A.

TEACHING, METHODS, STRATEGY AND TECHNIQUES

Teaching –
1. As a profession, is taken as a mission to nurture the young. It is also referred to as an occupation for a living;
2. As an educational endeavor, refers to the vital role of teachers in engaging students in activities that will enable
them to acquire knowledge and skills, at the same time develop worthwhile values and attitudes.

The Triadic Elements of Teaching

The Teacher
 A key factor in any teaching-learning process
 Constructs well designed plan to achieve objectives of the lesson
 Prepares learning environment
 Selects appropriate content/strategies/learning activities
 Adjusts content/activities/strategies/learning environment to the learners

The Learner

 Most important element in teaching

 The natural characteristics of learners – age, maturity, grade level, experiences, and motivation,
and his/her culture, including values, attitudes and tradition which influence the teaching –
learning process to a very large extent

The Content/Teaching Strategies

 The choice of content/subject-matter to be taught to achieve desired objectives of the lesson

 The selection of appropriate instructional materials/technology to facilitate learning
 The use of appropriate effective methods and strategies of teaching to arrive at the desired
outcomes

Basic Terms:
Methods –
- A series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils to achieve the desired objectives of
the lesson
- The established way or procedure of guiding the mental processes in mastering the subject-matter
- A well-planned step-by-step procedure that is directed towards desired learning outcomes (ex. LP-we use
methodology)

Strategy –
- The science of developing a plan to attain goal and to guard against undesirable results.
- The art of using psychological plan in order to increase the probabilities and favorable consequences of success
and to lessen the chances of failure.
- Originated from the military, it stands for a carefully devised plan of action to achieve an objective in the
battlefield. It denotes a “clever” and cunning design to achieve one end.

Techniques –
- The personal art of and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedures of teaching
- The teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages of a teaching method
- This refers to the art, style or manner of a teacher’s performance in following a procedure. It includes one’s
ability or expertise in carrying out a task in a cautious and “watchful” way.

Approach –
- A set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing with nature of teaching and learning
- The procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess better understanding and effective learning

Principle –
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 - Universal truths/facts

Device –
- Is a teaching aid or tool to facilitate instruction
Ex. Pictures, flash cards, etc.

OBJECTIVE SUBJECT MATTER

(Knowledge, Skills, Values) (Nature and Scope)

CRITERIA FOR
CONDUCIVE LEARNING METHOD STUDENT’S ABILITIES
ENVIRONMENT SELECTION (Interests, Needs and
(Lab, Room, Garden) Experiences)

ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY TEACHER’S COMPETENCE

(Appropriate Instructional FACTORS THAT AFFECT DECISION (Professional Skills and
Materials and Devices) ON METHOD TO BE USED Personal Traits)

Classifying Methods:
1. Where suitably undertaken:
a. In the Laboratory room – Experimenting, Problem Solving, Discovery, Student Research
b. In the Field/ Community – Field Study, Exploring community resources, collections, educational tours
c. Classroom- Based/ Out of Classroom – Discussion, Demonstration, Interest Learning Centers, Field Study
2. Focused Participants: Individual or Group
Ex. Inviting specialists, lecture, team- teaching, cooperative learning, writing journals, peer-tutoring, team
teaching, independent study
3. Action-Based
Ex. Role playing, socio-drama, simulation games, projects, direct instruction
4. Technology-Based
Ex. Using audiovisual media, experiential teaching approach, microteaching
5. According to Goals
a. Cognitive – Research, Special Reports, Lectures, Reading
b. Affective- Writing Journals, Narrative, Cooperative Learning, Creative Writing
c. Psychomotor – Experimenting, Projects, Simulation, Collection
6. According to Time Available
a. Class Period – Demonstration, Inviting Specialist
b. 2 or 3 days – field Trip, Exploring Community Resources, Research, Reading

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF METHODS

TRADITIONAL METHODS PROGRESSIVE METHODS
1. Objectives
Student – centered – goal is to gain knowledge, develop
Subject – centered – goal is mastery of content skills and instill values
2. Teachers
They are subject matter experts and dominate lesson Facilitates, guides and encourages more student
objectives participation
3. Content
Use teacher-organized content and sequencing is strictly Content is flexible and may include related subjects as in
to be followed an integrated teaching.
4. Implementation Allows substitution of materials during the activities if
Step-by-step procedures in lesson activities is strictly needed. Alternative steps are undertaken to avoid
followed and teacher-directed misdirection or delay
5. Evaluation

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 Uses qualitative assessment tools such as informal
Uses objective tests and other Quantitative measures. observations, interviews and discussions.

B. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Horne and Pine (1990) identified the following principles of learning to guide teachers on how to teach:
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner – Only the learner can
learn for himself. It is wise to make him/her do the learning activity himself/herself.
2. Learning is the discovery of personal meaning and relevance of ideas – Learning is discovering the meaning and
relevance of ideas. Let’s relate what we teach to the life experiences and needs of the learners.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience – Learning (behavioral change) comes as a result of
experience. Let us make learners go through the experience of learning, if feasible. If not, learning from other
people’s experiences as recorded in history will suffice.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process – Cooperation and collaborative learning are enabling, Let us
use more collaborative and cooperative approaches in the classroom.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process – Like the process of evolution, learning is gradual. Let us be patient.
Learning takes time.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process – Learning poses inconvenience, discomfort, giving up our old ways of
thinking and doing things because something new is far better.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself – Very much forgotten is the fact that the learner
is one of the richest resources of learning. Consult him/her.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual – Learning is not only a cerebral process. It is not only
thinking but also feeling. It involves the heart. In fact learning takes place best when our hearts are stricken.
9. The process of problem solving and learning is highly unique and individual – No two individuals learn in the
same way. Each person has a unique way of learning. Let us not impose our way of learning on others. Let us
give considerations to multiple intelligence and varied learning styles.

Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Learning Objectives

1. “Begin with the end in mind”. This means we must begin our lesson with a clearly defined lesson objective.
With a specific objective, our lesson becomes more focused.
2. Share lesson objective with students. Lesson objectives when shared and possessed by our students will
become their personal target. This will make them more self-motivated.
3. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains – knowledge (cognitive), skill (psychomotor) and
values (affective). The lesson we teach should be holistic and complete. It is necessary that our lesson gets
direction from objectives in the two or three domains with the affective domain always present.
4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives. The level of their self-motivation all the more increases
when our lesson objective is relevant to their daily life, hence, significant.
5. Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippine Constitution and
other laws and in the vision – mission statements of the educational institution of which you are a part. We
have something to do with the attainment of our broad aims of education. We can contribute very much to the
realization of our school’s vision and mission statements.
6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking. If we want to contribute to the development of
citizens who are critical and creative thinkers, the type of citizens needed to make democracy, then we should
include in our scope of questions higher-level, divergent, or open-ended questions.
7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART, i.e., Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-
oriented and Relevant, Time-bound and Terminal. With SMART objective we depart from the unsound practice
of teaching that is so spread out that in the end we find ourselves unclear on what test we are going to give to
assess learning.

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content

1. Observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of content:
a. Validity – this means teaching the content that we ought to teach according to national standards in order
to realize the goals and objectives of the course as laid down in the curriculum.
b. Significance – what we teach should respond to the needs and interests of the learners.

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 c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and values. No topic must be extensively
discussed at the expense of other topics.
d. Self-sufficiency – essentials should be sufficiently covered and are treated in depth.
e. Interest – teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental stages and cultural and ethnic
background.
f. Utility – what is learned has a function even after examinations are over.
g. Feasibility – the essential content can be covered in the amount of time available for instruction.
2. Be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and
by working out a process of conceptual understanding. This can be done by: 1) Providing opportunities for
experimentation; 2) Presenting ideas of others; and 3) Emphasizing conceptual understanding.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements. Subject matter is an
integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills,
values and attitudes.

C. INTEGRATED TEACHING
- An integrated strategy will put together the parts of a whole in order to arrive at a holistic, complete and more
accurate view of reality.
- An integrated strategy is permeated by the multiple intelligences, the varied learning styles and daily
experiences of the learners. Its use also means empowering learners to become “lifelong learners and active
makers of meaning.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (Howard Gardner)

1. Linguistic intelligence the capacity to use language to express what’s on your mind and to understand other
people.
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence the ability to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal
system
3. Musical intelligence the capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them and perhaps
manipulate them.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence the capacity to use your whole or parts of your body to solve problem, make
something or put on a production.
5. Spatial intelligence the ability to present the spatial world internally in your mind.
6. Interpersonal intelligence The ability to understand other people
7. Intrapersonal intelligence Having an understanding of yourself, of knowing who you are, what you can do, etc.
8. Naturalist intelligence enables the ability to discriminate among living things as well as sensitivity to other
features of the natural world.
9. Existential intelligence to exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death and ultimate
realities
10. Spiritual
11. Moralist

