AUTOMATIC GENERATION OF SEEPAGE F L O W N E T S

BY F I N I T E E L E M E N T M E T H O D
By Fred T. Tracy1 and N. Radhakrishnan,2 Member, ASCE
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ABSTRACT: An analytical method for automatically generating a seepage flow net

using the finite element method (FEM) is described. This technique includes a
new, more analytical (as compared with numerical) approach to determining the
boundary conditions for computing the stream function and a refined approach to
handling the transition between multiple layers. Equipotentials are obtained by con-
touring the results of the FEM solution where total head at each node is computed.
The boundary conditions are then modified using the Cauchy-Riemann equations
governing conjugate harmonic functions, and a second FEM problem is solved to
compute stream function at each node. Appropriately contouring these results pro-
duces the desired flow lines, and the flow net is complete. Procedures for confined
flow, unconfined flow, and multilayer systems are presented with examples. A
discussion for axisymmetric problems is also given.

INTRODUCTION

Flow nets are tedious to construct by hand because equipotential lines and
flow lines must be drawn in such a way that curvilinear squares result. The
finite element method (FEM) has been successfully applied to solve the basic
seepage problem. This paper demonstrates how flow nets can be constructed
using the FEM with emphasis given to differences in approach from the
previous work done by Christina (1980a, 1980b, 1983, 1987) and Aalto
(1984). The major advantage of the refinements described is that they im-
prove the quality of the resulting flow nets.

GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND BASIC APPROACH

For a homogeneous, isotropic medium both the total head H and the stream
function S satisfy Laplace's equation in the X-Y plane as follows:
d2H d2H
—2 + —2 = 0 (la)
dX dY
d2S d2S
—22 + — 2 = 0 (lb)
dX dY
An analytical complex potential P can be expressed as follows:
P = H + iS (2)
where H and S are conjugate harmonic functions with the Cauchy-Riemann
equations (1964) now holding as follows:
'Res. Computer Sci., Information Tech. Lab., USAE Waterways Exp. Sta., Vicks-
burg, MS 39181.
Supervisory Civ. Engr. and Chief, Information Tech. Lab., USAE Waterways
Exp. Sta., Vicksburg, MS.
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The
manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on July
14, 1988. This paper is part of the Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering,
Vol. 3, No. 3, July, 1989. ©ASCE, ISSN 0887-38Ol/89/0003-O268/$1.00 + $.15
per page. Paper No. 23679.

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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1989, 3(3): 268-284

 dH dS
— = — or Hx = (3a)
dX dY
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dH dS
— = or HY -sx. (3/7)
dY dX
A property of such functions is that constant lines of H are orthogonal to
constant lines of S. The flow net consists of H = constant lines and S =
constant lines constructed in such a way that the resulting picture consists
of curvilinear squares. The concept of how to generate the flow net auto-
matically is fairly straightforward:

1. Perform a normal FEM solution determining the total head H at each node
and the quantity of flow, Q, passing through the system. Also, compute the
shape factor, / , from
Q = KHmax Hmin)f . (4)
where HmM the upstream head; Hm the downstream head; and k the
permeability.
2. Determine the boundary conditions for the stream function S and perform
a second FEM solution to obtain values of S at each node.
3. Contour the two sets of data to construct the flow net. The intervals for
each are determined using the shape factor which, by definition, is
Nf
/= — (5)
N,

where Ne = the number of equipotential drops; and Nf = the number of flow

paths. Earlier work by Christian (1980a) and Aalto (1984) determines the bound-
ary conditions for the stream function solution (step 2) numerically, whereas in
this paper a more fundamental technique is used. Our approach is to use the
Cauchy-Riemann equations to determine the correct boundary conditions.

MODIFIED CAUCHY-RIEMANN CONDITIONS

A modified form of Eq. 3 will be applied to determine the boundary con-

ditions for the stream function computation (step 2). On the boundary, a
tangent-normal (T-N) coordinate system is used, as illustrated in Fig. 1. It
is created by first constructing a parallel coordinate system X'-Y' at the
boundary point (X0,Y0) and then rotating the prime system an angle A. The
local and global coordinate systems are related by
X' = X - XQ (6)
r
and the T-N coordinate system is related to the X'-Y' system by
cos A sin A
(7)
—sin A cos A
where A = the angle between the two axes. Therefore
Hj- cos A sin A Hx
(8)
HN -sin A cos A Hy

