Earth Science Reviewer Mid-Term

Theories on the Origin of the Universe

Cosmology – study of the origin, changes, and fate of the universe

Cyclical or Oscillating Universe Universe continuously expanding and

collapsing
Anaxagorian Universe Shifted and separated out the ingredients,
ultimately producing the cosmos of separate
material objects
Atomist Universe was composed of very small,
indivisible and indestructible building blocks
known as atoms
Aristotelian Universe Geocentric universe in which the fixed,
spherical Earth is at the center, surrounded by
concentric celestial spheres of planets and
stars
Stoic Universe Universe is like a giant living body, with its
leading part being the stars and the Sun
Heliocentric Universe Sun, not the Earth, at the center of the known
universe
Ptolemaic Universe The planets and the rest of the universe orbit
about a stationary Earth in circular epicycles
Abrahamic Universe Christian, Muslim, and Jewish scholars put
forward the idea of a universe which was
finite in time
Partially Heliocentric Universe Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn
orbited the Sun, which in turn orbited the
Earth
Copernican Universe Astronomy presented a model of the solar
system centered on the Sun, with Earth and
other planets moving around it
Cartesian Vortex Universe Vacuum of space was not empty at all, but
was filled with matter that swirled around in
large and small vortices. The model involved
a system of huge swirling whirlpools of
ethereal or fine matter, producing what would
later be called gravitational effects.
Static (or Newtonian) Universe Matter on the large scale is uniformly
distributed, and the universe is gravitationally
balanced but essentially unstable
Hierarchical Universe and the Nebular The matter in a hierarchical universe is
Hypothesis clustered on even larger scales of hierarchy,
and is endlessly being recycled

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 Einsteinian Universe
Big Bang Theory (Accepted Theory)
Steady State Universe
Inflationary (or Inflating) Universe
Multiverse
Origin of the Solar System
There are 2 models that we usually compare about the solar system:
1. The “Geocentric Model” by Cladius Ptolemy, which states that the earth was the center
of the solar system
2. The “Heliocentric Model” by Nicolaus Copernicus, which states that the Sun is rather the
center of the solar System
Features of the Solar System
Similar to Newton’s theory, but
“cosmological constant” was added to
Einstein’s general relativity equations to
counteract the dynamical effects of gravity
which would otherwise have caused the
universe to collapse in on itself
It states that 13.8 billion years ago, the
universe expanded from a tiny, dense, and hot
mass to its present size and much cooler state.
Evidence: a) redshift b) Abundance of
hydrogen, helium, and lithium c) Uniformly
pervasive CMB radiation which is the
remnant heat from the “bang”
Basis of the Big Bang Theory: 1) General
Relativity which gravity is no longer
described as gravitational “field” but rather it
is supposed to be a distortion of space and the
itself. 2) Cosmological Principle which
assumes that universe is homogenous and
isotropic when averaged over large scales.
States that new matter is created as the
universe expands thereby maintaining its
density
Based on the Big Bang, but incorporating a
short, early period of exponential cosmic
inflation in order to solve the horizon and
flatness problems of the standard Big Bang
model
“Many Worlds”
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  Much of the mass of the solar system is concentrated at the center (sun) while angular
momentum is held by the outer planets
 Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are the same plane
 Terrestrial Planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) – High melting points such as silicates,
iron and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and
lower contents of volatiles – hydrogen, helium, and noble gases
 Jovian Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) – dominance of gases and their larger
size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid interiors rich in
hydrogen, helium and ices

Hypothesis Explaining the Origin of the Solar System

Encounter Hypothesis
 Rogue star passes close to the Sun about 5 billion years ago
 Material, in form of hot gas, is tidally stripped from the Sun and the rogue star
 Material fragments into smaller lumps which form the planets
Nebular Hypothesis
 Immanuel Kant, and Pierre Simon Laplace thought of rotating gaseous cloud that cools
and contracts in the middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that become the
planets
 Failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum in the solar system
Protoplanet Hypothesis
 Solar system began with a fragment from an interstellar cloud composed of hydrogen,
helium, and trace amounts of light elements
 Interstellar clouds formed a dense central region of the nebula which collapsed rapidly
compared to the outlying parts
 Formation of the planetisimals (became planets)

Earth’s Subsystems
Geosphere
 Portion of the Earth system that includes the Earth’s interior, rocks and minerals,
landforms and the processes that shape the Earth’s surface
 A) Crust- thin outermost layer B) Mantle – layer that lies below the crust, very slow-
flowing solid rock C) Core – Earth’s central part, made of iron and nickel and is very
dense

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Hydrosphere
 Oceans, lakes, rivers, marshes, groundwater, rain the water droplets
 70% of the surface of the Earth is water
Cryosphere
 Made up of all of the frozen water on Earth
 Snow, ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice shelves, ice bears, and permafrost
Atmosphere
 Mixture of mostly invisible gases the surround Earth
 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% other gases
Biosphere
 Made up of living organisms and the areas of Earth where they are found
Earth’s Spheres Interact
 All of the 5 spheres of Earth interact as matter and energy change and cycle through the
system
Water Cycle

Carbon Cycle

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 Nitrogen Cycle

Phosphorus Cycle

Sulfur Cycle

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Rocks and Minerals
ROCK
 A naturally occurring, coherent aggregate of minerals.
MINERAL
 A naturally occurring inorganic, crystalline solid with a relatively consistent composition.

