Current Psychology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9904-9

The relationship between perceived maternal parenting

and psychological distress: Mediator role of self-compassion
Meryem Temel 1 & Ayse Altan Atalay 2

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018, corrected publication July/2018

Abstract
Self-compassion (SC) is defined as one’s ability to face any type of suffering or failures with a kind, caring and non-judgmental
manner by neither ignoring nor exaggerating them. SC has been suggested as a factor that fosters psychological resilience among
adolescents and young adults. Mediator role of SC in the relationship between perceived maternal parenting and psychological
distress among adolescents was investigated. 529 (226 females, 303 males) 9th grade high school students (between the ages of
14 and 17) living in Istanbul, Turkey were administered Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), My Memories of Upbringing (S-EMBU-
C), Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) in counterbalanced order. Correlation, regression, and mediation analyses
revealed that among the parenting variables, only perceived maternal warmth was associated with SC. Besides, SC appeared to
have a significant mediating role in the relationship of perceived maternal warmth with different manifestations of psychological
distress during adolescence. The findings highlighted the crucial role of perceived maternal support for adolescents to develop SC
which minimizes the likelihood of having psychological distress.

Keywords Self-compassion . Adolescence . Psychological distress . Perceived parenting . Depression

Adolescence is a critical period, during when individuals ex-
perience profound changes in various capacities such as cog-
nitive, affective capacity and the quality of interpersonal rela-
tionships (Larson et al. 2002). The rapid changes taking place
at both physical and psychological level during this life period
make adolescents more vulnerable to the negative impact of
negative emotionality and thus, examples of behavioral dys-
regulation appear more often (Costello et al. 2008; Spear
2000). Such processes also explain why the first signs of
adulthood psychological problems emerge for the first time
during this critical life stage (Kim 2003). Several risk factors
such as genetic, psychosocial, stressful life events, maladap-
tive parenting practices have been suggested as the common
risk factors associated with anxiety, depression and stress in
* Meryem Temel
meryemtemel.mt@gmail.com
Ayse Altan Atalay
ayse.altan@gmail.com
1
Departmant of Psychology, Maltepe University, Maltepe/
Istanbul, Turkey
2
Department of Psychology, Koc University, Sarıyer/Istanbul, Turkey
adolescent populations (Tamar and Özbaran 2004; Suadiye
and Aydın 2009). The role of parenting styles and family
context as critical factors predicting the mental health prob-
lems frequently seen during childhood and adolescence, as
well as adulthood years is emphasized in various studies
(Kritzas and Grobler 2005; Manzeske and Stright 2009;
Rinaldi and Howe 2012). There is consensus in the literature
concerning the importance of family atmosphere and parent-
ing styles during childhood years and even though adolescents
are commonly labeled as being rebellious and seeking for
autonomy, they continue to seek warm relationships, and sup-
port from their social environment (Saritas-Atalar and Altan-
Atalay 2017; Ungar 2004).
Perceived parenting style can be explained as the children’s
perception of the way their parents treat them, independent
from what actually happened or how the parents perceive the
same process (Cheng and Furnham 2004; Markus et al. 2003).
Castro et al. (1993) proposed perceived parenting as a multidi-
mensional phenomenon composed of rejection, overprotection,
comparison and emotional warmth dimensions. Kestenbaum et
al. (1989) explained parental warmth as parents’ responsive-
ness to child’s behavioral and emotional needs by presenting a
holding atmosphere. Parents who are high in parental warmth
often found to provide support, encouragement, and motivation

