By Avinash Juriani

M.Tech IIT ISM DHN

B.Tech SRM Chennai
M.Tech Notes Advanced Robotics

Introduction to Robotics

Ref: S.K.Saha, McGraw Hill Publisher

 Laws of Robotics
• A robot must not harm a human being, nor
through inaction allow one to come to harm.
• A robot must always obey human beings,
unless that is in conflict with the 1st law.
• A robot must protect from harm, unless that is
in conflict with the 1st two laws.
• A robot may take a human being’s job but it
may not leave that person jobless. [Fuller(1999)]
 Robot: Definition
• Reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material
through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks. (ISO)
• Robotics Institute of America (RIA)
• Japan Industrial Robot Association (JIRA)
• British Robot Association (BRA)
 The Unimate Robot
UNIMATION:
UNIversal+autoMATION

Robot is a universal tool that can

be used for many kind of tasks
Industrial Robot
 Special-purpose Robots
• A special-purpose robot is the one that is used
in other than a typical factory environment.
Special-purpose: Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
Can move sideways also (3 DOF), used
in hospitals, security etc.
Walking Robots: used in military, undersea exploration,
and places where rough terrains exist
Parallel robots: a parallel structure with 6 legs to
control the moving platform used as a flight
simulator for imparting training to …
 Thumb rules on the decision of a robot usage

• Four Ds of Robotics: i.e. is the task dirty, dull,

dangerous, or difficult?
• Robot may not leave a human jobless.
• Whether you can find people who are willing
to do the job.
• Robots and automation must make short-term
and long-term economic sense.
 Books recommended
• John J. Craig, Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and
Control, Prentice Hall

• Mark W. Spong, Robot Modeling and Control, Wiley

• S. K. Saha, Introduction to Robotics, McGraw Hill

• K. S. Fu, R. C. Gonzalez, C. S. G. Lee, Robotics: Control,

Sensing, Vision and Intelligence McGraw-Hill

• S.R. Deb, Robotics Technology and Flexible Automation,

TMH
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Serial Robots
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Outline
@ McGraw-Hill Education

• Robot Subsystems (Focus: Serial-type)

– Motion
– Recognition
– Control
• Robot Classifications By
– Application
– Coordinate system
– Actuation system
– Control method
– Programming method
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Robot Subsystems
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Robot Subsystems (contd.)

• Motion: Manipulator (Arm + Wrist),
End-effector, Actuators (Set in motion),
and Transmissions
• Recognition: Sensors (Measure
status), and ADC
• Control (Supervision): DAC, and
Digital Controller
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Motion Subsystem

i) Manipulator: Mechanical arm + wrist

ii) End-effector
- Welding torch, painting brush, etc.
- Robot hand
- Simple grippers
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(iii) Actuator
- Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Electric

(iv) Transmission
- Belt and chain drives
- Gears
- Link mechanisms
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i) Manipulator: Mechanical arm + wrist

PUMA: Programmable Universal Manipulator for Assembly

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ii) End-effector: Robot hand

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More end-effectors: Simple grippers

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iv) Transmission: Belt and Chain drives

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Other transmission system: Gears

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Another transmission: Link mechanisms

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Recognition Subsystem
(i) Sensors (Essentially transducers)
- Converts a signal
to another

(ii) Analog-to-Digital
Converter (ADC)
- Electronic device

Fig. 2.8 An analog-to-digital converter

[Courtesy: http://www.eeci.com/adc-16p.htm]
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Control Subsystem
(i) Digital Controller
- CPU, Memory, Hard disk (to store programs)
Desired end-effector
trajectory

Joint displacement
and velocity
Controller

Driving Sensor
input

Robot

Actual end-effector
configuration
(a) Control scheme of a robot (b) ABB Controller
Fig. 2.9 Control subsystem
[Courtesy: http://www.abb.com/Product/seitp327/f0cec80774b0b3c9c1256fda00409c2c.aspx]
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Control Subsystem (contd.)

(ii) Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

Fig. 2.10 A digital-to-analogue converter

(iii) Amplifier [Courtesy: http://www.eeci.com]

- Amplify weak commands from DAC

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Classification

• By Applications

• By Coordinate System

• By Actuation System

• By Control Method

• By Programming Method
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By Application
• Welding robot
• Assembly robot
• Heavy-duty robot

- Special features like maximum speed,

accuracy, etc. are incorporated keeping
the application in mind
- See videos in
http://www.directindustry.com/video/industrial-
robots-robotic-cells-AM.html
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By Coordinate System
(a) Cartesian
(b) Cylindrical
(c) Spherical
(d) Anthropomorphic
(e) Gantry  (a)
(f) SCARA (Selective Compliance
Assembly Robot Arm)
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(a) Cartesian robot

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(b) Cylindrical robot

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(c) Spherical robot

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(d) Articulated robot

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(e) Gantry robot

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(f) SCARA arm

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Fundamental Configurations
Type Joints
1 (base): Motion 2 (elevation): 3 (reach): Motion
Motion
Cartesian P: travel, x P: height y P: reach z
-P+R+900@Z
Cylindrical R: rotation θ P: -do- P: -do-
-P+R+900@Z

Spherical R: -do- R: angle φ P: -do-

-P+R+900@Z
Revolute R: -do- R: -do- R: angle ψ
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Comparison (for selection)

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Configuration Advantages Disadvantages