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FIG. 1. Tangent-Normal Coordinate System

ST cos A sin A
(9)
N
. —sin A cos A
where
dH dS
Hr ~~ (10a)
dT' dT'
dH dS
HN (10fc)
37V' dN
Applying Eq. 3 to Eq. 9 yields
cos A sin A
. (ID
—sin A cos A
Collecting terms gives
cos A sin A Hx
• (12)
Sr —sin A cos A Hy
Since the right-hand sides of Eqs. 8 and 12 are the same, the left-hand sides
can be equated to obtain
H-r = SN (13fl)
=
"/v ~ST (13fe)
Eq. 13 can be used to solve for the boundary conditions for the stream func-
tion. Several examples are shown next to illustrate the procedure.

Case 1: Four-Sided Regions—Confined Flow under Weir

This simple problem (Fig. 2) clearly demonstrates the concepts presented
in this paper. Note that there are four boundaries, with constant head spec-
ified on two (line segments AFE and BCD), and no flow (impervious) con-
dition specified on the other two (line segments AB and ED).
On the H = H, and H = H2 boundaries (AFE and BCD)

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H,

• A —7 7 7 7—

FIG. 2. Weir Problem

HT = 0 (14)
since / / , and H2 are constants. But from Eq. 13 we get
HT = SN (15)
So the new boundary condition is
SN = 0 (16)
On the impervious boundaries no flow enters, so the normal component
of velocity, VN, is zero. Thus, using Darcy's Law
VN = -kHN = 0 . (17)

Thus
HN = 0 (18)
Applying Eq. 13 to Eq. 18 yields
HN = ST = 0 (19)
Now
dS dS
dS = — dT + — dN = STdT + SNdN (20)
dT dN
Substituting Eq. 19 in Eq. 20 and noting that dN = 0 on the boundary gives
dS = 0 (21)

or
S = constant (22)
The total amount of stream function can be shown to be

e (23)
A:

Thus, for the impervious boundaries (using Eq. 22), set

5 = 5, = 0 On AB (24)
S = S2 = 5lma, On ED (25)
A constant is added to both 5, and S2 so that their values will be higher than

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FIG. 3. Confined Flow Example

the maximum Y value of the grid to keep the finite element program from
solving an unconfined flow problem.
Notice that the boundary conditions are exactly reversed. The impervious
boundary in the first problem (step 1) is replaced as a constant head bound-
ary, and a constant head boundary has been replaced as a flow boundary.
Fig. 3 shows the computer-generated flow net for this type of problem.
[Note: the dimensions for the problem in Fig. 3 using Fig. 4 as a reference
are BC = AJ = 40 ft (12.19 m), DE = GH = 10 ft (3.05 m), CD = IJ =
30 ft (9.147 m), and FG = 40 ft (12.19 m).] The concept demonstrated here
can handle a wide variety of problems involving four-sided regions. For
instance, the sheet piles added to the aforementioned problem as shown in
Fig. 4 are still part of the one continuous impervious boundary (DEFGHI
in Fig. 4). Points D and F have the same x- and ^-coordinates as do points
G and I. Also, confined flow through a partially penetrating slot (see Fig.
5) has head specified at two boundaries (at the headwater level on BC and
at the slot along DEF), and the other two boundaries are impervious (along
the centerline and base FAB and the top CD).

Case 2: Partially Penetrating Slot with Constant Discharge Velocity

This problem translates to constant discharge velocity specified on one of
the four boundaries, a constant head on one boundary, and impervious con-

FIG. 4. Weir Problem with Sheet Piles

| D 7 7 7 7 7 7—7 7—7 7 C

F-4
v

R 7 7 7 7 7 7-~) 7 7 7 7 B

FIG. 5. Partially Penetrating Slot

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 iD ~ 7 7 7 7 7 7 V 7 7 7 7 C

U,';|
E H,

1
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A —7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 B

FIG. 6. Specified Discharge Velocity

ditions on the other two (see Fig. 6). Line segments EAB and DC are im-
pervious, line segment BC has constant head //, specified, and line segment
DE has a specified discharge velocity, V0. On the / / = / / , boundary, use,
as before
SN = 0 (26)

On the boundary DE
VN = -kHN = V0 (27)

V0
HN=-— (28)
k

Eq. 13 can again be applied to obtain

V0
HN = ST = - T (29)
k

ST=— (30)
k
Starting again with Eq. 20
dS = STdT + SNdN (31)
dN = 0 on the boundary, so
V0
dS = —dT (32)
k
Integrating
Vo
S = — T+ C (33)
k
In this particular problem, Y coincides with T along DE, so

