Environmental Studies

Syllabus :
Unit I – EARTH & ITS ENVIRONMENT
• a) earth – formation and evolution of earth over time – structure of earth and its components:
atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
• b) resources – renewable and non-renewable resources.
Unit II – ECOLOGY & ECOSYSTEM CONCEPTS:
• a) ecology – definition – ecosystem : definition – structure and function – energy flow – food chain
and food web – one example for an ecosystem.
• b) biogeochemical cycles – nitrogen ,carbon, phosphorous, water.
Unit III – BIODIVERSITY & INDIA
• a) introduction – definition – values of biodiversity – threats to biodiversity – conservation of
biodiversity.
• b) biodiversity of India – as a mega diversity nation – biogeographical distribution – hot spots of
biodiversity – national biodiversity conservation board and its function.
Unit IV – POLLUTION & GLOBAL ISSUES:
• a) definition: causes , effects and control measures of air, water, soil, marine, noise, thermal and
nuclear pollution.
• b) global issues: Global warming and ozone layer depletion.
Unit V –
• a) sustainable development – sustainable agriculture – organic farming, irrigation – water
harvesting and waste recycling – cyber waste and management.
• b) disaster management – flood and drought – earthquake and tsunami – landslides and avalanches
– cyclones and hurricanes – precautions, warnings rescue and rehabilitation.
Reference
• Agarwal, K.C 2001 Environmental biology, Nils Publ. ltd. Bikaner.
• Bharucha rach, The biodiversity of India, publishing pvt. Ltd.
• Clark R.S. Marine pollution, Clanderson, MC Graw Hill Inc,
• De. A.K.Environmental chemistry, wiley eastern ltd.,
• Survey of the environmental, the hindu (m)
• Down to earth, centre for science and environmental (R)
• Trivedi R.K.Handbook of environmental laws, rules, guidelines, compliances and standards. Vol I &
vol II, Enviro, media (R)
Unit I
Formation of earth
Stars forming in small protrusions from the eagle nebula

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Spinning cloud flattening into a disk & condensing into a
star planets

Solar system

Earth

• Earth is the 3rd planet from the sun. Like an oblate spheriod in shape.
• Densest & 5th largest of the 8th planets in the solar system.
• It is also the largest of the solar system’s four terrestrial planets.
• It is sometimes referred to as the world, the blue planet or by Latin name (terra)
• It’s the home of millions of species including humans.
• The planet forms 4.54 billion years before.
• Life appeared on its surface within a billion years.
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Evolution of earth
• It’s the only example for an environment that has given rise to the evolution of life.
• Photosynthesis allowed the sun’s energy to be utilized.
• Ozone layer formation was formed (molecular oxygen) in the upper atmosphere.
• Glacial action between 750 &580 Ma, make earth as “snow ball earth”.
• Cambrian explosion, multicellular life forms. Like dinosaurs and small animals such as mammals
formed
• 65 million years, mammalian life has diversified & several million years ago, an african ape-like
animal such as orrorin -tugenensis gained ability to stand upright.
• The development of agriculture, and then civilization allowed humans to influence the earth in a
short time span to developed.

Layers of earth

Surface of the earth

• Outer surface divided into several rigid segment or tectonic plates, they gradually migrate across the
surface over many millions of years…
• 71% of the surface is covered with salt water oceans. Remainder --- continents & islands (contains
many lakes & sources of water) hydrosphere
• Liquid water is exist only in earth.
• Earth’s poles are covered with solid ice (Antarctic ice sheet) or sea ice (arctic ice cap)

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 • The planet interior remains active, with a thick layer of solid mantle, liquid outer core that
generates a magnetic field & a solid iron inner core.

Earth interaction
• Interacts with sun & moon.
• Its orbits the sun once for every roughly 365.26 times & rotates about its axis. This is a sideral year,
which is equal to 365.26 solar days.
• Earth axis of rotation is tilted 23.4`away from the perpendicular to its orbital plane, producing
variations on the plant’s surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24) solar days. This result in
seasonal change in climate.
• Earths natural satellite –moon
• Moon , orbit 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides.
• Mineral resources of the planets are used to human population.

Earth can be divided into 2 main parts

• Atmosphere: measured from the surface of the earth upwards to 150 km (anything above this is
called space)
• Solid earth: measured from the surface of the earth downwards to the core.

Atmosphere
• Atmosphere is the blanket of air including various gases, water vapours and variety of fine
particulate matters.
• The lower atmosphere is a mixture molecule of 3 important gases: nitrogen, oxygen & carbon
dioxide.. Trace amount of other gases are also found.
• The air colourless, odourless & tasteless, mobile, compressible and expansible.
• It save us from harmful radiations.
• Destruction the layers of gases such as ozone layer, caused by pollution, is altering the earth’s
climate & causing global warming.
• The atmosphere is divided into:
♪ Troposphere (0km-13km)… lowest layer. All weather activities occur in this layer.
♪ Ozone layer (13km-25km)… functions as an umbrella and filters the harmful ultra-violet rays of sun..
♪ Stratosphere (25km-50km)… ozone present in this region.
♪ Mesosphere (50km-75km).. Temperature decreases slowly from 0 to -95c.
♪ Thermosphere (75km-150km)…extend upto 600 km above earth’s surface. Its important for the
operation of satellites.