Cartesian (3 linear axes) - Easy to visualize - Reach only front and back
x: base travel - Rigid structure - Requires large floor space
y: height - Easy offline programming - Axes are hard to seal
z: reach - Easy mechanical stops - Expensive
Cylindrical (1 rotation - Can reach all around - Cannot reach above itself
and 2 linear axes) - Rigid y, z-axes - Less rigid θ-axis
θ: base rotation - θ-axes easy to seal - y, z-axes hard to seal
y: height - Won’t reach around obstacles
z : reach - Horizontal motion is circular
Spherical (2 rotating and - Can reach all around - Cannot reach above itself
1 linear axes) - Can reach above or - Short vertical reach
θ: base rotation below obstacles
φ: elevation angle - Large work volume
z: reach
Articulated (3 rotating - Can reach above or - Difficult to program off-line
axes) below objects - Two or more ways to reach
θ: base rotation - Largest work area for a point
φ: elevation angle least floor space - Most complex robot
ψ: reach angle
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By Actuation System
• Pneumatic (in factory floors)

• Hydraulic (for heavy applications)

• Electric (more common these days)

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By Control Method

• Servo/Non-servo control
– Servo  closed-loop (Hydraulic & Electric)
– Non-servo  open-loop (Pneumatic)

• Path control
– Continuous path  trajectory (welding etc)
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By Programming Method
• Online programming
– Direct use of the robot
– Teach pendant

• Offline programming (saves time)

– Using a computer on a new task
– Download when ready
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Summary of the Chapter

• Focus on serial-type robots (not parallel
or mobile, etc.)

• Different subsystems are explained

• Five ways are explained to classify a

robot
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Actuators
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Outline
• An actuation system
• Pneumatic actuators
– Advantages and Disadvantages
• Hydraulic actuators
• Electric actuators
– Stepper motors
– DC motors
– AC motors
• Selection of motors
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An Actuation System

• A power supply
• A power amplifier
• A motor
• A transmission system
Actuator vs. Motor?
(Interchangeably used)
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Schematic of Actuation System

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Pneumatic Actuators
• One of fluid devices
• Uses compressed air [1-7 bar; ~.1 MPa/bar]
• Components
1) Compressor; 2) After-cooler; 3) Storage tank;
4) Desiccant driers; 5) Filters; 6) Pressure
regulators; 7) Lubricants; 8) Directional control
valves; 9) Actuators
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Fig. 3.2(a) Pneumatic actuator components

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Advantages vs. Disadvantages

• Advantages
– Cheapest form of actuators.
– Components are readily available.
– Compressed air is available in factories.
– Compressed air can be stored, and
conveyed easily over long distances.
– Compressed air is clean, explosion-proof
& insensitive to temp. var. Many
applns.
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– Few moving parts Reliable + low maint.

costs
– Relevant personnel are familiar with the tech.
– Very quick Fast work cycles
– No mech. transmission is required.
– Safe in explosive areas as no elect. contact
– Systems are compact.
– Control is simple. Mechanical stops.
– Components are easy to connect.
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• Disadvantages
– Air is compressible.
– Precise control of speed/position is not
easy.
– If no mechanical stops resetting is slow.
– Not suitable for heavy loads
– If moisture penetrates rusts occur.
Compressibility of the air can be
advantageous.
Prevents damage due to overload.
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Major Components
• Compressor: Compresses air
• After-cooler: Cools air after
compression as hot air contains vapor
• Storage tank: Provides const. high
press.
• Desiccant Drier: Air passes through
chemicals to remove moisture
• Filters: Removes water droplet
• Pressure Regulator: Poppet valve
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Fig. 3.3(a) Hydraulic actuator components

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Advantages vs. Disadvantages

• Advantages
– High  + power-to-size ratio.
– Accurate control of speed/pos./dirn.
– Few backlash prob. Stiffness +
incompressibility of fluid
– Large forces can be applied at
locations.
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Backlash  Unwanted play in

transmission components
- Greater load carrying cap.
- No mech. linkage  Mech. simplicity.
- Self lubricating  Low wear + non-corrosive
- Due to 'storage' sudden demands can be met.
- Capable of withstanding shock.
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• Disadvantages
– Leakages occur  Loss in performance
– Higher fire risk.
– Power pack is (70 dBA)
– Temp. change alters viscosity.
– Viscosity at temp. causes sluggishness.
– Servo-control is complex
70 dbA  Noise of heavy traffic
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Electric Actuators
• Electric motors
+
• Mechanical transmissions
• First commercial electric motor: 1974 by
ABB
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Advantages vs.
Disadvantages
• Advantages
– Widespread availability of power supply.
– Basic drive element is lighter than fluid
power.
– High power conversion efficiency.
– No pollution
– High accuracy + hight repeatability
compared to cost.
– Quiet and clean
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– Easily maintained and repaired.

– Components are lightweight.
– Drive system is suitable to electronic
control.
• Disadvantages
– Requires mechanical transmission
system.
– Adds mass and unwanted movement.
– Requires additional power + cost.
– Not safe in explosive atmospheres.
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Electric Motors
• Stepper motors
– Variable Reluctance
– Permanent Magnet
– Hybrid
• Small/Medium end of industrial range
• Digitally controlled  No feedback
• Incremental shaft rotation for each
pulse
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• Steps range from 1.8 – 90 deg.