to their children (Kim and Rohner 2002; Taylor et al. 2015).
Emotional warmth at the same time has a protective role
through buffering of the negative impact of various risk factors,
thus reducing the probability of numerous psychological disor-
ders such as depression, anxiety and eating disorders (Scanlon
and Epkins 2015; Vandewalle et al. 2014). Parental rejection,
on the other hand, is a negative parenting style that includes
criticism, disapproval, and neglect of child’s emotional and
physical needs (Dwairy 2010). Rejecting parents can be per-
ceived as criticizing, humiliating, cold, unaffectionate, hostile
and aggressive by their children (Rohner and Khaleque 2005;
Sheikh and Haque 1994). Similarly, parental comparison was
suggested as a form of parental psychological control that in-
volves continuously comparing the child with other children
(Sümer and Engin 2004). Lastly, parental control refers to the
perceived discipline and pressure and restriction inflicted by the
caregiver (Parker 1983). Likewise, overprotective parenting in-
volves intrusive behaviors toward their child and to feel exces-
sive fear regarding child’s safety and well-being (Barber and
Harmon 2002). Such parenting patterns were consistently
found to be associated with negative child outcomes (Richter
et al. 2000; Anlı and Karslı 2010; Bornstein and Bradley 2014).
Despite consistent associations between parenting practices
and psychological distress, there is still little is known about
the mechanisms through which parenting patterns relate to vul-
nerability for one’s psychological distress (Aunola and Nurmi
2005). Thus, identification of underlying mechanisms through
which dysfunctional relationships with parents lead to subse-
quent psychological distress is crucial for providing a compre-
hensive understanding of maladaptive behavior and developing
more efficient preventative programs for psychological well-
being of adolescents.
Previous research demonstrated the significant mediator
roles of several variables such as repetitive negative thinking
(Ruijten et al. 2011), emotion regulation (Alink et al. 2009)
and early maladaptive schemas (Saritas-Atalar and Gençöz
2015; Wright et al. 2009) in the relationship between parent-
ing and emotional distress. SC, (Stosny 1995; Tanaka et al.
2011; Játiva and Cerezo 2014), is another variable that has
potential for playing a role in this relationship. Gilbert
(2005) defined SC as the capacity to realize one’s pain and
discomfort and attend to suffering in a non-judgmental way,
rather than having a critical and judgmental stance. When
this capacity is turned inwards, the individual starts to eval-
uate him/herself with kindness even in the case of failure or
pain, also showing an ability to accept and experience even
the most painful emotions (Neff 2003). Numerous studies
exploring the protective nature of this concept provided em-
pirical support for this view by revealing that higher levels of
SC is linked to positive mental health outcomes (Westphal et
al. 2016; Yarnell and Neff 2013; Allen and Leary 2010),
such as less elevated anxiety, depression, and stress levels
(Gilbert 2010; MacBeth and Gumley 2012; Neff and
Curr Psychol
McGehee 2010). It is stated that SC facilitates a clear mind
state in people by preventing them from obsessively focus-
ing on negative emotions and thoughts but at the same time
allowing them to evaluate their negative thoughts and emo-
tions from an objective perspective (Neff 2009). In sum, SC
is stated as a protective factor that develops one’s resilience
following exposure to negative life events and thus high SC
is perceived as a factor associated with better psychological
adaptation (Neff 2009). Previous studies focused on the as-
sociation of SC with parenting and psychological distress
independently (Gilbert & Proctor, 2006, Neff 2009).
Parenting is considered as a very important predictor of SC
(Pepping et al. 2015). For example, Neff and McGehee
(2010) suggested responsive and supporting parenting to
be related to one’s ability to be self-compassionate and ca-
pacity to provide self- soothing during stressful life periods
whereas rejecting, cold and ambivalent family environment
was posited as the origins of self-criticism and lack of self-
compassion (Gilbert and Procter 2006). Likewise, Gilbert
(2005, 2009) explained the role of compassion in terms of
maximizing the chances of survival through sustaining care
giving mentality which involves caring for both the self and
the others (Gilbert and Irons 2005). Furthermore, Gilbert
(2009) pointed out that, absence of a caring and responsive
environment during the early years leads to obstructions in
this process that in turn prevents the individual from receiv-
ing and providing care and compassion to both others and
the self. In fact, the relationship between perceived parenting
and SC has been suggested as a complex and indirect process
that requires further research, and insufficient research has
been conducted on how this process works especially on
younger populations including adolescents (Cunha et al.
2016; Pepping, Davis, O’ Donovan & Pal, 2015). Existing
studies on the relationship between parenting and SC are
based on data collected mostly from Western societies
(Kelly and Dupasquier 2016; Pepping et al. 2015; Gouveia
et al. 2016). However, it is also important to explore whether
similar patterns appear in non-Westerns samples, since SC
seems to be related to different concepts in different cultures
(Neff et al. 2008) and may function differently depending on
the cultural characteristics.
Mediating role of SC in the relationship between perceived
parenting and psychological distress had been examined pre-
viously (Moreira et al. 2015; Westphal et al. 2016; Játiva and
Cerezo 2014). However, a glance at the literature indicates
that there is inadequate emphasis on the possible mediator role
of SC especially in Non-Western adolescent populations.
Therefore, in the present study, main focus is the examination
of SC as a potential mediator between perceived maternal
parenting and psychological distress among adolescents from
a non-Western society. It is hypothesized that SC will have a
mediating role in the relationship between dimensions of per-
ceived parenting and different forms of psychological distress.
Curr Psychol