D. BRAIN-COMPATIBLE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving.
2. Using Projects to Increase Meaning and Motivation.
3. Simulations and Role plays as Meaning Makers
4. Classroom Strategies Using Visual Processing
5. Songs, jingles and raps – Content can be more easily learned when they give it a tune or make it into rhyme
through their personally composed songs, jingles and raps.
6. Mnemonic Strategies – These assist students in recalling important information
7. Writing Strategies – Make students write their own problems and make them ask their classmates to solve
them.
8. Peer teaching – Make students teach each other in a “Pair, Think, Share” manner.
9. Active review – Instead of teachers conducting the review students are given their turn. This technique
strengthens synapses.
10. Hands-on-activities – Concrete experiences is one of the best ways to make long-lasting neural connections.

E. APPROACHES IN INSTRUCTION

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 DIRECT INSTRUCTION INDIRECT INSTRUCTION
Comparison of Basic Concepts
 Synonymous to expository or didactic teaching.  Synonymous to exploratory or experiential learning
 An approach in which the teacher is the major  An approach in which it seeks a high level of student
provider of information focusing exclusively on the involvement in observing, investigating, drawing
acquisition of facts, rules and action sequence. inferences from data, or forming hypothesis.
 Teacher-centered  Student-centered
 Teacher-controlled  Learner-controlled
 Direct transmission of information from the teacher  Search of information by the student guided by the
to the students teacher
 Highly structured contents  Flexibly organized content
 Content-oriented  Experience-oriented
Comparison of Teacher’s Role
 Pass on facts, rules and procedures in the most  Leads, facilitates and guides learner in the process of
direct way usually through lectures, explanation r generalization, discrimination, search and discovery
set of teacher-student interaction involving samples,
questions and answers and practice.
Comparison of Learner’s Role
 Remember and retain facts, rules or procedures  Acquire information by transforming stimulus
material into a response different from previous
 Go beyond facts and rules by creating and stimulus.
synthesizing  Acquire concepts, pattern and abstraction through
 Less student involvement the process of generalization and discrimination
 Passive Active  Active interactive

Comparison of Teaching Function

 Teacher begins with a review of the previous day’s  Teacher begins with advance organizers that provide
lesson an overall picture that allow for concept expansion
 Teacher presents new content in small steps with  Focuses student response during induction and/or
explanations and discussions deduction to refine and focus generalizations
 Provides an opportunity for guided practice on a  Presents examples and non examples of the
small number of sample problems generalization; identifying attributes
 Teacher provides feedback and corrections  Draws additional examples from student’s own
 Teacher provide independent practice and seatwork experiences, interests and problems
 Teacher provides weekly and monthly review and  Uses questions to guide discovery and articulation of
re-teaches unlearned content generalization
 Involves students in evaluating their own responses
 Promotes and moderates discussion to firm up and
extend generalizations when necessary.
When Appropriate to Use
 The purpose is to disseminate information not  The purpose is to develop concepts, patterns and
readily available in books abstractions
 The textbook material is to be into more digestible  When textbook material is to be transformed into a
form response different from the stimulus
 The learner needs emphasized knowledge and  When the learner needs emphasized analysis,
comprehension synthesis and evaluation
 When information must be applied to future work or  When to make sense of information and theory in
world events many different learning situations
 The mastery of content and overlearning of  When interpretations of prior learning and discovery
fundamental facts and rules, and action sequences of new understanding are essential
are essential  More delivery time
 Less delivery time  The learner has initial familiarity with the
 When introducing new area information
 When teaching specific procedure or arbitrary  When teaching procedure is not fixed or arbitrary
system  When students need different skills at different
 When students are experiencing similar difficulties levels
 When transmitting large information  When developing skills to process information
When Not Appropriate to Use
 When presenting complex materials involving  When materials are generally factual involving only
analysis, synthesis and evaluation knowledge and low level comprehension
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  When students are above average in intelligence
and achievement
 When students are already well-versed in the
content to be taught
 When desired outcome is concepts, principles, social
and interpersonal skills, attitudes and values
 When learning environment differs
 When information is not available
 When students are generally below average and
lack high order thinking skills
 When students do not have the necessary
background information
 When desired outcome is factual information
 When learning environments are similar
 When information is directly available

METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR DIRECT INSTRUCTION

EXPOSITORY METHOD
 Telling method
 Teacher presents facts, defines  Teacher performs and talks
concepts, interprets
generalization
 Learner receives information
 When an idea can be learned
only by explanation
 When there is an immediate
need for information
 When source material is not
accessible to the pupils
 When the objective is critical  Process requires investigative
thinking
DEMONSTRATION DEDUCTIVE
Basic Concepts
 Tell and show  Present concept/rule and test by
examples
about a process, presents the  Teacher presents concept/ rules/
concept and shows the examples
principles
 Learner observes and records
events
When to Use
 When process is significant and  When generalizations and rules
materials/ apparatus are are accessible to the learner
limited, sophisticated or  Content-oriented lesson
dangerous  When time is limited
 Time for experimentation is
limited
 Expertise and skillful know-how
is required
When Not to Use
 Learners are capable of
time deduction, or
 Preparation time is limited  When learners are hyperactive
 Learning can be done by
discussion
 Large number of students are to
be instructed

METHODOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES FOR INDIRECT INSTRUCTION

INDUCTIVE
 A discovery begins with study of  Learning by doing
instances or cases, compared
and common elements
discovered and generalized
 End up to the formation of a
conclusion/ definition/ rule
 Unrestricted time
 Learners are incapable of
generalization
LABORATORY
Basic Concepts
 First hand experiences regarding
materials and equipment
 Introduces investigation,
experimentation, observation
and application
When to Use
 When lessons can only be
learned via actual hands-on
experience
 When learners are capable of
arriving at experimental solution
 When time is unlimited
 When materials and resources
are accessible.
When Not to Use
 Lesson requires sophisticated
equipment
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INQUIRY
 Active pursuit of meaning and
involving thought processes that
change experience to lists of
knowledge
 Learners are confronted with a
puzzling situation and are led to
enter into investigative work to
solve problems
 When learners are capable of
high order thinking skills
 When there is unlimited time
 When sources of data are
accessible
 When learners are interested
 When classes are small
 When resources needed are not
available
  When learners are not capable  When time is restricted
of handling and manipulating  When learners are passive
laboratory equipment
 When laboratory facilities are
limited

PROBLEM SOLVING DISCOVERY

Basic Concepts
 Any purposeful activity that will remove a difficulty  Method of guiding learners to discuss, organize
or perplexity through a process of reasoning ideas, explore processes or discover rules
 Used whenever a felt difficulty in a situation needs  Learning through one’s own internalized insight
be removed reflection and experience
 Learners do their own learning
When to Use
 When a felt problem exists  When learners has the ability to discover ideas,
 When metacognitive skills are present in the processes, rules
students  When teacher is skilled to lead the learner to
 When the goal is to sharpen the power to think, discover
reason and create new ideas
 When learners have not developed reflective,
analytical thinking skills
When Not to Use
 When time is limited  When teacher lack exposure to the method
 When topics require factual information

F. OTHER APPROACHES
1. Metacognitive Approach – an approach that goes beyond cognition. It is an approach that makes students
think about their thinking.
a. Sub-vocalizing includes constantly re-stating the situation, re-checking progress and evaluating whether
one’s thinking is moving in an appropriate discussion.
b. Having students describe what is going on their minds.
c. Having students identify what is known in a situation or problem.
d. Self-Questioning or Heuristics Strategy
e. Polya’s Strategy for Solving Mathematical Problems
1) Understanding the Problem 3) Carrying out the Plan
2) Devising the Plan 4) Looking Back
f. SQ4R Method of Strategy
1) Survey 3) Read 5) Recite
2) Question 4) Reflect 6) Review
g. IDEAL Strategy
1) Identify the problem
2) Define what it is by representing it in some way
3) Explore possible strategies
4) Act on selected strategies
5) Look back over solution and evaluate it

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 2. Constructivist Approach
- The process of constructing meaning is based on one’s accumulated experiences and
understanding.
- Revisiting previously accumulated experiences and understanding and reconstructing or
recreating new concepts as they interact daily with the environment.
- Learning by interacting their environment as active agents who build or construct, personal
understanding of their experiences.