• To know final position, count # of
pulses
• Velocity = No. of pulse per unit time
• 500 pulses/sec  150 rpm (1.8o/pulse)
• Pulses cease, motor stops. No brake,
etc.
• Max. torque at low pulse rate
• Many steppers from same source.
Exact synchronization
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Features: Variable Reluctance

• Patented: 1919; Commercial: 1950
• Magnetic reluctance  Elec. Resistance
• Magnetic flux only around closed path
• Rotor is soft steel, and 4 poles
• Rotor + stator teeth aligned with the
minimum reluctance  rotor is at rest
• To rotate, AA’ is off BB’ is on
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Features: Permanent Magnet

• Two sets of coils: A and B
• Rotor is permanent magnet
• Each pole is wound with field winding
• Coil A is reversed  A’. Rotates 45o
CCW
• Coil B is reversed  B’. Another 45o
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Hybrid Stepper
• Combines the features of Variable
Reluctance and Permanent Motor
• Permanent magnet with iron caps that
have teeth
• The rotor sets itself in minimum reluctance
position
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DC Motors
• Direct Current: Used in toys etc.
• Electrically driven robots us DC
– Introduced in 1974 by ABB
– Powerful versions available
– Control is simple
– Batteries are rarely used
– AC supply is rectified to DC
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  2 fr sin 
f  Bia l
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Principle of a DC Motor
• Magnetic Field  Stator
– Field coils wound on the stators
– Permanent magnet
• Conductor (Armature)  Rotor
– Current via brushes + commutators
• Maximum torque for  = 90o
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Features of a DC Motor
• High voltage in stator coils  Fast
speed (simple speed control)
• Varying current in armature 
Controls torque
• Reversing polarity  Turns opposite
• Larger robots: Field control DC motor
– Current in field coils  Controls torque
– High power at high speed + High
power/wt.
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Specification & Characteristic

Technical Specifications of DC Motors
Brand Parvalux
Manufacturer Part No. PM2 160W511109
Type Industrial DC Electric Motors
Shaft Size (S,M,L) M
Speed (rpm) 4000 rpm
Power Rating (W) 160 W
Voltage Rating (Vdc) 50 V(dc)
Input Current 3.8 A
Height × Width × Length 78 mm ×140 mm × 165 mm
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Permanent Magnet (PM) Motor

• Two configurations
– Cylindrical [Common in industrial robots]
– Disk
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Permanent Magnet (PM) Motor (cont.)

• No field coils
• Field is by permanent magnets (PM)
• Some PM has coils for recharge
• Torque  Armature current [Const. flux]
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Advantages of PM DC Motors

• No power supplies for field coils

• Reliability is high
• No power loss due to field supply
• Improved Efficiency + Cooling
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Brushless PM DC Motor
• Problem with DC motors
– Commuter and brushes  Periodical
reversal of current through each armature
coil
– Brushes + Commutators  Sliding
contact  Sparks  Wear  Change
brushes + Resurface commuators
• Solution: Brushless motors
– Sequence of stator coils
– PM rotor
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Principles of Brushless PM
• Reverse principle than convention DC
• Current carrying conductor (stator)
experience a force
• Magnet (rotor) will experience a reaction
(Newton’s 3rd law)
• Current to stator coils is electronically
switched by transistors (Expensive)
• Switching is controlled by rotor position
 Magnet (rotor) rotates same direction
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Advantages of Brushless PM
• Better heat dissipation
• Reduced rotor inertia
• Weigh less  Less expensive +
Durable
• Smaller for comparable power
• Absence of brushes  Reduced
maintenance cost
• Electric robots  Hazardous areas with
flammable atmospheres (Spray
painting)
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AC Motors

• Alternating Current: Domestic supply

• 50 Hz; 220 V (India)
• 60 Hz; 110 V (USA)
• Difficult to control speed  Not suitable for
robots
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Principle of an AC Motor

• External electromagnets (EM) around a

central rotor
• AC supply to EM  Polarity change
performs the task of mech. Switching
• Magnetic field of coils will appear to rotate
 Induces current in rotor (induction) or
makes rotor to rotate (synchronous)
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Specification & Characteristic

Technical Specifications of AC Motor
Brand ABB
Manufacturer Part No. 1676687
Type Industrial 1-, 3-Phase Electric Motors
Supply Voltage 220 – 240 Vac 50 Hz
Output Power 180 W
Input Current 0.783 A
Shaft Diameter 14 mm
Shaft Length 30 mm
Speed 1370 rpm
Rated Torque 1.3 Nm
Torque Starting 1.3 Nm
Height × Length × Width 150 mm × 213 mm × 120 mm
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Features of an AC Motor
• Higher the frequency  Fast speed
• Varying frequency to a number of robot
axes has been impractical till recently
• Electromagnetism is used for regenerative
braking (also for DC)  Reduces
deceleration time and overrun
• Motor speed cannot be predicted (same
for DC)  Extra arrangements required
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Classification of an AC Motor
• Single-phase [Low-power requirements]
– Induction
– Synchronous
• Poly-phase (typically 3-phase) [High-
power requirements]
– Induction
– Synchronous
• Induction motors are cheaper  Widely
used
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Single-phase AC Induction Motor

• Squirrel cage rotor (Cu or Al bars into slot in the
end)  Circuit is complete
• Stator has windings
 Alternating current
 Alternative magnetic field
• EM forces induces current in the rotor
conductors
• When rotor is stationary no resultant torque (not
self-starting)
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Single-phase AC Induction Motor

• Auxiliary starting winding
• Motor speed  Frequency
• 50 rev/sec  50 Hz
• No exact match
• Slip: 1 to 3%
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Three-phase AC Induction Motor