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The solid earth
• Biosphere (water, organic substances and skeletal matter)- solid and liquid- and includes all forms of
life (e.g. skeletons) both on land and in the sea.
• Hydrosphere (fresh & salt water, snow & ice)-mainly liquid, some solid –includes all forms of water.
• Internal structure of the earth, which includes:
 Crust (normal silicate rocks such as granite and basalt)-solid
 Mantle (Ferro magnesium-rich silicate rocks)-solid
 Core (iron –nickel alloy)-liquid upper part and solid lower part.
Physical realms of the earth
• 3 realms…
 Lithosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Atmosphere
• 4th realm biosphere
Components of earth

Lithosphere
• Is the outer crust of the earth on which the continents and basins rest.
• It includes different varieties of land masses e.g. desert, temperature forests & tropical rain forest.
• It consists of about 15 slowly drifting plates which move at a rate of 1.3-20cm a year.
• It covers about 30% of the earth surface and is made up of solid rocks and soil.
• Abundant amount of minerals are found in this lithosphere..

Hydrosphere
• Is the water domain as more than 2/3rd (70.8%) of earth’s surface is covered.. E.g. seas, rivers,
streams, glaciers etc.
• It assumed that hydrosphere contains 1360 million cubic km of water.
• Greatest volume of water (97%) is found in oceans . 2% are locked in glaciers & ice caps. 1% as
rivers, lakes, ground water.
• Interchange of water between earth’s surface and atmosphere is governed by water cycle
(hydrological cycle).
• From land surface 72,500 cubic km/yr water is evaporated but in turn it receives 1,13,500 cubic
km/yr as precipitation.
• Ocean contributes 4,52,600 cubic km/yr water is evaporated but in turn it receives only 4,11,600
cubic km/yr as precipitation..
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 Biosphere
• Biosphere is a thin shell that not only encapsulates the earth and encompasses lithosphere,
hydrosphere & atmosphere but also supports life.
• It’s the 4th realm of the environment, supports micro-organisms, plants and animals including man.
• They interact with one another.
• The upper limit of the biosphere is determined by availability of oxygen, moisture, suitable
temperature and air pressure.
• The lower limit of biosphere is determined by availability of required amount of oxygen and light
which can sustain life.
• Appearance of free oxygen on our planet is traced back to 2.9-3 billion years ago with the onset of
cyanobacteria which could spilt water molecules to obtain hydrogen atoms & evolve oxygen.

Resources
The natural resource is the stock that can be drawn from nature. The earth is a storehouse of
various resources such as land, water, soil, minerals, vegetation, forests, fuels, solar energy etc….
That are immense importance to mankind…

Renewable resources (non conventional)

Renewable is something that is being continually replaced faster than we use it up…….
Example for renewable resources:
• Solar energy
• Wind power
• Ocean energy
• Geothermal (thermal power from the earth)
• Water power (hydro-electricity from dammed rivers, tidal streams and ocean waves)
• Bio mass

Solar energy
• 15 days of solar energy is roughly equivalent to the energy stored in all known reserves of fossil
fuels
• 1,67,000 times greater than the current consumption Ex: solar power pumps, solar pond electric
power plants.

Wind energy

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 • Started from Chinese and Persian civilization.
• Coastal areas, islands and mountains passes wind energy is abundant.
• India occupies the 5th position.
• 2483 mw wind power is adding to the power section.

BIO MASS
• Photosynthesis & dried or fresh residues of plant materials, marine algae..
• Bio mass fuel may be
• Solid--- wood, animal dung, peat, charcoal etc..
• Liquid--- methanol or ethanol (automobiles)
Gas--- animal waste produce biogas

Hydro energy or water power

• It was using from roman empire…
• Water falling from a height turns turbines at the bottom of dams to generate electricity.
• When come to thermal power its cheaper..
• Japan, US are leading..

Dam water energy

Ocean energy
• Getting energy from Ocean tidal and wave energy, ocean thermal energy conversion etc…
Ocean tidal
• Tides, produced by gravitational force of sun & moon, contain enormous amount of energy
• Dams built across the mouth of a river confluence with oceans, permits sea water to flow through
small opening filled with propellers, connected to electric turbines.
• In India efforts are being made 15,000 mw is estimated.

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Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
• Surface sun warms + warm water + cold water
• The range of 2 layers are from 10c -30c
• Heat sources operates heat engines.