Roles of the Learner and the Teacher

- Learners are reflective, inquisitive, critical and creative discoverers
- Teachers as pathfinders of the pupil’s prior knowledge and as bridges over which they invite
their students to cross and joyfully collapse, to allow them to create bridges of their own.
- Teachers are partners in learning

Constructivist Based Activities

 Problem-Based Learning Approach – A type of project-based learning approach which starts
with a problem, a query or a puzzle that the learner wishes to solve.
 Inductive or Discovery Learning – the child learns chiefly through his own activity. Students
observe the cases, compare them, analyze them and then draw on generalizations.
 Laboratory or Experimental Method – uses experimentation with apparatus and materials to
discover or verify facts and to study scientific relationships
 Scaffolding – a support or teacher assistance at critical points in their learning that is gradually
removed when it is no longer needed.

3. Reflective Teaching – It is anchored on the ability of the teacher to guide students to reflect
on their own experiences in order to arrive at new understandings and meanings. Schulman
(1990) cites three key characteristics of reflective teaching: 1) an ethic of caring, 2) a
constructivist approach, and 3) tactful problem solving. Through reflection, the student’s
experience requires meaning; hence s/he is able to formulate his/her own concepts that can
be applied to new learning situations. The following are the strategies:
 Self-Analysis – reflecting on why s/he succeeded or failed at some task.
 Writing journals – A journal reveals feelings about the days activities including what
could have enhanced or inhibited their learning
 Portfolio – very personal document which includes frank, honest and on-the-spot
account of experiences
 Observation of student’s responses
 Questions at the very end of the lesson

Reflective Inquiry Skills

 Empirical Skills – Concerned with collecting data and with describing situations,
processes and causes and effects with care and accuracy.

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  Analytical Skills – Concerned with interpreting descriptive data
 Evaluative Skills – Concerned with making judgments about the educational
consequences of result of the practical inquiry
 Strategic Skills – Concerned with planning for action and anticipating its
implementation
 Practical Skills – Directly concerned with the skills involved in action itself
 Communication Skills – Putting across thoughts

4. Cooperative Learning Approach – This makes use of a classroom organization where

students work in groups or teams to help each other learn. Concepts from small group
theory and group dynamics serve as the basis upon which skills in democratic procedures
and collaborations are developed.
Selected Structures of Cooperative Learning:
 Round robin – Each student in turn shares something with his or her
1. Team Building
teammates.
 Corners – Each student moves to a corner of the room representing
2. Class Building a teacher-determined alternative. Students discuss within corners,
then listen to and paraphrase ideas from other corners
3. Communication  Match Mine – Students attempt to match the arrangement of object
Building on a grid of another student using oral communication only.
 Numbered Heads Together – The teacher asks a question, students
consult to make sure everyone knows the answer, then one student
is called upon to answer.
 Color-coded Co-op-Cards – Students memorize facts using a flash
card game. The game is structured so that there is maximum
4. Mastery probability of success at each step, moving from short-term to long-
term memory. Scoring is based on improvement.
 Praise Check – Students work in pairs within groups of four. Within
pairs student alternate – one solves a problem while the other
coaches. After every two problems the pair checks to see if they have
the same answers as the other pair.
 Three-Step Interview – Students interview each other in pairs, first
one way, then the other. Students each share with the group
information they learned in the interview.
 Think-Pair-Share – Students think to themselves on a topic provided
5. Concept
by the teacher; they pair up with another student to discuss it; they
Development
then share their thoughts with the class.
 Team Word-Webbing – Students write simultaneously on a piece of
chart paper, drawing main concepts, supporting elements and
bridges representing the relation of ideas in a concept.
 Roundtable – Each student in turn writes one answer as a paper and
a pencil are passed around the group. With Simultaneous Roundtable
6. Multifunctional more than one pencil and paper are used at once.
 Inside-Outside Circle – Students stand in pairs in two concentric
circles. The inside circle faces out; the outside circle faces in. Students

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 use flash cards or respond to teacher questions as they rotate to each
new partner.
 Partners – Students work in groups to create or master content. They
consult with partners from other teams. They then share their
products or understanding with the other partner in their team.
 Jigsaw – Each student on the team becomes an “expert” on one topic
by working with members from other teams assigned the
corresponding expert topic. Upon returning to their teams, each one
in turn teaches the group; and students are all assessed on all aspects
of the topic.
 Co-op Co-op – Students work in groups to produce a particular
group product to share with the whole class; each student makes a
particular contribution to the group.