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Zero Order Correlations

Variables N Mean SD α D A S W C O R SC

Depression 529 11.79 10.3 .93 _ .75** .77** −.31** .24** .19** .35** −.52**
Anxiety 529 12.41 8.44 .86 _ .79** −18** .24** .22** .37** −.40**
Stress 529 15.74 9.44 .88 _ −.17** .23** .24** .33** −.49**
Warmth 529 42.08 9.61 .88 _ −.26** .02 −.43** .35**
Comparison 529 14.52 6.91 .85 _ .40** .56** −.20**
Overprotection 529 25.17 7.46 .75 _ .37** −.11*
Rejection 529 17.86 7.06 .74 _ −.28**
Self -Compassion 529 73.11 15.26 .85 _

** p < .01, * p < .05

Method comparison subscale and each item is filled out on a scale 1

to 6 ranging from Balmost never = 1″ to Balmost always = 6″.
Participants Higher scores indicate negative perception of parenting.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was obtained as .76 in total
529 high school students (303 male, 226 female) between the (Sümer and Engin 2004). In the current study, only maternal
age 14-and-17 (M = 14.96, SD = .34) from four public high form for perceived parenting is used.
schools in Istanbul were the participants of the present study.
Majority of the participants were from middle class families Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) Lovibond and
(68.7%) and were currently living with both their mother and Lovibond (1995) developed the DASS as a 42- item self-
fathers (92.8%). 66.7% of the fathers and 53.8% of the report scale to assess three negative emotional states of de-
mothers had at least a high school degree. pression, anxiety, and stress. Test- retest reliability was found
as .48 and internal consistencies of depression, anxiety and
Materials stress were demonstrated as .96, .89 and .93. Akin and Çetin
(2007) adapted DASS into Turkish and results yielded that
The Self Compassion Scale (SCS) Self-Compassion Scale SCS item- total correlation differs from .51 to .75 whereas test-
was developed with the purpose of assessing level of SC
through 26 self-report items rated on a 5-point Likert-Type
scale. Internal consistency of SCS was found to be .92, and Table 2 Demographic variables and parenting Variables Predicting SC
the scale has significant correlations with Depression
Predictor variables SC
Experience Questionnaire, Social Connectedness Scale and
Trait- Meta Mood Scale, indicative of adequate construct va- R2
lidity (Neff 2003). In Turkish adaptation study of SCS con-
ducted by Deniz et al. (2008), two items were eliminated be- ΔR2 Change β t
cause of low loadings, and in the end, 24 items were left with
Step1 01 .01
single factor structure. Both internal consistency and test- re- .-
test reliability coefficients were satisfactory (.89 and .83 re-
spectively). In addition to that, discriminant validity was met Sex .05 1.07
and SC was found to be significantly associated with life sat- Mother’s education −.072 −1.30
isfaction, positive affect, negative affect and self-esteem. Father’s education −.04 −.80
Step2 16 .16
Short-EMBU Children (Egna Minnen Betraffande Uppfostran- .-
my Memories of Upbringing) S-EMBU-C Short- EMBU as a 4-
point Likert-Type scale with 81 items including three sub- W .30** 6.55
scales: emotional warmth, overprotection and rejection, R −.10 −.1.93
developed by Arrindell et al. (1999) to estimate participants’ O −.05 −1.17
perceptions of their parents’ child rearing behavior. C −.06 −1.13
Convergent and discriminant validity were found to be satis- p < .01, * p < .05, EMBU = Egna Minnen Barndoms Uppfostran –My
factory (Arrindell and Engebretsen 2000). Sümer and Engin Memories of Upbringing, W = Warmth, C = Comparison, O =
(2004) adapted S-EMBU-C into Turkish by adding Overprotection, R = Rejection, SC = Self-Compassion
 Curr Psychol