• Three windings in stator at 120o apart

• Each winding is connected to one of the three
lines of the supply
• Direction reversal  Interchange any of two line
connections
• Rotation of field is much smoother
• Self-starting
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AC Synchronous Motor
• Stator is same as induction motor
• Rotor is permanent magnet
• Since stator magnetic field rotates 
Rotor rotates
• Speed is same as supply frequency
• Used for precise speed requirement
• Not self-starting
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AC vs. DC Motors
• Cheaper, rugged, reliable,
maintenance free
• Speed control is more complex
• Speed-controlled DC drive (stator
voltage) is cheaper than speed-
controlled AC drive (Variable
Frequency Drive)
• Price of VFD is steadily reducing
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Motor Selection
• For robot applications
– Positioning accuracy, reliability, speed of
operation, cost, etc.
• Electric is clean + Capable of high
precision
• Electronics is cheap but more heat
• Pneumatics are not for high precision
for continuous path
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Motor Selection (contd.)

• Hydraulics can generate more power
in compact volume
• Capable of high torque + Rapid
operations
• Power for electro-hydraulic valve is
small but expensive
• All power can be from one powerful
hydraulic pump located at distance
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Thumb Rule for Motor Selection

• Rapid movement with high torques (>
3.5 kW): Hydraulic actuator
• < 1.5 kW (no fire hazard): Electric
motors
• 1-5 kW: Availability or cost will
determine the choice
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Sample Calculations
Two meter robot arm to lift 25 kg mass
at 10 rpm
• Force = 25 x 9.81 = 245.25 N
• Torque = 245.25 x 2 = 490.5 Nm
• Speed = 2 x 10/60 = 1.047 rad/sec
• Power = Torque x Speed = 0.513 kW
• Simple but sufficient for approximation
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Summary
• DC motors
– Permanent Magnet (PM)
– Brushless PM
– Their construction + advantages, etc.
• AC motors
– Single-phase: Induction vs. Synchronous
– Three-phase
• Selection of motors in practical
applications
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Denavit-Hartenberg (DH)
Parameters

• Four parameters
– Joint offset (b)

– Joint angle ()

– Link length (a)

– Twist angle ()

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Three-link Planar Arm

• DH-parameters
Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) a1 0
2 0 2 (JV) a2 0
3 0 3 (JV) a3 0

• Frame transformations
(Homogeneous)
C θ i  Sθ i 0 aiCi 
 
Sθ i Cθi 0 a i Sθ i
Ti =   , for i=1,2,3
 0 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 
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Revolute-Prismatic Planar Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) 0 /2
2 b2 (JV) 0 0 0o

• Frame transformations (Homogeneous)

C θ1 0 S1 0 1 0 0 0 
   
Sθ1 0  C1 0 
0 1 0 0

T1 =  
 0 1 0 0
T2 = 0 0 1 b2 
   
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 
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Prismatic-Revolute Planar Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 b1 (JV) -/2 0 /2
2 0 2 (JV) a2 0

• Frame transformations (Homogeneous)

1 0 0 0 C θ 2  Sθ 2 0 a2C 2 
   
0 0 1 0 Sθ
 2
Cθ 2 0 a 2 Sθ 2

T1 =   T2 =
0 1 0 b1   0 0 1 0 
   
 0 0 0 1 
0 0 0 1
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Spherical-type Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) 0 /2
2 b2 2 (JV) 0 /2
3 b3 0 0 0
(JV)
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• Frame transformations for Spherical Arm

 C θ1 0 S θ1 0 C θ 2 0  Sθ 2 0
   
 C θ1 Cθ2
T1 =  S θ 1 0 0
 T2 = Sθ
 2
0 0

 0 1 0 0  0 1 0 b2 
   
 0 0 0 1
 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 
 
0 1 0 0
T3 =  
0 0 1 b3 
 
0 0 0 1 
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In Summary

• Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters

– DH frames
– Definitions
• DH frame transformations
• Examples
– Three-link planar arm
– RP and PR arms
– Spatial arm
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Transformations
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Outline
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• Links and Joints

• Kinematic chain

• Degrees-of-freedom (DOF)

• Pose ( Configuration)

• Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) Parameters

• Homogeneous transformation

• Examples
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Transformations

• To control robot
– Relationship between joint motion (input)
and end-effector motion (output) is required
– Transformations between different
coordinate frames are required
• Robot Architecture
– Links: A rigid body with 6-DOF
– Joints: Couples 2 bodies. Provide
restrictions
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Joints or Kinematic Pairs

• Lower Pair
– Surface contact: Hinge joint of a door

• Higher pair
– Line or point contact: Roller or ball rolling
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Lower Pair: Revolute Joint

Turning pair or a
hinge or a pin joint
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Lower Pair: Prismatic Joint

Sliding pair
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Lower Pair: Helical Joint

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Lower Pair: Cylindrical Joint

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Lower Pair: Spherical Joint

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Lower Pair: Planar Joint

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Lower Pair: Universal Joint

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Kinematic Chain
• Series of links connected by joints
• Simple Kinematic Chain: When each
and every link is coupled to at most
two other links
– Closed: If each and every link coupled to
two other links  Mechanism
– Open: If it contains only two links (end
ones) that are connected to only one link
 Manipulator
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Closed-chain
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Open-chain
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Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