5. Peer Tutoring/ Peer Teaching – It is commonly employed when the teacher requests the
older, brighter and more cooperative member of the class to tutor (coach, teach, instruct)
other classmates. This is based on the rationale that the former is better equipped than the
others. This is due to their closeness in age, skills, study habits and even learning styles.
Tutoring arrangements may be as follows:
a. Instructional Tutoring – Older students help younger ones on a one-to-one or one-to-a
group basis.
b. Same age tutoring – works well with children who can act as interactive pairs, i.e., more
able ones to assist the less able.
c. Monitorial tutoring – The class may be divided into groups and monitors are assigned to
lead each group.
d. Structural tutoring – Highly structured tutoring is administered by trained tutors
e. Semi-structured tutoring – a combination of unstructured and structured where the tutor
guides his/her tutee through a carefully-planned learning guide but is free to modify it
according to the tutee’s own interests and skills.

6. Partner Learning – Learning with a partner. A student chooses partner among his/her
classmates. It can be employed when you get your students rehearse what they have
learned and explore their understanding of content with a partner. This may also mean
assigning “study buddy”.

G. TEACHING TECHNIQUES
1. Lecture – factual material are being presented in a direct, logical manner. This is useful for large
groups of participants. Effectiveness is related to time and scope of content. It is always audience –
specific.
2. Lecture with Discussion – involves students, at least after the lecture. Students can question, clarify
and challenge. Teacher should anticipate difficult questions and prepare appropriate responses in
advance.

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3. Panel of Experts – Experts present different opinions. It can provoke better discussion than a one
person discussion. Frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging. Teacher coordinates
focus of panel, introduces and summarizes. Teacher also briefs panel.
4. Brainstorming – It is a method that helps people think creatively by letting many ideas flow from the
students without any comment from the others. This strategy is useful in generating many different
solutions or alternatives.
5. Video tapes/ Slides – Entertaining way of introducing content and raising issues. It usually keeps
group’s attention. It can be effective only if teacher prepares for discussion after the presentation.
6. Panel Discussion – A technique wherein the purpose is to present different views for a complex
issue.
7. Symposium – refers to an academic conference characterized by an openly discursive format
8. Buzz Sessions – activities in which learners are divided into small discussion groups. The groups talk
about their assigned topics and then share with others.
9. Small Group Discussion – It allows the participation of everyone. Students are often more
comfortable in small groups. Groups can reach consensus more easily.
10. Case Studies – Students can develop analytic and problem solving skills. This technique also allows
for exploration of solutions for complex issues and allows students to apply new knowledge and
skills.
11. Role Playing – This introduces problem situation dramatically. This is where students assume the
roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view.
12. Worksheets/Surveys – It allows students to think for themselves without being influenced by
others. Individual thoughts can then be shared in large group.
13. Guest Speakers – Invitation of guest speaker personalizes topic. It also breaks down audience’s
stereotypes.
14. Reciprocal Teaching (STRATEGY) – Students take turn in facilitating. When given a chance to teach
the subject matter, students are given the chance to comprehend better the concepts, values and
skills we want to impart.
15. Devil’s Advocate – teacher acts “contravida” in order to make students think. Teacher, however,
makes clear his/her stand on the topic discussed before the class discussion ends.
16. Conflict Story/Moral Dilemma – Teacher presents a conflict situation then asks the students for the
right thing to do.
17. Anticipation guide – This will give the teacher an insight into how students think and feel about a
topic related to your curriculum. The students will be immediately engaged in the content and
curious about what will come next in your lesson.

H. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
1. Purpose:
a. To motivate – questions stir ones emotions or arouse a strong inclination. Teachers can
tactfully persuade or influence the students’ thinking by asking motivating questions.
b. To instruct – questions are used to highlight the need for useful information. The right
procedures and directions are guided by appropriate questions.