Table 3 Summary of mediation

analysis for the mediator role of DV Covariate M Effect of Effect of M Direct Indirect Total
self-compassion in the association IV on M on DV Effects Effects effects
between parental warmth and (a) (b) (c’) (c-c’) (c)
measures of psychological
distress Depression Sex Self-compassion .48* .32** .14*** .15* .29*
Anxiety Sex Self-compassion .48* .12* .02* .06 .08*
Stress Sex Self-compassion .48* .30* .02* .14* .17*

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

retest and split – half reliability coefficient scores were found
as .99 and .96 (p < .001) which indicates that DASS is a valid
and reliable instrument.
Procedure
Once ethical approval and legal permission were obtained
from university ethical committee and Istanbul Ministry of
Education, the students of four public high schools agreed to
participate in the study filled out three questionnaires during
class hour, and it too approximately forty minutes for partici-
pants to fill out all the questionnaires. First, students were
asked to read and sign the informed consent form that involves
general information about the study and the researcher, confi-
dentiality and students’ agreement to involve in the study.
They were also informed about their right to forfeit the study
without any penalty. Followed by administration of the ques-
tionnaires which were arranged in a counterbalanced to elim-
inate the order effect.
Results
Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations are presented
in Table 1. Results display that all the variables are significant-
ly associated with one another.
Next, a hierarchical regression analysis was carried out to
assess the parenting related predictors of self- compassion as
high correlations were revealed between dimensions of par-
enting and self-compassion. Demographic variables; sex,
mother’s and father’s education that were entered in the first
step were followed by subscales of EMBU, entered in the
second step. The results indicated that only 0.1% variance in
the self-compassion scores was explained by demographic
variables (F (3, 522) = 2.23, p > .01), with none of the demo-
graphic variables appearing as significantly associated with
self-compassion. EMBU subscales, that were entered on the
second step explained an additional 16% of variance in self-
compassion (F (4, 518) = 14.95, p < .01) with only warmth
(β = .30, t (525) = 6.55, p < .01 having a positive association
with self- compassion (Table 2).
Mediation Analyses: Role of Self- Compassion
Mediation analysis was performed using PROCESS macro by
Hayes (2013). As warmth dimension was the only significant
predictor of SC in terms of hierarchical regression analysis,
mediation model was proposed only warmth dimension as
being independent variable. In the first analysis tested medi-
ating role of SC in the relationship between parental warmth
and depression. The true indirect effect for SC was estimated
to lie between −.2084 and − .1071. Therefore, as the indirect
effect is significantly different from zero at p < .05 it can be
concluded that, SC (partially) mediate the relationship be-
tween warmth dimension of parenting and depression (ef-
fect = −.15, 95% CI -.21 to −.11, z = −5,47, p < .001) (See
Table 3; Fig. 1). In the second analysis SC was introduced
as possible mediator, this time for the relationship between
parental warmth and anxiety. The %95 confidence interval
ranged from −.10 to −.03 which implies that the indirect effect
is significant at p < .05 (effect = −.10, 95% CI -.10 to −.03 z =
−4.18, p < .001) and SC is appeared to be a mediator between
warmth dimension of parenting and anxiety (See Table 3;
Fig. 2). Lastly, in the third analysis testing the indirect effect

Fig. 1 Mediator role of self-

compassion in the association Self-Compassion
between parental warmth and
depression dimension of psycho- B= .48, p < .001
logical distress B= .32, p < .001