• Number of independent (or minimum)
coordinates required to fully describe
pose or configuration (position + rotation)
– A rigid body in 3D space has 6-DOF
• Use Grubler formula (1917) for planar
mechanisms
• Use Kutzbach formula (1929) for spatial
mechanisms
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Grubler-Kutzbach Criterion
p
n = s (r  1)  c, c  c . . . (5.1)
i
i 1

s : dimension of working space

(Planar, s = 3; Spatial, s = 6);
r : no. of rigid bodies or links in the system;
p : no. of kinematic pairs or joints in the system;
ci : no. of constraints imposed by each joint;
c : total no. of constraints imposed by p joints;
ni : relative DOF of each joint;
n : DOF of the whole system.
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Note that, s  ci  ni
p p p
c   c i   (s  n i )  s p   n i . . . (5.2)
i1 i1 i1

Substituting eq. (5.2) into eq. (5.1) 

p
n  s(r  p  1)   n i . . . (5.3)
i
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DOF of a Four-bar Mechanism

Four-bar Mechanism,

n = 3 (4  4  1) + (1 + 1 + 1 + 1)
=1 . . . (5.4)

p
n  s(r  p  1)   n i
i
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DOF of a Robot Manipulator

p
n  s(r  p  1)   n i
i

Six-DOF Manipulator

n = 6 (7  6  1) + 6  1 = 6 . . . (5.5)
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p
n  s(r  p  1)   n i
i
Five-bar mechanism

n = 3 (5  5  1) + 5  1
=2 . . . (5.6)

Double parallelogram

n = 3 (5  6  1) + 6  1
=0 . . . (5.7)
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In Summary
• Links and joint were introduced

• Kinematic chain and DOF were defined

• Formulae for finding DOF

• Examples
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Pose  Configuration
• Rigid-body motion
– Translation
– Rotation
• Translation: Three position coordinates
• Rotation: Three angular coordinates
• Total: Six coordinates
• A fixed-coordinate. A coordinate frame on
moving body  ‘Pose’ or ‘Configuration’
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Pose  Position + Rotation

P
Z W
V
p p΄

OM M
o
O Y
F U

Moving Frame M with respect to Fixed frame F

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Position Description
p 
 x
[p ] F  py . . . (5.8)
p 
 z
p = px x + py y + pz z . . . (5.9)

1  0  0 
     
[ x ] F   0  , [ y ] F   1  , and [ z ] F   0  . . . (5.10)
0     
  0
   1 
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Orientation Description

• Direction cosine representation

• Euler angles representation

• Euler parameters representation, etc.

We will study first two only

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Direction Cosine Representation

Refer to Fig. 5.12
u = ux x + uy y + uz z
. . . (5.11a)
v = vx x + v y y + v z z
. . . (5.11b)
w = wx x + wy y + wz z
. . . (5.11c)

p = puu + pvv + pww . . . (5.12)

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Substitute eqs. (5.11a-c) into eq. (5.12)

p = (puux + pvvx + pwwx)x + (puuy + pvvy + pwwy)y

+ (puuz + pvvz + pwwz)z . . . (5.13)

px = uxpu + vxpv + wxpw . . . (5.14a)

py = uypu + vypv + wypw . . . (5.14b)

pz = uzpu + vzpv + wzpw . . . (5.14c)

[p]F = Q [p]M . . . (5.15)

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[p]F = Q [p]M . . . (5.15)

  
 p   p    uT x vT x w T x 
 x   u u v w
 x x x  
[p ]   p  , [p ] M   p , T T
Q  u v w   u y v y w y  T
F  y   v  y y y  T Tz wTz 
   u v w   u z v 
 p  p   z z z 
 z   w
.. . (5.16)

uTu = vTv = wTw = 1, and

uTv(vTu) = uTw(wTu) = vTw(wTv) = 0 … (5.17)

Q is called Orthogonal
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Due to orthogonality

u  v = w, v  w = u, and w  u = v . . . (5.18)

QTQ = QQT = 1 ; det (Q) = 1; Q1 = QT . . . (5.19)

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Example 5.6 Elementary Rotations (Fig. 5.13a)

C α 
 
[ u ] F   Sα  ,
 0 
 
  Sα 
 
[ v ]F   C α  ,
 0 
 
0 
 
[ w ]F   0 
1 
 
. . . (5.20)
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C   S 0
QZ   S  C 0  . . . (5.21)
 0 0 1 

 C 0 S  1 0 0 
Q Y   0 1 0  ; Q X   0 C  S  
  S  0 C    0 S C  

. . . (5.22)
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Example 5.8 Coordinate Transformation (Fig. 5.13b)

px = pu C  pv S . . . (5.23)
py = pu S + pv C . . . (5.24)
pz = pw . . . (5.25)
[p]F = QZ [p]M . . . (5.26)
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Example 5.9 Vector Rotation (Fig. 5.13c)

px = px C  py S . . . (5.27)

py = px S + py C . . . (5.28)
pz = pz . . . (5.29)
[p]F = QZ [p]F … (5.30)
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Euler Angle Representation (ZYZ)

C   S 0
Q Z   S  C 0 
 0 0 1 

…(5.31a)
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Euler Angle Representation (contd.)

 C 0 S 
Q Y'   0 1 0 
  S  0 C  

…(5.31b)
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Euler Angle Representation (contd.)