Geothermal energy
• The natural heat from the interior of the earth can usefully be converted into energy.
• This natural heat comes from the fission of ratio active material present in the rocks in the interior
of the earth.
• USA, New Zealand running successfully.
• Hot springs used to turn turbines and generate electricity.
• In India, natural geysers are common in Kullu & Manali.

Non renewable energy (conventional)

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 • Is something that is not being replaced as we consume it……

Example for non-renewable

• Coal
• Crude oil
• Natural gas
• Nuclear

Coal
• It was formed around 255-350 million years age.
• During the carboniferous age, in hot damp regions of the earth, plants and animals got buried alive
or often their death into the soil and due to heat accompanied by pressures gradually got converted
into peat & coal over a millions of years of period.
• Due to increased consumption it will finished with in 65 yrs..
• Alteration should be made for it.

Crude oil
• Petroleum has been formed over a period of millions of years..
• Extraction of crude oil is not so simple
• Saudi Arabia alone has 1/4th of the oil reserves.
• Per barrel oil price US$ 4 in 1973 & $ 50 in 2004.
• Compare to coal, petroleum is a cleaner fuel, its burn completely without residue.
• India , oil field is lies around in Gujarat..

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Natural gas
• Composed of methane (96%) with small amounts of propane & ethane.
• It’s the cleanest source of energy among fossil fuels.
• It can be easily transported through pipelines.
• It results as a byproduct during crude oil refining & from fractional distillation plants.
• 40% of natural gas is found in Kazakhistan, Russia.
In 1994 - 2.8 million tones they produced against a demand of 3.4 million tones.

LPG
• Liquefied petroleum gas, as odorless butane, other gases like propane & ethyl mercaptan are added
to give fowl smell to identify leakage.
• It is obtained by converting petroleum into liquid from under pressure.

CNG
• Compressed natural gas- used alternative to petrol and diesel for transport of vehicles.
• Delhi transport has totally switched over to CNG.
• It has greatly reduced pollution in the city.
• Its cheaper, staple price, carcinogenic potential is lessen.
• 35-40km/kg

Nuclear energy
• Generated by nuclear fission (bombardment of neutrons) or by nuclear fusion.
• Any leakage cause pollution most hazardous Chernobyl disaster.
• The first nuclear power station was raised at Tara pore, near Mumbai in 1969.
• Uranium, a rare element , is the primary source of nuclear energy although thorium can also be
converted into uranium isotope & used as a fuel.

Unit –II
Ecosystem
Ecology
“a system of living & non-living components interacting as a whole”
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Various symbol of ecology

Ecosystem
• Tansley (1935), defined it as “ the system resulting from the integration of all living & non living
factors of the environment” Ex:bio-system etc.
Structure of an ecosystem
♫ Physical organisation of biotic & abiotic components characterises the structure of an ecosystem.

Abiotic
♪ Temperature – optimum temperature range . Plant below 0`c & above 45`c would destroy their
lives.

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 ♪ Water – liquid of life. Xerophytes (scarcity of water), mesophytes (optimum water), hydrophytes
(abundance of water).
♪ Light – seed germination etc.
♪ Humidity – moisture content of the atmosphere is also an important factor.
♪ Wind – blowing air
♪ Soil PH – acidity or alkalinity. Optimum 6.5 – 7.5 PH.
♪ Mineral elements – macro (calcium, nitrogen, iron) & micro (zinc, copper)
♪ Topography – surface configuration or physical feature of an area is called topography.
♪ Back ground – dessert animals … like camel are in their dessert sand colour…

Food chain
• A food chain is the series of organisms showing feeding relationships.
• Begin with a green plant (producer) & with an eaten animal (consumer).
• There is no decomposers in food chain.
♪ Herbivore – a plant eater
♪ Carnivore – an organism that obtains nutrients from the blood or flesh of an animal
♪ Omnivore – an organism which eats both plant & animal matter.
♪ Scavenger – a consumer that eats dead animal (e.g. crab)
♪ Detritivore – a consumer that obtains its nutrients from detritus.
♪ Decomposer – an organism such as bacteria and fungi that breaks down dead organisms and their
wastes.

Types of food chain

• Pond ecosystem:
Phytoplankton’s aquatic insects smallfish largefish
• Forest ecosystem:
Green plants deer tigers
• Grassland ecosystem:
Grass mouse snake hawks
• Marine ecosystem:
Marine algae small fish large fish sharks
Food chain

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Environment with biotic & abiotic

Food web
• Most food chains are interconnected.
• Animal typically consume a varied diet and, in turn, serve as food for a variety of other creatures
that prey on them.
• These interconnection create a food web.