S =— Y + C (34)
k

Now
S = Si at Y = YE (35)
Then
Vo
C = St- — YE (36)
k
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A —7 7 7 7—7 7 7— B

FIG. 7. DuPuit's Problem

and

S = — (Y-YE) + Si (37)
k
On the impervious boundaries apply the S - constant boundary condition
as follows:
5 = 5, on EAB (38)
S = S2 on CD (39)
So along CD is no longer arbitrary because continuity has to be maintained
at point D. Thus

SD = 5 2 = T ° (YD - YE) + 5, (40)

k
The boundary conditions for the stream function solution are now com-
pletely defined.

Case 3: Dupuit's Problem

Dupuit's problem deals with unconfined flow in an earth dam with vertical
sides (see Fig. 7). Line segment AB is impervious, line segments AF and
BC have constant head specified, and line segment CD has the boundary
condition
H =y (41)
The position of the free surface (FD) must be determined from the FEM
solution. Once determined, line segment FD becomes a flow line and is
treated exactly like an impervious boundary. Also, the region above the free
surface (triangular region FDE) is not used for the second solution. Rather,
a new grid with the phreatic surface being a new boundary is used.
On the / / = //, and H = H2 boundaries use, as before

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 SN = 0 (42)
On the impervious boundaries apply the S = constant boundary condition
as follows (see Eq. 23):
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S = St on AB (43)
S = S2 = S, + STOTAL on FD (44)

On the boundary CD
H =y (45)
This, however, is insufficient information to determine the new boundary
conditions. Therefore, the normal component of discharge velocity, VN, is
first computed for each node on the boundary CD. It is assumed that points
C and D are node points, and there are typically intermediate node points,
such as nodes I and J in Fig. 7, as well. Then, for each node
VN = ~kHN (46)
HN= -ST (47)

(48)

It is further assumed that VN (and therefore ST) varies linearly between

node points. So between two node points I and J having ST values of ST, and
STJ, ST is approximated as
JT; Or;
ST = -Z——T (T-T:) + ST, (49)
Tj T,
Using Eq. 31
dS = STdT + SNdN (50)
with dN = 0 on the boundary
STJ ~ J77
dS (7- - T,) + ST dT (51)
Tj-T,
Integration yields

S =- — (T - Tf + STIT + C (52)
2 Tj - T,
where C = a constant to be evaluated. At T — T,, Eq. 52 gives
5 = 0 + ST,T, + C = S, (53)
where S, = the value of S at point I. Solving for C gives
C = S, - STIT, (54)
Thus
S =~ " _ " (7" - T,f + STI(T -T,) + S, (55)
2 Jj 11

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FIG. 8. Results for Dupuit's Problem

Solving for 5, gives

Sj = - (S„ + STJ)(Tj - T,) + S, (56)

The first set of node points starts with point I corresponding to point D in
Fig. 7. Thus
S, = S2 (57)
Also, from Eq. 48

S - ^ (58)

Since VN is zero all along the flow line FD

ST, =0 (59)

With this start and the values of VN computed for all the nodes on the
surface of seepage from the FEM solution, the nodes along DC can now be
processed consecutively until the tail water point is processed. The boundary
conditions are now fully determined for the FEM stream function calcula-

FIG. 9. Flow Net for Earth Dam Problem

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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1989, 3(3): 268-284

 tion. Note that the only restriction on 5, is that it be large enough to prevent
the FEM analysis program from solving an unconfined flow problem while
solving for the stream function.
The previous formulation is not restricted to Dupuit's Problem but can
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also be applied to a wide variety of quadrilateral-type earth dams. The only

restriction is that the problem should have the five'basic boundaries of im-
pervious base, specified headwater and tailwater, free surface, and surface
of seepage.
Fig. 8 shows the results for Dupuit's Problem whereby Fig. 7 AB = AF
= 100 ft (30.48 m) and BC = 20 ft (6.10 m), and Fig. 9 shows the com-
puter-generated flow net for an earth dam.

