK=
EedsF= mrocK of fnternational pymposium on barthen ptructures= BangaloreI= fndiaK= fnterline=
mublishingK=
xVz bk=NMROJN=ENVVUF=jethods of tests for masonryK mart 1: aetermination of compressive strengthK=
xNMz jiccoli=iKI=jüller=rKI=merrone=`KI=wiegert=`K=EOMNOF=barth=block=masonryI=rammed=earth=and=cobW=
earthen=components=from= different=construction=techniques=and=their= structural=performanceK= fnW=
mrocK of ufth fnternational conference on the study and conservation of earthen architectural
heritageI qerra 2M12=iimaI=meruI=April=OOndJOTthK=
xNNz Apqj= RNVJNM= EOMNMF= ptandard test method for diagonal tension Eshear) in masonry
assemblagesK=American=pociety=for=qesting=and=jaterialsK=

UQV=

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