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 Structure of an ecosystem
♫ Spices composition
♫ Stratification
♫ Tropic organization
♫ Nutrients

Structure of an ecosystem
• Species composition:
Species composition of each ecosystem is different. Ex: pond ecosystem & marine ecosystem. Ex: a dessert
ecosystem has only a few species where as a forest ecosystem contains a great variety of species.
• Stratification:
In this type, organisms may be arranged in one or many layers called
strata ,this is called as stratification. Ex: in tropical rain forests there are 3 strata- trees, shrubs & herbs..
And these are occupied by different species.
• Trophic organisation:
food relationships of producers and consumers is another way to depict ecosystem structure. The
producers 1st trophic level(T1), herbivores, 2nd trophic level (T2) & carnivores, 3rd level (T3).
T1 T2 T3 decomposers
• Nutrients:
nutrients needs for the growth of living organisms. They found in soil (nutrients like N, P & Ca). They are
ready to give this source at anytime for the earth… is known as standing state.
Functions of an ecosystem
Ecosystems have some functional attributes due to which components parts remain running together. Ex:
roots absorb water & nutrients from the soil, green leaves prepared food by photosynthesis. All these
functions delicately balanced & controlled. Main functions are,
♪ Productivity and decomposition
♪ Energy flow
♪ Nutrient cycling
♪ Development and stabilization
• Productivity & decomposition:
the rate of production of organic matter (or) biomass is called productivity. Primary – rate of solar energy
absorbed by the producers. Secondary – rate of increase in the biomass of consumers per unit area & time.
• Energy flow:
Energy is considered as the ability to do work. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can
transformed from one form to another. “ the transformation of solar energy from one trophic level to
another, mediated by consumers is called energy flow”

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Biogeochemical cycles
• Nearly 40 elements are known to be required by living organisms.
• 2 types – gaseous cycle & sedimentary cycles.
• Gaseous cycle – carbon, nitrogen, oxygen & hydrological cycles.
• Sedimentary cycles (“imperfect cycles”) – since its end up in sedimentary rock, recycling is very
slow.
It extends for a longer period of geological time (hundred to millions of years)

Carbon cycle

• It contain every organic compound e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleic acids etc.. & its makes
up a living being.
a) CO2 goes into the living being from the atmosphere (photosynthesis)
b) Carbon gets back into the atmosphere (death matter decompose & return to atmosphere)
Nitrogen cycle

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 • Nitrogen enters into the living beings:
It’s a very complex gaseous type of cycle. About 75% of atmospheric air is pure nitrogen. Conversion of
gaseous nitrogen into ammonia is called nitrogen fixation.
a) Nitrogen fixation
b) Ammonification: plants incorporate fixed nitrogen into the protoplasm by amino acid & protein
synthesis.
c) Nitrification: the conversion of ammonia into nitrates is known as nitrification.
• Nitrogen gets back into the atmosphere:
Phosphorus cycle

• Sedimentary type of cycle – found in rocks & other natural deposits formed during geological ages.
• Living components, it is a constituent of biomembranes, bones & teeth.
• Its essential for metabolic processes that convert food to usable.
• Energy & structure of DNA
• Crystalline rocks- major natural resource of phosphorus
• Its also used as a artificial fertilizers.
• Soluble phosphorus absorb by plants & its transfer to animals & its finally return to atmosphere
when these plants & animals decompose.

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 • The run off from the soil & the loss to phosphate to ocean is greater than gain on to the land.

Water cycle

Unit III
BIO-DIVERSITY
• The variety of living organisms gives an idea of biodiversity.
• DEFINITION:
Is defined as “ richness of species (micro organisms, plants & animals) occurring in a given habitat”.

Types of biodiversity (3 types):

Species diversity
Genetic diversity
Ecosystem diversity
• Genetic diversity: combination of different genes found within a population of a single species.. Ex:
india is gifted with genetic diversity, wide varieties of deers like musk deer (kastura), dancing deer
(sambhar) etc..
• Species diversity: variety & abundance of different types of individual organisms which inhabit an
area.
• Ecosystem diversity: variety of habitats that occur within a region. eg: Bay of Bengal-Godavari Delta
Ecosystem. Grass land,wet land, river, estuary, fresh & salt water & mangrove ecosystem.

Value of biodiversity
• Direct use value:
a) Consumptive use value: (food, medicinal, fuel)
b) Productive use value: (timber)
• Indirect use value: (soil formation, nutrient cycling, air water purification, cultural values,
education. Recreation etc)
• Aesthetic value: (beauty to be valued- eco tourism, wildlife viewing, gardening etc)
• Ethical value: (“live and let others live”)
• Option value: (holistic perspective-cure diseases etc)

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 Loss of biodiversity
• Due to modernisation, industrial development & agricultural development like building dams- there
is a loss of biodiversity.
• Causes:
• Hunting wild animals & species.
• Unplanned urbanization & uncontrolled industrialization
• Over exploitation of living natural resources for financial gain.
• Inadequate knowledge of values about the species.
• Pollution
• Destruction of coastal areas.
• Forest fires, droughts, diseases, cyclones & land slides etc.