ANISOTROPIC SOIL

Flow nets for an anisotropic soil can be performed equally well with this
technique. The number of flow lines and equipotential lines is computed as
in the isotropic case. However, the resulting plot will now have curvilinear
quadrilaterals instead of curvilinear squares. To get curvilinear squares, the
geometry and permeability must be transformed in the traditional way as
follows:
X' = X (60)
Y
'^lY (61)

7 = 125 PCF

k, - 1 x 10 J CM/SEC
k2 = 1/9 x 10-3 CM/SEC

FIG. 10. Weir on Anisotropic Soil

FIG. 11. Isotropic Results

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FIG. 12. Anisotropic Results

flow l i n e
FIG. 13. Flow Across Boundary

K V fCftky (62)
where kH and kv are the horizontal and vertical permeabilities, respectively.
Fig. 10 shows an anisotropic problem consisting of a weir with a sheet
pile and a sloping impervious bottom. Note that the principal permeabilities
are not even parallel to the x-y axes. Fig. 11 shows the flow net if the soil
is assumed isotropic, and Fig. 12 shows the results for the anisotropic case.

MULTILAYER PROBLEMS

Multilayer problems where all the flow lines originate or end in the same
material type can also be solved. To understand how, first consider the two-
layered system shown in Fig. 13.
The procedure is the same as in the single layer case except that the perme-
abilities are modified for the second solution for flow lines. This is true
because whenever an equipotential or flow line crosses a boundary between
materials of different permeabilities, it is bent. However, since both regions
are isotropic, the flow lines must remain perpendicular to the equipotential
lines on both sides of the boundary. Flow lines are bent as follows (see Fig.
13):

tan 9,
(63)
tan 62 k2

In a similar manner, since equipotential lines are perpendicular to flow lines,

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 u
70'
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5' K, = .1

5' K2 = .2

5' K3 « .3

FIG. 14. Three-Layer Problem

equipotential lines are bent as follows:

tan (90 - a,) *i
(64)
tan (90 - a 2 ) k2
or

cot a, k\
(65)
cot a 2 fc2

Finally, taking the reciprocal of both sides gives

tan a, k2
(66)
tan a2 kt
With the second FEM solution, the program treats the flow lines as equi-
potential lines. Therefore, the flow lines are bent according to Eq. 66 instead
of Eq. 63. To compensate for this, the ratios of permeability must be re-
versed. This can be accomplished, for instance, by reversing kx and k2. For
a multilayered problem, however, it is best to replace the k's with their
reciprocals, respectively. Thus, the ratio of k's between material types 1 and
2 becomes

k k2l _ kx
A (67)
k\ \\ k2

Between materials 2 and 3 it becomes

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FIG. 15. Results of Three-Layer Problem

(68)
k'2

This enables the procedure to work for any number of layers.

Fig. 14 shows a three-layered problem with the dividing line between the
layers being equidistant, and Fig. 15 shows the computer-generated results.
Since the problem has isotropic soil layers, the equipotentials and flow lines
remain perpendicular to each other. However, one layer will have curvilinear
squares, and the other two will have curvilinear rectangles.

AXISYMMETRIC CASE

The flow net as traditionally defined (a plot of equal potential drops and
equal flow paths constructed in such a way as to produce curvilinear squares)
does not exist for an axisymmetric problem [see Fig. 16, showing the result
for a fully penetrating well which has a well radius of 1 ft (0.30 m), a radius
of influence of 51 ft (15.54 m), a depth of 20 ft (6.10 m), and a permeability
of 0.1 ft (0.03 m)/min]. Notice that tall, thin rectangles become short, fat

FIG. 16. Results for Fully Penetrating Well

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 <f> CONTOUR INTERVAL - 1.000
Q MAXIMUM - 12.000
© MINIMUM = .0
V CONTOUR INTERVAL . 2.0000
o MAXIMUM - 15.655
6 MINIMUM . .0
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FIG. 17. Confined Flow in Anisotropic Medium by Christian

rectangles as you proceed from the well outward. No addition or subtraction

of flow lines can change this situation. The technique outlined in this paper
can be used to produce a plot showing mutually perpendicular equipotential
and flow lines, but the number of each is arbitrary.

COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH CHRISTIAN'S WORK

Two problems presented by Christian were run using the techniques pre-
sented in this paper and the results were compared. The first problem is
confined flow in an anisotropic medium, as shown in Fig. 17. Christian's
results are also given in Fig. 17 with our solution given in Fig. 18. Note
that the results are the same. The next problem is unconfined flow through
an earth dam having two zones with kB = 2IcA. The problem and Christian's
solution are shown in Fig. 19, and our results are given in Fig. 20. The first
zone should have curvilinear squares and the second zone should have cur-
vilinear rectangles with a 2 to 1 ratio in size. Note that Christian's solution
has a 5 to 1 ratio. If one assumes that Christian's results are actually for kB
= 5kA, then it is more appropriate to compare our results for kB = 5kA (see
Fig. 21) to his. Note that the results are now similar.