General Characteristics of Minerals

Naturally occurring
Inorganic
Solid
Definite chemical composition
Ordered internal structure
Minerals should be natural; natural diamonds are
minerals, but synthetic diamonds grown in the lab are not.
Minerals are limited to substances formed through
inorganic processes, and exclude materials derived from
living organisms.
All minerals are solid, not liquid or gaseous.
The chemical composition of minerals should express the
exact chemical formula with the elements and compounds
in specific ratio.
Atoms are arranged in a regular, repeating way such
substances are considered to be crystalline.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Color - Visual measure
- Makes minerals beautiful and valuable
Crystal shape - Reflects the arrangement of atoms within the
mineral.
- Common crystal shapes include cubes,
rectangular prisms, and hexagons.
Cleavage - The tendency of mineral to break along
specific set of planes.
- Depends upon zones of weakness in the
crystal structure.
No cleavage Some minerals have an internal atomic
arrangement that does not contain planes
along which mineral breaks. These minerals
do not have cleavage, but break along
fractures.

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Luster - The way that light bounces off a mineral.
- A mineral can be highly reflective or dull.
- Vitreous, resinous, pearlescent, silky,
greasy, earthy, dull

Mohs Harness Scale

Mineral Compositions
Mineral Group Characteristics Example/s
Silicates - Contains silica and oxygen Quartz, Mica
- Most abundant group of minerals
Native Minerals - Makes up 5% of Earth’s crust Iron, Copper, Gold,
- Includes some of important minerals Silver, Diamond, Ruby
Carbonates - Carbon & oxygen and a positive ion, such as Calcite (CaCO₃)
calcium
Oxides - Metallic ion bonded to oxygen ion Hematite (Fe₂)O₃
Sulfides - Sulfide bonded to metallic ion Galena (PbS)
Sulfates - Metallic ion, bonded to sulfates Barite (BaSO₄)
Halides - Contain Chlorine (Cl) and Fluorine (F) Halite, Fluorite (CaF₂)

ROCKS AND ROCK CYCLE

ROCK
 Earth material made of minerals, glass, or organic matter.

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ROCK CYCLE
 The process by which, over many years, Earth materials change back and forth among
magma, igneous rocks, sediments, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks

Formation of Igneous Rocks – cooling & solidification of magma and lava

1. Below the surface
Formation of crystals that are visible to the naked eye. These types of igneous rocks are called
intrusive or plutonic, because they cool underneath the surface as plutons.
2. On the surface
Formed from rapidly cooling lava. Results in formation of very small crystals that may or may
not be visible without the use of a magnifying lens. Extrusive or volcanic rocks.

Examples of Igneous Rocks:

Basalt, Gabbro, Lapis Lazuli, Obsidian, Andesite, Pumice, Rhyolite, Scoria, Pegmatite

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks – compaction and/or cementation of sediments

(lithification)
1. Sediments form through the processes of weathering and erosion of rocks exposed at
Earth’s surface.

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 2. Sedimentary rock can also form from the chemical depositing of materials that were
once dissolved in water.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks:

Coal, Caliche, Flint, Iron ore, Siltstone, Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, Oil sands, Dolomite

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Forms when any rock type is changed into a different kind of rock.
2. Changes due to great heat and/or pressure.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks:

Marble, Quartzite, Skarn, Novaculite, Soapstone, Schist, Amphibolite, Gneiss

ENERGY RESOURCES
ENERGY
 Energy is all around us. Our universe has a finite amount of it.
 According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is neither created nor destroyed but
can take different forms (such as kinetic and potential energy).

NATURAL RESOURCES
 A natural resource is something found in nature that people can use to meet their needs.
 Natural resources are not man-made.
 Examples include: mineral resources, energy resources, living resources, air, water,
sunlight, and soil.

SOIL
 The loose top layer of the earth’s surface. All soil comes from rocks and minerals. They
are used to grow crops & dug for water wells, and serves as a home for animals.

ROCK

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  A rock is a natural solid made of one or more minerals.

MINERALS
 Minerals are natural solids usually formed as crystals that are found in rocks. All rocks
are made of one or more minerals.

3 Types of Soil
1. Sand – rough, gritty, won’t form a ball
2. Silt – smooth like flour, not sticky nor shiny
3. Clay – soft, shiny, sticky when wet, forms ball, stains hands
– when heated, it can be formed to bricks and pots

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Renewable resources: Solar and geothermal energy, air, water and biomass

Solar Energy
- Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy. Solar
energy is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available.

Geothermal Energy
- Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or steam carry
the geothermal energy to the Earth’s surface. Harnessed to generate clean electricity.

Wind Energy
- Refers to the process of creating electricity using the wind, or air flows that occur naturally in
the earth’s atmosphere. Modern wind turbines are used to capture kinetic energy from the wind
and generate electricity.

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Biomass
- Energy generated or produced by living or once-living organisms. The most common biomass
materials used for energy are plants, such as corn and soy. The energy from these organisms can
be burned to create heat or converted into electricity. Also, semiliquid waste obtained from the
processing of municipal sewage is often used as a fertilizer.

Hydroelectric Energy
- Hydroelectric energy, also called hydroelectric power or hydroelectricity, is a form of energy
that harnesses the power of water in motion—such as water flowing over a waterfall—to
generate electricity. It also replenishes itself through rain which makes it renewable.

Non-renewable resources: fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal

Fossil fuel Energy
- Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are called Fossil fuel as these are formed by the decomposition
of the remains of dead plants and animals buried under the earth for a long time.
Nuclear Power
- Energy is created by atomic fission. It produces very little air pollution, but it does produce
toxic waste that takes millions of years to decompose. It uses the radioactive mineral Uranium,
which is nonrenewable.

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