C   S 0
Q Z' '   S  C 0 
 0 0 1 

…(5.31c)
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Q = QZQY’QZ’’ . . . (5.31d)
 C C C   SS  C C S  SC  C S 
Q   SC C   C S  SC S  C C  SS 
  SC  SS C 
 
. . . (5.31e)
For extraction purpose, say, input is given by

 q 11 q 12 q 13 

Q   q 21 q 22 q 23  …(5.32a)
 q 31 q 32 q 33 
q 23 q13
  a tan 2 ( , ) …(5.32b)
S S
Cannot find  when S = 0 or 
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Non-commutative Property
 C 90 o  S 90 o 0  0  1 0
 
Q Z   S 90 o C 90 o 0    1 0 0 
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

 C 90 o 0 S 90 o   0 0 1
 
QY  0 1 0    0 1 0 
  S 90 o 0 C 90 o    1 0 0 

0 0 1 
W.R.T. fixed frame: QZY = QYQZ =  1 0 0 
 0 1 0 
 0  1 0
But, QYZ = QZQY =  0 0 1 
  1 0 0  Hence, QZY  QYZ
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Non-commutative Property: An Illustration

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Non-commutative Property (contd.)

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In Summary
• Pose or configuration was defined
• Position description was given
• Orientation description was explained
– Direction cosine
– Euler angles
• Examples were shown
• Euler angle representation
– 12 combinations, ZYZ shown
• Non-commutative property of rotation
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Coordinate Transformation
P
Z W
V
p p΄

OM M
o
O Y
F U

Task: Point P is known in moving frame M. Find P in fixed frame F.

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p = o + p . . . (5.34)

[p]F = [o]F + Q[p’]M . . . (5.35)

[ p ] F  Q [ o ] F  [ p ] M 
  0 T
. . . (5.36)
 1   
   1   1 

[ p ] F  T [ p ] M . . . (5.37)

Homogenous Transformation
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T: Homogenous transformation matrix (4  4)

TTT  1 or T1  TT . . . (5.38)
1 Q T Q
T
[o ] F 
T   T  . . . (5.39)
 0 1 

Example 5.10 Pure Translation

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 2 
T
0 0 1 1
 
0 0 0 1

Fig. 5.19 (a)

. . . (5.40)
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Example 5.11 Pure Rotation

 C 30 o  S 30 o 0 0
 o 
S 30 C 30 o 0 0
T
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1 
 3 1 
  0 0
 2 2 
 1 3 
  0 0
 2 2 
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1 
Fig. 5.19 (b)

. . . (5.41)
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Example 5.12 General Motion

T  Tt T r . . . (5.42)
 C 30 o  S 30 o 0 2
 o 
S 30 C 30 o 0 1
T
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1 
 3 1 
  0 2
 2 2 
Fig. 5.19 (c)  1 3 
  0 1
 2 2 
 0 0 1 0
  . . . (5.43)
 0 0 0 1
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Non-commutative Property
Like rotation matrices homogeneous transformation
matrices are non-commutative, i. e.,

TATB  TBTA
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Denavit and Hartenberg (DH)

Parameters—Frame Allotment
• Serial chain
- Two links connected
by revolute joint, or
- Two links connected
by prismatic joint
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Connection with a Revolute Joint

Fig. 5.23
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Connection with a Prismatic Joint

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• Let axis i denotes the axis of the joint connecting

link (i 1) to link i.
• A coordinate system Xi, Yi, Zi is attached to the
end of the link (i 1)  not to the link i  for i =
1, . . . n+1.
• Choose axis Zi along the axis of joint i, whose
positive direction can be taken towards either
direction of the axis.
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• Locate the origin, Oi, at the intersection of axis Zi

with the common normal to Zi  1 and Zi. Also,
locate Oi on Zi at the intersection of the common
normal to Zi and Zi + 1.
• Choose axis Xi along the common normal to axes
Zi1 and Zi with the direction from former to the
later.
• Choose axis Yi so as to complete a right handed
frame.
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For Non-unique Cases

• For Frame 1 that is attached to the fixed
base, i.e., link 0, only the direction of axes
Z1 is specified. Then O1 and X1 can be
chosen arbitrarily.
• For the last frame n + 1 the foregoing
convention do not apply since there is no
link n + 1. Thus, frame n + 1 can be
arbitrarily chosen.
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• When two consecutive axes are parallel,

the common normal between them is not
uniquely defined.
• When two consecutive axes intersect, the
direction of Xi is arbitrary.
• When joint i is prismatic, only the direction
of axis Zi is determined, whereas the
location of Oi is arbitrary.
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Denavit-Hartenberg (DH)
Parameters

• Four parameters
– Joint offset (b)

– Joint angle ()

– Link length (a)

– Twist angle ()

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• bi (Joint offset): Length of the intersections of the

common normals on the joint axis Zi, i.e., Oi and Oi. It is
the relative position of links i  1 and i. This is measured
as the distance between Xi and Xi + 1 along Zi.
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• i (Joint angle): Angle between the orthogonal projections of

the common normals, Xi and Xi + 1, to a plane normal to the
joint axes Zi. Rotation is positive when it is made counter
clockwise. It is the relative angle between links i  1 and i.
This is measured as the angle between Xi and Xi + 1 about Zi.
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• ai (Link length): Length between the O’i and Oi

+1. This is measured as the distance along the
common normal Xi + 1 between axes Zi and Zi + 1.
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• i (Twist angle): Angle between the orthogonal

projections of joint axes, Zi and Zi+1 onto a plane
normal to the common normal. This is measured as
the angle between the axes, Zi and Zi + 1, about axis Xi
+ 1 to be taken positive when rotation is made counter
clockwise.
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Variable DH Parameters
• First two parameters, bi and i, define the
relative position of links i  1 and i
• Last two parameters, ai and i, describe
the size and shape of link i that are always
constant.
• Parameters, bi and i, are variable
– i is variable if joint i is revolute
– bi is variable if joint i is prismatic.
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DH Frame Transformations
• Translation along Zi
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
Tb = 
0 0 1 bi 
 
