EPIDEMIOLOGY

1.DEFINITION: -Epidemiologyis the study of occurrence cause and distribution

of infection disease as it occurs in humans .

Historical approo

2:The study of the distribution and determinants of health related states

events in specified populations and application of this study to the
control health problems .

Johan M.Last

Aims of epidemiology:-

1.To describe the distribution and magnitude (degree of size) of health and
diseases problems among individuals and groups.(source of cause) of
diseases.

2.To identify the etiological factors (risk factors ) in the pathogenesis

(source of cause) of disease.

3. To provide data for planning implementation and evaluation of services

for the prevention ,control and treatment of disease and in setting up of
priorities among those services.

Different epidemiology tools and method may be used to fulfil these

objective.

Epidemiology of infection vs non- infection disease;-

1.The epidemiological difference between infectious and non-infectious

disease mainly depends on the element of time.

2.Due to longer incubation period for non infectious disease such as

coronary heart disease and cancer many environmental factors contribute
to disease development overtime.
The epidemiology investigation:-

The epidemiology investigation take place includes six steps

1. Establishing the occurrence of a problem.

2. Verifying the diagnosis .
3. Collecting related data.
4. Describing the occurrence in term of person, place and time.
5. Formulating a hypothesis.

6.Testing the hypothesis .

Epidemiology Method:

Epidemiology study method can be classified is different ways and there

are no strict limitations about any classification because every method
community other.

1.Descriptive Method:-

The main objective of descriptive methods are as following .

1.TO provide a data base for planning providing and evaluating health
services.

2.To evaluate the trends in health sector and provide a basis for
comparisons among groups.

3.To identify problems for further analysis.

 Epidemiologic Method

Descriptive Analytic

1.Person

2.Place

3.Time

Analytic Method:-

Analytic method is carried out to test the hypothesis it demonstrates

hypothesized association between disease occurrence and certain pointed
out antecedent factors analytic method has mainly two approaches.

Experimental approach:-

1.This is used for testing the hypothesis in almost majority of scientific

researches.

2.To determine the cause effect relationship ,investigation ,controls one

factors independent variable and measures the subsequent effect on
dependent variable.

Clinical Trials:-

1.Test the effectiveness of a drug or treatment ( therapeutic trial).

2.To know the efficacy of a preventive measure or procedure ( preventive

trial)

3.To determine the effect of controlling risk factors for a given disorder on
the individual subjects.
Community trials:-

1.Community trial are used to test the efficacy of procedure on the groups
of individuals.

2.There may be chances of favouritism or base on the part of investigation

in the experimental method.

Observational approach:-

Observational approaches are of three types

(a.) Retrospective (case control)

(b.) Prospective
(c.) Cross sectional

a. Retrospective or case control studies:-

1. A case control retrospective study includes two populations cause

and control.

2. Study determine whether any difference between the groups exists

in exposure to one or more antecedent factors.

b. Prospective or cohort study:-

1.The prospective study is usually carried out after identification of

possible disease causing factors through retrospective study.

2. The main steps of cohort study includes.

- Selection of the subject of the study.

- Obtaining data about exposure.

- Selection of comparison groups.

- Follow-up and analysis of data in terms of incidence rates of

disease.
 Estimation of risk.

Measurement in epidemiology:-

The main measurement have concern mortality and morbidity.

Basic tool of measurement:-

The most common basic tools of measurement used in epidemiology

are .

- Rates
- Distributions
1.RATES:- Rates may be defined as :Measurement of a specific event
,condition or disease in a given population within a specific time
period . in formula it may be expressed as.
Rate= Number affected in a time period

Total population in a same area

Rate present demographic data and morbidity rate.

Demographic Rate:- Some important rate, which represent the demographic

data are mentioned .

1. Crude birth rate= NO. of live birth during the year × 1000

Estimated mid year population

Estimated mid year population in same year

2. Infant mortality rate = NO .of death of infant in a year × 1000

NO. of total live birth in the same year

3.Crud death rate = NO. of death during the year× 1000
Estimated mid year population in same year

4.Maternal mortality rate =Total no. of death due to complication

Of pregnancy , child birth or within 24
days of delivery from puerperal cause
during the given year.

Total no of live birth in the same area and

year