Land slides

Threats to bio-diversity
• Global climate change has significantly altered hydrological pattern & other ecological functions
triggering or aggravating biodiversity loss.
 Cause:
 Habitat loss (human activities) and habital degradation (illegal trade of exotic species).
 Indian scenario: population increased from 30 to 110 crore since 1947.animals number were
reduced in number.

Conservation of biodiversity
• Is concerned with the protection of genetic, species & ecosystem diversity so that our lives sustain
presently and in future also.
• 2 ways:

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 1. On site conservation: protect the species in their places. national parks (India-92), wildlife
sanctuaries (India -492), biosphere reserves (India -14) etc.
2. Off site conservation: protect the species in place away from their natural habitats. Botanical
gardens, zoos etc.
 International effort: united nations on the environment & development (UNCED)1992, its bind
agreement with 100 nations to protect the biological resources. And to share the benefit of
biodiversity with others. International union for the protection of nature (IUPN), oct 5 th 1984.
 National effort: wildlife protection Act,1972. preservation & conservation of the wild life. Biological
diversity act,2002. National biodiversity strategy & action plan (NBSAP)

India as a mega diversity nation

• India has a great diversity of natural ecosystems.
• Among 12 mega diversity countries, India ranks 6th in that.
• From the cold and high Himalayan ranges to the sea coasts.
• From the wet north eastern green forests to the dry north western and deserts
• Different types of forests, wetland (biological supermarket), islands ,lakes (chilika lake)& the oceans.
• Great diversity in climate, topography & zoology.
• Feb 2nd World wetland day.
Hot spots of biodiversity
• They are biologically rich areas with high diversity and a large percentage of endemic species.
• Most of world biodiversity concentrations are either near the equator, especially tropical rain
forests or coral reefs.
• Among 25 hot spots in the world, 2 are found in India extending into neighboring countries (the
western ghats/ Sri Lanka & the indo-Burma region covering Eastern Himalayas)
• These are particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism.

Remedial measures
• Tiger conservation project (TCP).
• Crop compensation programme – in Karnataka
• Use solar powered fencing.
• Animals in sanctuaries are given adequate needs like food etc.
• Preserve the wildlife
Unit IV
Global warming

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 • Definition: as the increase in temperature of the earth, which causes more changes in climate.
• Causes: last few centuries, due to high release of green house gases into the atmosphere by the
industrial, agricultural & other human activities.
• Average global temperature is now 1c higher than in 1900. before 21 st century it will raise upto 1-5c.
Major effects of global warming
1. Polar ice caps will begin to melt and the sea level will increase.
2. In the warmer world, more water will evaporate n heavy rainfall will occur. Less winter & hotter
summer will result.

Control & remedial measures to prevent global warming:

• To encourage the use of non-conventional sources of energy Ex: solar energy etc.
• Reduce the consumption of fossil fuel which will reduce the carbon level in the atmosphere.
• Installation of pollution control devices in automobiles & industries.
• Reforestation.
Kyoto protocol on climate change
Dec 1997, 160 countries reached an agreement on “climate change”. It sets climate protection
targets

Ozone layer depletion

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 • Ozone layer is a natural filter from the harmful ultra violet rays (UV- rays) of sun.
• Danger holes are appearing on the ozone umbrella. It has found in the south pole of our earth.
• Ozone depletion caused by chlorofluorocarbons (chlorine, fluorine & carbon atom)
• CFC (chloroflurocarbon) – electric refrigerators (CFC-12), car air conditioners (CFC-12), foaming
agents (CFC-11,12), washing agents.
• Halon – fire extinguishers( halon -1301 very dangerous)
• Tetra-chloro-carbon – general solvents (research purpose)
• Tri-chloro-ethane – washing agents
• HCFC (hydro-chloro-fluro-carbon) – room air conditioners (HCFC-22), commericial freezers, foaming
agents etc.
• Methyl-Bromide – soil sterilizers, insecticides.
Alernatives:
 HFC (hydrofluorocarbon) an alternative CFC which has no effect on the ozone layer – electric
refrigerators, air conditioners, foaming agents (HFC-134a)
Dobson unit (DU):
 DU is the scale for measuring the total amount of ozone occupying a column overhead.
The impact of the depletion of the ozone
• Depletion ozone layer result in an increase in the UV rays reaching the earth’s surface.
 Classification of UV rays:
1. UV-A, long wavelength 400-320nm,
2. UV-B, <320nm.
3. UV-C
 Problems of this ozone depletion
 Effects on the human body:
1. Skin cancer
2. Reduced resistance to diseases
3. Eye- aliments such as cataract.
 Damage to agricultural crops
1. UV-B , reduce the growth of plant life. Rubber gets hardened, fibres like cotton get damage.
 Damage to underwater life
Small fish & plankton will get damage.