B= .29, p < .001

Parental Warmth Depression
B= .14, p < .001
Curr Psychol
Fig. 2 Mediator role of self-
compassion in the association
between parental warmth and
anxiety dimension of
B= .48, p < .001
psychological distress
Parental Warmth
of parental warmth on stress via SC, the true indirect effect for
SC was estimated to lie between −.1945 and − .0960 (effect =
.14, 95% CI -.19 to −.10, z = −5.44, p < .001) indicating
significant indirect effect which implies that SC acts as a me-
diator between the relationship warmth dimension of parent-
ing and stress (See Table 3; Fig. 3).
Discussion
The present study examined the parenting related variables
associated with SC and the mediator role of SC in the rela-
tionship between perceived maternal warmth and different
aspects of psychological distress in a group of Turkish ado-
lescents. The findings indicate higher levels of SC in adoles-
cents who reported having mothers that provide them with
emotional warmth which is in line with the results of previous
studies (Neff 2011; Neff and McGehee 2010). Results also
emphasize SC as a significant mediator in the link of maternal
warmth with depression, anxiety and stress even after control-
ling gender which means that adolescents who perceived their
mothers as being caring and warm are more likely to develop
SC and subsequently are less likely to display psychological
distress. Such a mediation relationship can be explained
though the critical value of early experiences in terms of its
association with resilience. SC can be an important factor
preserving the positive impact of the warm relationships with
the caregiver, reducing the subjectively felt psychological dis-
tress in adolescence. Findings are in line with the previous
studies highlighting the significant relationship between the
Fig. 3 Mediator role of self-
compassion in the association
between parental warmth and
stress dimension of psychological B= .48, p < .001
distress
Parental Warmth
Self-Compassion
B= .12, p < .001
B= .08, p < .001
Anxiety
B= .02, p < .001
parenting and psychological distress (Perris et al. 1994) yet,
also points out SC as a mediator explaining the path from
parenting to distress in both adult (Potter et al. 2014; Wei et
al. 2011) and adolescent populations (Neff and McGehee
2010).
The current results can also be interpreted from an emotion
regulation (ER) perspective. Warmth provided by the parents
allows offspring to develop more adaptive and effective ER
skills (Jaffe et al. 2010) and an example for such ER strategies
can be suggested as SC (Stosny 1995, 2004). For instance, SC
has been found to be beneficial to in terms of lessening effect
of negative emotions by providing self-soothing to regulate
maladaptive emotions (Diedrich et al. 2014; Vettese et al.
2011).
Adolescence is a critical period in life since it includes
rapid and ongoing changes taking place on both biological
and psychological levels (Belfer 2008; Steinberg and Morris
2001), SC can contribute to making this stressful period less
challenging. So, examination of resilience related variables
such as SC becomes more crucial during this stage since re-
sults of such research can be utilized in development of pre-
vention programs targeting the reduction of prevalence rates
of psychological distress during the second decade of life. The
present study is important as it is one of the few studies to
investigate the developmental antecedents and mediator role
of SC between perceived parenting and psychological distress
in a non-western adolescent population, which is one of its
significant strengths. The study explores SC in Turkish soci-
ety which has a unique position in independence-
interdependence continuum (Kagıtçıbası and Ataca 2005).
Self-Compassion
B=.30, p < .001
B= .17, p < .001
Stress
B= .02, p < .001

However, the results are quite similar to the findings from
Western populations. In fact, similarity of the results may stem
from the fact that the data were collected only from Istanbul,
which is the biggest and most Westernized city in Turkey.
Next, although the participants were recruited from three dif-
ferent high schools in İstanbul, it may not be representative of
the Turkish adolescents, which may jeopardize the generaliz-
ability of the results. The future studies may be conducted in
different and perhaps more traditional parts of the country to
better examine the impact of culture.
The limitations of the study are also of important concern
while interpreting the results. First, self- report methodology
can be considered as a major limitation of the research and
future studies can apply different methodologies such as
neuropsychological/physiological and behavioral measure-
ment tools to prevent method bias. Secondly, as correlational
cross-sectional designs do not allow for making inferences
about causality, cause and effect relationship cannot be
established. Finally, longitudinal studies can provide more
elaborative explanations regarding the association between
perceived parenting and self-compassion regarding different
periods of life.
In conclusion, this particular study investigated the media-
tor role of SC which is relatively new concept for Western
psychology (Neff 2003), on the association of perceived par-
enting with psychological distress. The findings of the study
revealed that perceived maternal support leads increase in SC
which in turn decreases vulnerability for psychological dis-
tress in adolescence population. Thus, SC based intervention
programs both for psychotherapy and education system can be
developed on the basis of the outcome of the study.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human
participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institu-
tional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki
declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Prior to participation in the study, all participants provided informed
consent.
Conflict of Interest Authors declare that there is no potential conflict of
interest pertaining this submission to Current Psychology.
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