0 0 0 1

• Rotation about Zi
C θ i  S θi 0 0
 Sθ Cθi 0 0 
T =  i
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1
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• Translation along Xi+1

1 0 0 ai 
0 1 0 0 
Ta =  . . . (5.49c)
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1

• Rotation about Xi+1

1 0 0 0
0 C αi  S αi 0 
T =  . . . (5.49d)
0 Sα i C αi 0
 
0 0 0 1
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• Total transformation from Frame i to Frame i+1

T i = T b T T a T 

C θ i  Sθ i C α i Sθ i Sα i aiC i 
 Sθ CθiCαi  C θ i Sα i a i Sθ i 
Ti =  i
 0 Sα i Cαi bi 
 
 0 0 0 1 
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Three-link Planar Arm

• DH-parameters
Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) a1 0
2 0 2 (JV) a2 0
3 0 3 (JV) a3 0

• Frame transformations
(Homogeneous)
C θ i  Sθ i 0 aiCi 
 Sθ Cθi 0 a i Sθ i  ,
Ti =  i for i=1,2,3
 0 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 
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Revolute-Prismatic Planar Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) 0 /2
2 b2 (JV) 0 0 0o

• Frame transformations (Homogeneous)

C θ1 0 S1 0 1 0 0 0
 Sθ 0 0 
 1 0  C1 0   1 0
T1 = T2 =
 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 b2 
   
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Prismatic-Revolute Planar Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 b1 (JV) -/2 0 /2
2 0 2 (JV) a2 0

• Frame transformations (Homogeneous)

1 0 0 0 Cθ 2  Sθ 2 0 a 2 C 2 
0 0  1 0   Sθ Cθ 0 a Sθ 
T1 =   
T2 = 
2 2 2 2

0 1 0 b1  0 0 1 0 
   
 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1 
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Spherical-type Arm

• DH-parameters

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) 0 /2
2 b2 2 (JV) 0 /2
3 b3 0 0 0
(JV)
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• Frame transformations for Spherical Arm

 C θ1 0 Sθ 1 0 Cθ2 0  Sθ2 0 
 Sθ 0  C θ1 0   Sθ 0 Cθ 0 
T1 =  1 T2 =  2 2 
 0 1 0 0  0 1 0 b2 
   
 0 0 0 1
 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
T3 = 
0 0 1 b3 
 
0 0 0 1
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In Summary

• Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters

– DH frames
– Definitions
• DH frame transformations
• Examples
– Three-link planar arm
– RP and PR arms
– Spatial arm
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Summary of the Chapter

• Links, joints, kinematic chains, and DOF

were defined
• Pose or configuration was explained
• Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters
were introduced
• Homegenous transformation matrix was
derived
• Several examples were solved
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Kinematics
– Forward kinematics

– Inverse Kinematic
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Kinematics
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Kinematics
• Forward kinematics
– Admits unique solution
– Requires simple multiplications and
additions
• Inverse kinematics
– Admits many solutions
– Requires solutions of non-linear algebraic
equations
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Forward Kinematics
• Homogeneous transformation
– Using DH Parameters
Cθi  Sθi Cαi Sθi Sαi ai Ci 
 Sθ Cθi Cαi Cθi Sαi ai Sθi  Qi ai 
Ti   i  T
 0 Sαi Cαi bi  0 1 
 
 0 0 0 1 
• Forward kinematics relation
T = T1 T2 …Tn … (6.1)
• Alternate to 4 x 4 relation
Q = Q1 Q2 …Qn … (6.2)
p = a1 + Q1 a2 + … + Q1 … Qn-1 an … (6.3)
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Forward Kinematics (contd.)

• Using 4  4 homogeneous transformations
T = T1 T2 …Tn

• Three-DOF Articulated arm

• Three-DOF Spherical wrist
• PUMA Robot (architecture)
• Stanford arm
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DH Parameters of Articulated Arm

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) 0  π/2
2 0 2 (JV) a2 0
3 0 3 (JV) a3 0
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Matrices for Articulated Arm

c1 0  s1 0  c2  s2 0 a2 c2 
s 0 c1 0  s c2 0 a2 s2 
T1   1 T2   2
0 1 0 0  0 0 1 0 
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 
c3  s3 0 a3 c3 
s c3 0 a3 s3 
T3   3
0 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 1 

c1 c 23 - c1 s 23  s1 c1 (a 2 c 2  a 3 c 23 )
s c  s1 s 23 c1 s1 (a 2 c 2  a 3 c 23 )
T  1 23
… (6.11)
  s 23  c 23 0  (a 2 s 2  a 3 s 23 ) 
 
 0 0 0 1 
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DH Parameters of Spherical Wrist

Link bi i ai i
1 0 1(JV) 0 π/2
2 0 2(JV) 0  π/2
3 0 3(JV) 0 0
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Matrices for Spherical Wrist
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c 1 0 s1 0 c 2 0  s2 0 c3  s3 0 0
s 0 s
s 0  c1  0 c2 c3 0 0
T2   2
0
T1   1 T3   3
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

c1c 2 c3  s1 s 3  c1 s 2 s 3  s1c3  c1 s 2 0
s c c  c s  s1c 2 s 3  c1c3  s1 s 2 0
T   1 2 3 1 3
 s 2 c3  s 2 s3 c2 0
 