Prevention of ozone layer depletion:

• International measures for protection of the ozone layer:

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 1987, the montreal protocol, stipulates that step by step reduce the production and use of 5 specific types
of CFC. But developing countries oppose this and postpone implementing these controls for 10 years. They
use up 0.3kg /person/year.
• Fluorocarbon alternatives:
some nations banned CFC. Two japanese companies- mitsubishi electric & taiya sanyo have jointly
developed (1987) device called “ ice –cleaning”.
• Things we can do:
awareness on the items contains CFC.. And avoiding those items to utilize in day to day life.

Pollution
• Definition :
“undesirable change in the physical, chemical & biological characteristics of air, land & water that may
harmfully affect human life and desirable species”. Ex: natural pollutions - volcano erruptions, forest fires
etc. man made pollutions – radioactivity, solid wastes, noise, energy waste etc..
Air pollution

Sources of air pollution

1. Industries : combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum etc. (electrostatic precipitators can reduce
smoke and dust from industries)
2. Automobiles : combustion of petrol & diesel in automobiles releases harmful gases into the air.
( using devices like positive crankcase ventilation valve & catalytic converter)

Causes of air pollution

1. Smoke : dust particles from the combustion of coal & oil. List of air pollutants like, carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) (coal), nitrogen oxides (coal), unburnt hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide
(SO2) (coal), lead from leaded petrol only.
2. Carbon particles, metallic dusts, fluorides, nitrates etc. chemical substance from industries.
3. Radioactive dust from atomic bomb tests, or routine or accidental releases from nuclear power
stations.
Causes
Effects of air pollution
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a green house gas. It will produce green house effect. This will result in
melting of polar ice..
• Produce acid rain.
• Mountain areas will get thermal inversions (prevents the escape of smoke & combustion products
into the atmosphere) which produce smog. Visibility will reduce by smog
• Man – irritation of respiratory tract, radio-active cause genetic mutation.
• Animals – (lead, arsenic, fluorine) lead poisoning result in lack of appetite in pet animals..
• Plants – spraying of pesticides, cause greater air pollution. chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll), premature
leaf fall etc..
• Materials – chemical attack, acid rain damage the building materials, paint discolouration etc..
Control of air pollution
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• Less use of coal & oil for running factories.
• Quality of fuel should check.
• Use of lead free petrol in automobiles.
• Use of purified petrol
• Use of alternative energy sources.
• Modernisation of industries

Air pollution controlling equipment

• Control devices for particulate contaminants. (gravitational settling, cyclone separators, fabric
fillters, electrostatic precipitators, wet collectors [scrubbers])
• Control devices for gaseous contaminants. (wet absorption methods, dry absorption methods)
Land pollution
• Definition:
“undesirable change in the land that harmfully affects the life activities is called land
pollution”
• Plastics
• Pesticides
• Radioactive elements
• Metal
• Insecticides & herbicides (agrochemicals)
• Garbage (plant & animal residues)
• Ashes , cinders (pieces of coal)
• Acid rain.
Pesticides
• It’s use to kill pests like insects, rats, snails, fungi, herb etc..
Control of pesticide pollution:
♪ Minimal use: use only on required
♪ Biological control: pests should be killed by rearing predators or parasites
♪ Sterilization: juvenile hormones prevent meta-morphosis & maturation in insects
Radioactive pollution
• Certain elements continuously disintegrate by emitting ionizing radiations. These are called as
radioactive isotopes. ex: strontium-90, argon-41, iodine-131, cobalt-60, cesium-137 etc..
• Control: control disposition of isotopes & minimisation of their use.
Acid rain
• Percolation of air borne sulphuric and nitric acid along with rain water changes PH of the soil.
• Control: controlling the air pollution.

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 Effects of soil pollution
• Decrease the soil fertility
• Adverse effect on soil microbial population.
• Increase soil acidity.
• Radioactive wastes effects on plant & human beings.
Water pollution
• Undesirable change in water which may harmfully affect the life activities of man & domesticated
species.
• Definition: “as a change in the quality or composition of water directly or indirectly as a result of
man’s activities, so that it becomes unsuitable for drinking, domestic, recreational & agricultural
purpose”.
• Ex: domestic sewage, pesticides (DDT,BHC), plankton blooms, oils, industrial effluents, radioactivity,
thermal pollution, radioactive wastes, temperature etc..
Sources of water pollution
• Domestic wastes (waste food, plastics etc)
• Sewage (faecal matter, organic nutrients etc)
• Industrial wastes (tanneries, paper, sugar, rubber industries etc.)
• Fertilizers & detergents: (detergent-phosphates)
• Pesticides & herbicides [biocides]: (DDT etc.)
• Radioactive wastes: (research activities etc.)
• Thermal pollution: (sudden increase in water)
• Oil: (oil spillage)
• Eutrophication: (addition of organic & inorganic nutrients. Algal blooms etc.)
Effects of water pollution
• Epidemic diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhoea, infectious hepatitis, jaundice, filariasis
etc.
• Industrial wastes contain heavy & toxic substance.
• Mercury pollution – minamata disease.
• Cadmium pollution – itai itai disease.
• Ground water pollution – methaeglobinemia, fluorosis, black foot disease, cancer of skin, mouth &
lungs etc.
Control
• Removal of suspended large particles.
• Supply of aeration to promote bacterial decomposition.
• Chemical treatments.