NUMERICAL DIFFICULTY ASSESSMENT

The primary advantage of the techniques described in this paper is that

the boundary values for stream function are derived and directly used in the
program. In Christian's work the value of stream function along a specified
head boundary must be numerically computed by first computing the flows

FIG. 18. Results by Tracy and Radhakrishnan

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 * CONTOUR INTERVAL = 10.000
Q MAXIMUM = 85.000
O MINIMUM-* .0
Y CONTOUR INTERVAL = 10.000
O MAXIMUM = 41.826
0 MINIMUM = .0
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FIG. 19. Flow in Zoned Earth Dam by Christian

FIG. 20. Results by Tracy and Radhakrishnan for kB = 2kA

FIG. 21. Results by Tracy and Radhakrishnan for kB = 5kA

lumped at the nodes for these boundaries from the unmodified stiffness ma-
trix and the computed total heads as follows:
{&,} = IKU]{H„} (69)
where {Q,} = the flows lumped at the nodes; [Ku] = the unmodified stiffness
matrix; and {//„} = the computed heads at the nodes. The lumped flow at a
given node generally comes from two adjacent line segments. The contri-
bution from each line segment is then determined and the stream function
is computed. The weakness in this method is that it is difficult to separate
accurately the fraction of lumped flow going to the adjacent line segments.
Also, a node that is on a boundary between an impervious boundary and a
specified head boundary must give all the flow to the specified head bound-
ary and none to the impervious boundary. Clearly, this complication can be
avoided if the boundary conditions are known and can be stated analytically
as shown in the current approach.

SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK

The algorithm for producing computer-drawn flow nets can now be sum-
marized as follows:
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J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 1989, 3(3): 268-284

 1. Solve the seepage problem using FEM for total head at each node and the
total flow through the system.
2. Determine the problem type, and establish the boundary conditions for the
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stream function.
3. Solve the seepage problem using FEM for stream function at each node.
4. Contour the total head and stream function with the intervals set by com-
puting the shape factor.

This paper presented an analytical approach for generating computer drawn

flow nets and compared results with previous work that used a numerical
approach. The technique described produces excellent computer-generated
flow nets for the problems investigated. These procedures have been imple-
mented successfully into a Seepage Package that includes a preprocessor,
analysis capability, and a postprocessor. The package is available by writing
to the writers. Future research will be directed to find solutions for cases
involving more geometrically complicated problems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was conducted at the Information Technology Laboratory, USAE

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, through funds pro-
vided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the USAE Division, Lower
Mississippi Valley. This support is gratefully acknowledged.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

Aalto, J. (1984). "Finite element seepage flow nets." Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods
Geophys., 8, 297-303.
Christian, J. T. (1980a). "Flow nets by the finite element method." Ground Water,
18(2).
Christian, J. T. (1980b). "Flow nets form finite element data." Int. J. Numer. Anal.
Methods Geomech., 4(2).
Christian, J. T. (1983). "Geotechnical use of finite element flow analyses." Annual
Convention, ASCE, New York, N.Y.
Christian, J. T. (1987). "Establishing boundary condition for stream function con-
touring of finite element results." Microsoftware for Engrs., 3(2).
Crowder and McCuskey. (1964). Topics in higher analysis. The MacMillan Com-
pany, New York, N.Y., 462-467.

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:

A = angle;
F = function;
f = shape factor;
H = total head;
//, = constant;
H2 = constant;
LJ
*-* max = upstream head;
" min = downstream head;
H„ = heads at nodes;
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 h = height;
K„ = unmodified stiffness matrix;
k = permeability;
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Ne = number of equipotential drops;

Nf = number of flow paths;
P = analytical complex potential;
Q = quantity of flow;
Q„ = flows lumped at nodes;
s = stream function;
T-N = tangent-normal coordinate system:
vN = normal component of velocity;
v0 == specified discharge velocity;
xY0 = boundary point;
boundary
point.
and
0

Subscripts
H = horizontal;
N = normal derivative;
T = tangent derivative; and
V = vertical.

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