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 c. To evaluate – questions are used during a lesson primarily to find out if learning or
understanding is being achieved.
2. Kinds:
a. The type of response desired:
1) Soliciting (asking for information)
2) Directing (proposing course of action to take, guiding or redirecting thinking, suggesting
alternative)
3) Responding (doing something called for)
4) Evaluating (agreeing or not, expressing satisfaction, assessing)
b. The level of the lesson’s objectives
1) Low Level Questions – require responses of the simple recall or memory type of
answers.
2) High Level Questions – calls for analysis, synthesis, evaluation and problem solving
ability
c. Their use
1) For Verification – is the determination of whether or not a statement is true. Questions
are described in terms of the responses that they elicit
a) Analytic Questions – ask for definition of terms, translations or meanings of phrases
or statements. They are necessarily true.
b) Empirical Questions – elicit responses that are empirical statements. The response
is obtained from evidence gained through “sense experience”
c) Valuative Questions – elicit responses that are value statements. Value statements
“praise, blame, comment, criticize or rate something.”
2) For Productive Thinking – includes creative and critical-analytic dimensions of reasoning
a) Cognitive-Memory Questions – calls for responses needing cognitive-memory
operations such as those that are simple reproductions of facts, formula or other
items that are remembered through the use of such processes as recognition, rote
memory, and selective recall.
b) Convergent Questions – elicit responses which involve the merging of diverse data.
It asks for a “comparison, a contrast, or the drawing of a conclusion, a summary, a
generalization based on prior data, or an explanation. The respondent must produce
an explanation rather than recall.
c) Divergent Questions – elicit responses wherein the individual is free to generate
independently his own idea. These questions “encourage the elaboration of
previous ideas, or drawing of implications, the generation of new data and ideas as
well as originality, flexibility, spontaneity and initiative.
d) Evaluating Questions – deal with “matters of judgments, value and choice and is
characterized by its judgmental quality. They ask the respondents their personal
opinions about a person, event or policy.
3) For Cognitive Function – it is viewed in the context of an ongoing interaction.
a) Focusing Question – serves to introduce a topic and indicate the direction of the
discussion

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 b) Foundation Question – elicits responses that will serve as the basis of a more
complex question or discussion, a recapitulation of an ongoing discussion or the
presentation of new information not yet offered.
c) Extending Question – clarifies or elaborates upon the statements already made. Am
elaboration is requested in order to help the respondents to realize what else is
implied in the previous statements.
d) Lifting Question – elicits from the respondents a level of thought higher or more
complex than what has already been established. The response may be an
explanation of the facts previously offered or a justification opinion.
e) Promoting Question – promotes the flow of the discussion. The questions may elicit
responses which will fill the missing parts in an explanation.

3. Guiding How to Respond

a. Rhetorical – often asked in a fast pace and sometimes do not require an answer.
b. Informational – questions that require one to supply information
c. Leading – questions that give a clue to the right answer
d. Probing – questions that ask for application of principles learned

4. Improving One’s Questioning Technique

a. Provide sufficient wait time. Wait time refers to the pause needed by the teacher after
asking a question.
b. Know you own style of questioning
c. Increase own repertoire of type of questions
d. Provide cues

I. INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
Instructional Plan is a magical elixir that will guarantee one hundred percent learning. The basic
components are the following: (1) objective, (2) topic or subject matter, (3) materials, (4) procedure
or lesson development, (5) evaluation and (6) assignment.

Terminal Objectives – main objective/ main task

Enabling Objectives – highly specific learning objectives

COGNITIVE DOMAINTAXONOMY
 Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
 Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
 Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.
 Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
 Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.

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 Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements
into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 67-68)

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN TAXONOMY

 Receiving – being aware of or attending to something in the environment
 Responding – Showing some new behaviors as a result of experience
 Valuing – Showing some definite involvement or commitment
 Organization – Integrating a new value into one’s general set of values, giving it some ranking
among one’s general priorities
 Characterization – acting consistently with the new value
(Krathwol et al. , 1964)

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN TAXONOMY

 Reflex Movements – are actions elicited without learning in response to some stimuli
 Fundamental movements - are inherent movement patterns which are formed by combining of
reflex movements and are the basis for complex skilled movements.
 Perpetual abilities - refers to interpretation of various stimuli that enable one to make adjustments
to the environment.
 Physical Activities - require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility which produces a sound,
efficiently functioning body.
 Skilled Movements - are the result of the acquisition of a degree of efficiency when performing a
complex task.
 Nondiscursive communication - is communication through bodily movements ranging from facial
expressions through sophisticated choreographics

MAGER’S APPROACH IN WRITING OBJECTIVES

For Mager, a lesson objective has three elements, namely: (1) performance, (2) the condition(s) under
which the behavior is to occur, and (3) the criterion of success.
1. The performance is the behavior that the learner displays if he learned what was intended for
him to learn.
2. The condition/s refer/s to the circumstances under which the learner is able to perform or
exhibit the learned behavior.
3. The criterion of success is the standard against which the learner’s performance is evaluated for
us to be able to tell whether or not the learner’s objective has been attained.

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