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 Control of water pollution
• Sewage treatment: (sedimentation, dilution & storage)
• Water stabilization pond or oxidation pond: domestic & industrial wastes are stored in a dilute
condition in shallow ponds called oxidation or stabilization ponds.
♪ Recycling: pollution can be prevented to a certain extent by reutilizing the wastes is called recycling.
1. Dung of cows & buffaloes – used as gobar gas.
2. Sewage can be used – irrigation & fish culture after oxidation pond treatment.
3. Industrial effluents can be removed by filtration & selective absorption.
4. Avoid excessive use of pesticides & herbicides.
Marine pollution
Definition: “is a kind of aquatic pollution in which undesirable changes of physical, chemical or
biological properties harmful directly or indirectly to human welfare are caused”. Ex: sea, ocean &
estauaries.
Sources of marine pollution
• Industrial effluents: (dumping of waste products in costal areas)
• Marine ship effluents: (disturb the marine ecosystem)
• Oil spillage:
• Inflow of fertilizers & pesticides: (carry out by rivers)
• Nuclear tests & dumping of nuclear wastes:
• Eutrophication: (growth of toxic blue green alga)
Effects of marine pollution
• Every year 50,000 – 250,000 birds are killed by oil spillage.
• Nuclear pollution effects from generation to generation.
• Affects the marine tourism.
• Industrial waste reduce the oxygen level in marine area.
Control
• Its not an easy task to control marine pollution. It needs awareness, cooperation, skilled training,
govt. support etc.
• Ban to dumping of waste garbage along seashore.
• Input of industrial wastage should not allow into sea.
• Effluents should be discharged only after the proper treatments.
• Ban unwanted nuclear testing.
• Oil spill- saw dust, peat moss, pine bark etc. to absorb and prevent further spilling of oil. Floating
absorbents, surface pumps etc.
Noise pollution
• Definition: “unwanted sound released into the atmosphere without any concern to the adverse
effects it may have or the unwanted noise, released into the environment and affecting our live
adversely”. Mild sound is necessary for human existence.(10 dB)
• Measurement of sound: decibel (dB), deci=10 & bell after Graham Bell.
• Sources of noise pollution:
 Calm & quiet places – 30 dB, very quiet
 Light traffic – 50dB, moderate sound
 Ordinary conversation – 60 dB, moderate sound
 Moving vehicles – 90 dB, very loud
 Jet plane – 105 dB, uncomfortable loud & hearing damage.
 Thunder clap – 120 dB, uncomfortable loud & hearing damage.
 Jet plane taking off – 150 dB, painful, ear drum rupture.
 Rocket engine – 180 dB, painful, ear drum rupture.
Effects of noise pollution
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• Intense sound 80-100dB, cause emotional & behavioral changes, nervous tension & cardiovascular
problems.
• Explosive sounds (above 110dB), severe concussion of internal ear, vomiting, profound deafness.
• Absolute silence (0-5dB), uncomfortable sensation.
Control
• Industries – new machines, workers must use ear-muffs (above 90dB) & ear- plugs (below 90dB).
• Community – loud speakers with restricted level, prohibit high sound crackers.
• Traffic noise – along highways plant shrubs & evergreen dense trees to absorb noise &
carbondioxide.
• Aeroplane and jet noise – located away from residential areas
Thermal pollution (thermal water pollution)
• Definition: water pollution due to heat is popularly referred to as thermal pollution.
• Sources:
 Industries, nuclear power plants & thermal power stations use large quantities of water for cooling.
Water getting heated by absorbing energy.
 Temperature rise 10-15c affect aquatic life.
 Sewage & industrial waste increase the temperature 4-6c.
Effects of thermal pollution
• Aquatic plants & animals are killed.
• Mild hot water produce bacterial disease. salamon.
• Affect the metabolic activities.
• Normal population may disappear.
• Affect the entire ecological balance.
♪ Control:
♪ Water should be allowed to cool down before it is discharged.
♪ It can be passed through fountains for rapid cooling.
Nuclear hazards (radiation pollution)
• definition: “is the emission of rays & particles from a source & the source of ionising radiations is
the group of radioactive elements”.
• 2 types:
1. Corpuscular radiations (nature -alfa & beta radiations)
2. Electromagnetic radiations (shorter wavelength – X-rays, UV-rays, infra-red rays etc.)
Sources
• (Radioactive dust that falls to the earth after atomic explosion is called radioactive fall out).
• Radioactive fall out from atomic weapon testing.
• Radioactive fall out from small atomic weapons used for peaceful purposes.
• Atomic waste material.
Effects of nuclear hazards
• Half-life time
• Short range effect- within few days or weeks
• Long range effect- genetic changes, mutations & chromosomal aberrations, loss of vitality, anaemia
etc.
• Bone cancer, tissue degeneration.
♫ Control:
♫ Protective measures are the only method to control nuclear pollution .
♫ While handling UV lamps, dark glass spectacles or goggles must be worn.
♫ Exposure to sun light to any individual exposed to UV could be a good remedial measure to treat
the exposed individual.
♫ To avoid nuclear fall out- high level wastes , should treated and buried in deep underground.