 0 0 0 1

… (6.12)
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DH Parameters of PUMA Robot

i bi i ai i
1 0 1 (JV) [0] 0 -/2
2 b2 2 (JV) [-/2] a2 0
3 0 3 (JV) [/2] a3 /2
4 b4 4 (JV) [0] 0 -/2
5 0 5 (JV) [0] 0 /2
6 b6 6 (JV) [0] 0 0
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Forward Kinematics Results for
; PUMA Robot
1 0 0   a3 
  
Q  0 1 0  , and p   b2 

0 0 1 a 2  b4  b6 

… (6.14)
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DH Parameters of Stanford Arm

i bi i ai i
1 b1 1 (JV) [0] 0 -/2
2 b2 2 (JV) [] 0 -/2
3 b3 0 0 0
(JV)
4 b4 4 (JV) [0] 0 /2
5 0 5 (JV) [0] 0 -/2
6 0 6 (JV) [0] 0 0
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Forward Kinematics Results for
;
Stanford Arm
- 1 0 0   0 
  
Q   0 - 1 0  , and p   b2 

 0 0 1 b1  b3  b4 

… (6.15)
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Inverse Kinematics
• Inverse kinematics of 3-DOF RRR planar arm

• Geometric solution of 3-DOF RRR arm

• Inverse kinematics of 3-DOF articulated arm

• Inverse kinematics of 3-DOF spherical wrist

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Inverse Kinematics of 3-DOF RRR Arm

φ  θ1  θ2  θ3 … (6.15a)
p x  a1c1  a2 c12  a3 c123
… (6.15b)
p y  a1 s1  a 2 s12  a3 s123
… (6.15c)

wx  p x  a3 c φ  a1 c1  a2 c12 … (6.16a)
w y  p y  a3 s φ  a1 s1  a2 s12 … (6.16b)
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w2x + w2y = a12+ a22 + 2 a1a2c2 … (6.17a)

w12  w22  a12  a 22
c2  s2   1  c22 … (6.17b,c)
2 a1 a 2
2 = atan2 (s2, c2) . . . (6.18)
wx  ( a1  a2c2 )c1  a2 s1s2 … (6.19a)
wy  (a1  a2 c2 )s1  a2 c1 s2 … (6.19b)
(a1  a2 c2 ) wy  a2 s2 wx (a1  a 2 c 2 ) wx  a 2 s 2 w y
s1  c1 
Δ Δ
Δ  a12  a22  2a1a2c2  wx2  wy2 … (6.20a,b)

1 = atan2 (s1, c1) . . . (6.20c)

3 =  - 1  2 . . . (6.21)
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Geometrical Solution
of RRR Arm
Apply cosine theorem
w2x+w2y = a21+a222 a1 a2 cos (2)
… (6.22)
Since, cos (  2) =  cos 2 -c2
w2x + w2y = a12+ a22 + 2 a1a2c2

Same as obtained algebraically, Hence

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Joint Angles
w12  w22  a12  a 22
c2 
2 a1 a 2

2 = cos1 (c2) . . . (6.23)

 = atan2 (wy, wx)

wx2  wy2 cos   a1  a2 c2
… (6.24a)
w 2  w2  a 2  a 2
  cos 1 x y 1 2
2  w2
… (6.24b)
2 a1 w x y
1 =    . . . (6.25)
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Numerical Example

• An RRR planar arm (Example 6.11). Input

 1 3 5
  0 3 
 2 2 2
T   1
3 1 3
0
 2 2 2 
 0 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 

where  = 60o, and a1 = a2 = 2 units, and a3 = 1 unit.

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Using eqs. (6.13b-c), c2 = 0.866, and s2 = 0.5,

2 = 30o

Next, from eqs. (6.16a-b), s1 = 0, and c1= 0.866.

1 = 0o.

Finally, from eq. (6.17) ,

3 = 30o.

Therefore 1 = 0o 2 = 30o, and 3 = 30 …(6.22b)

The positive values of s2 was used in evaluating 2 = 30o.

The use of negative value would result in :

1 = 30o 2 = -30o, and 3 = 60o …(6.22c)

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Three-DOF Articulated Arm

• Forward kinematics relation

θ1  a tan 2 (p y , px )

θ1  π  a tan 2 (p y , px )

when 2 is equal to  2(1), where 2(1) is one

of the solutions
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Other Two Joint Solutions
• With 1st joint known, other two joints are
like planar RR arm
θ3  atan2 (s3 ,c3 )
p x2  p y2  p z2  a 22  a32
c3  ; s3   1  c32
2 a 2 a3

θ2  atan2 (s2 ,c2 )

- (a2  a3 c3 )p z  a3 s3 p x  p y where   px 2  py 2  pz 2
2 2

s2 
Δ

(a2  a3 c3 ) p x  p y  a3 s3 p z
2 2

c2 
Δ
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For b20, there also exists four solutions

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Three-DOF Spherical Wrist
• For orientation only.
Input

 q11 q12 q13 


Q   q21 q22 q23  
 q31 q32 q33 
c1c2  s1 c1s2 

  s1c2 c1  s1s2 
 s2 0 c2 
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• Solutions are:
θ1  a tan 2 (q23, q13 )

θ2  a tan 2 q13
2
 q23
2
, q33 
3  atan2(q32 , q31 )

• Another set of solutions exist for spherical wrist

1  atan 2 (  q23 ,  q13 )

 2  atan 2  q 2
13  q , q33
2
23 
3  a tan2 (  q32 , q31 )
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• A total of two solutions for spherical wrist

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