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♫ Used in minimum amount.

Disaster management
• Disaster are unpredicted causes that seriously disrupt to life.
• These kill or injure a large number of people and animals.
• Two types of disasters:
1. Natural disasters – earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricane, flood, droughts etc.
2. Man made disasters – Bhopal gas tragedy, dam leakage etc.
• India is a disaster prone country in which basically 6 zones have been recognized (Northern region,
Eastern region, North eastern region, Western region, Southern region and islands of Andaman
Nichobar and Lakshadweep).z
Disaster report during 1994 to 2003:
Floods (1160),windstorms (802), droughts & earthquake (257).

Flood
• Flood is the submerged long part of the earth under the water for several days.
• About 1/8th part of the country is flood prone.
• Flood is common in UP, Bihar,West Bengal, Assam and Orissa.
• Causes: Natural-prolonged rainfall, land slides, volcanic eruptions, tsunami etc. (or) Man made –
deforestation, dam accidents, urbanization etc.
• Death of human beings and animals and destruction of urban constructions, electric supply, water
supply, roads, crop fields etc.
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• To prevent:
1. delay in reaching of surface run off water to the rivers.
2. Minimisation of flood effects.
3. Development of forecasting system and management etc.
Earthquake
• Is a sudden motion or trembling of the ground produced by abrupt displacement of rock masses.
• Its magnitude is measured on Richer scale.
• Real damages caused by earthquakes begin at magnitude 5 and total destruction occurs at 8 or so.
• Causes: volcanic eruption, hydrostatic pressure, plate movements etc.
• Damages : to human structures,to town and cities, to loss of human lives and properties, tsunami
etc.
• Prevention: preparation of earthquake catalogues, installation of seismic observatories,
identification of seismic zones, earthquake insurance etc.

sesimograph
Cyclones
• Cyclones are raging spirals of wind and rain that
are born near the equator over the seas, creating
an area of low atmospheric pressure with a series of closed isobars around its centre.
• Severity of cyclones is measured on the Beaufort scale.
• Cyclones are termed as hurricanes and typhoons.
• A cyclones begins to form when warm moist air raises from the surface of the sea and is funneled
upwards in a natural updraft.
• Causes: damage to wildlife, killing or injuring human beings and animals.
• Prevention: prediction and early warning systems, maintaining telecommunications, community
education and awareness & structural improvement and afforestation etc.
Landslides
• Its term to used to cover a wide variety of landforms and process involving the downslide slipping of
soil and rock or rock pieces under the influence of gravity.
• These are common in mountain gravity. Himalayas are prone to regular landslides.
• Causes: earthquakes, prolonged heavy rainfalls, deforestation, construction of water holding
structures ect.
• Damages: killing of human beings, blockage of roads, rails etc.
• Prevention: controlling artificially induced aggravation of landslide risks, slope stabilisation,
channelising rain water, afforestation, checking uncontrolled construction of roads and land
terracing etc.

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 Tsunami
• Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning harbour waves (Tsu = harbour, nami = waves).
• A rare mega- thrust earthquake took place in the Indian ocean off the western coast of northern
Sumatra (Indonesia) at the magnitude of 8.9 Richter scale.
• The hypocentre of the undersea earthquake, which occurred on Dec 26,2004, was at 3.316˚N and
95.855˚E, some 160 km of Sumatra, at a depth of 30km below mean sea level.
• These Tsunami waves devastated the shores of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and other
countries with waves upto 15 metres in height.
• Damages: affected 12 countries & killed more than 1.66 lac people.
• Prevention: 3-4km of mangrove forests and casuarina like trees along sea coast were relatively least
affected, so ecological balance becomes essential to combat such tragedies.

Rain water harvesting

• It’s a technique to capture, collect and store rainwater in tanks or divert it to recharge groundwater.
• India has a long history of rainwater harvesting through wells, tanks etc.
• In rural areas it can be done by check dams.
• In urban areas rainwater can be collected at rooftops of houses and reserve rainwater can be used
as and when required.
• Apart from being low cost and effective, rainwater harvesting provides us pollution free water
supply.

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 Organic farming
• Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green
manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a
farm .
• Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers and pesticides, plant
growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and genetically modified
organisms.

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