technologies

Article
Basic Study of Ventilation Using Semi-Transparent
Organic Photovoltaic Sheets for Solar
Chimney Systems
Kishio Hidaka 1, *, Akari Miyazawa 2 , Hong Hu 2 , Kazuya Mitsuji 1 , Yasuo Nagai 1 ,
Naoki Yoshimoto 3 and Yuko Suenaga 4
1 Department of Architecture, Design & Building Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Yamagata University, 1-4-12 Kojirakawa, Yamagata-shi, Yamagata 990-8640, Japan;
mitu@e.yamagata-u.ac.jp (K.M.); y-nagai@e.yamagata-u.ac.jp (Y.N.)
2 Student of Faculty of Education, Art and Science, Yamagata University, 1-4-12 Kojirakawa, Yamagata-shi,
Yamagata 990-8640, Japan; e157024@st.yamagata-u.ac.jp (A.M.); e157012@st.yamagata-u.ac.jp (H.H.)
3 Center for Exploratory Research, Research & Development Group, Hitachi, Ltd., 14-433, 7-3-1 Hongo,
Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; naoki.yoshimoto.rr@hitachi.com
4 Sato Kogyo, 1-10-3 Honcho, Aoba-ku, Sendai-Shi, Miyagi 980-0014, Japan; Y.Suenaga@satokogyo.co.jp
* Correspondence: hidaka-3130025@e.yamagata-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-23-628-4348




Received: 19 July 2018; Accepted: 28 September 2018; Published: 9 October 2018


Abstract: An energy-efficient building ventilation system is presented that integrates semi-

transparent organic photovoltaic (OPV) technology and solar chimney technology. It achieved a wind
velocity of 0.25 m/s and electric power generation of about 1.03 W at an artificial light intensity of
320 W/m2 , which corresponds to cloudy weather. These results support the basic study of systems
combining ventilation and power generation. The integration of solar chimney ventilation with
OPV power generation could be a promising system for energy savings in the future. The proposed
integration could contribute to the generation of sustainable and renewable energy.

Keywords: organic photovoltaic sheet; OPV; solar chimney

1. Introduction
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations in 2015 were
confirmed as a guiding principle for achieving a better future for everyone in the world. Although the
Goals appear to be independent, they are actually interrelated. For example, sustainable energy cannot
be considered separately from renewable energy. Distributed electric power systems are promising
candidates for sustainable and renewable energy generation, such as solar photovoltaic systems [1–3].
The implementation of photovoltaic systems in urban areas is particularly challenging due to space
limitations and the lack of direct sunlight. Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems are being
used to overcome these limitations. They integrate the photovoltaic system into building walls,
therefore, they make efficient use of limited spaces [4–6]. As BIPV panels have an absorption efficiency
of over 95%, they make efficient use of indirect sunlight. One drawback to their use is the waste
heat, which can increase the thermal load in a building. Thermal loads are already increasing due to
the ongoing trend of expanding the window areas of buildings (which can exceed 50% of the total
area). These increasing thermal loads can be effectively managed by implementing intelligent window
systems [7–11], which combine window shading with thermal insulation or other intelligent functions
for building management.
A typical intelligent window system is the double-skin windows [7,8,12–14], which consists of
two sheets of solar shading glass such as a low-e glass and thermal absorption glass. Heat ventilation

Technologies 2018, 6, 93; doi:10.3390/technologies6040093 www.mdpi.com/journal/technologies

Technologies 2018, 6, 93 2 of 12

occurs as outlet air passing through the cavity between the two skins. In this way, the waste heat
created by the BIPV panels is purged. Another application of double-skin windows is solar chimney
ventilation [10,11,15,16] to naturally vent exhaust waste heat. When semi-transparent photovoltaic
panels are used instead of solar power shading glass [17–19], double-skin windows and solar chimney
ventilation can be used for not only building thermal management but also for harvesting solar energy.
There are two types of semi-transparent photovoltaic panels, the dye-sensitized type and the
amorphous silicon. Yoon et al. [20] evaluated the dye-sensitized type by simulating their energy-saving
performance. Olivieri et al. [21] reported that semi-transparent amorphous silicon photovoltaic
panels could be superior to glass windows in terms of the solar heat gain coefficient and heat loss
ratio. Peng et al. [22] demonstrated the experimental usage of semi-transparent amorphous silicon
photovoltaic sheets applied to double-skin façades in Hong Kong. They reported a reduction in the heat
load due to their use in combination with a passive ventilation system. Tan and Wong [23] obtained
sufficient wind velocity, 2.0 m/s at a light intensity of 700 W/m2 , from roof-top solar chimneys in
Singapore. Lee et al. [24] studied the feasibility of dye-sensitized solar cells for building window
systems. They relied on the local weather for the parameters of their simulation. Dye-sensitized solar
cells will be promising energy devices if their cost penalty is eliminated.
Transparency is one of the most important requirements for intelligent window systems. Organic
photovoltaics (OPV) is a promising technology for high transparency window systems. In both the
materials and devices fields, the use of OPV has resulted in high transparency and the development
of many color variations for heat-absorbing glass. The use of narrow bandgap donor materials in
OPV devices has resulted in the production of more non-visible (colorless) windows [25]. Fabrication
technologies such as the nano-wired metallic back electrode [26] may be applicable to not only
transparent OPV devices but also various optical properties such as plasmonic optical response.
Recently, simulation approaches with an OPV window system to be demonstrate in architectural fields.
Kapsis and Athienitis [27] predicted the potential benefits of applying semi-transparent photovoltaics
to commercial buildings. They simulated the electricity consumption of a building in which OPV
panels were installed. Although there has been much progress in the applications of OPV panels, their
application has only been simulated.
The application of a semi-transparent OPV panel to an intelligent window system was previously
demonstrated [28,29] such as a back grounds. We have now investigated a system integrating an
OPV panel and a solar chimney. The feasibility of this new approach of using a solar chimney
ventilation system with an embedded semi-transparent OPV panel was evaluated experimentally
using a prototype. Solar chimneys are widely used for sustainable environmental management as
they contribute to zero energy consumption and environmental friendliness. OPV panels are thus
promising candidates for an additional power generation.

2. Materials and Methods

A small-scale model was manufactured for evaluating the compatibility of ventilation and
power generation, as shown in Figure 1. An OPV device was installed on the solar chimney surface.
Foam polystyrene was used for the outer structure of the chimney as a thermal insulation material.
A polycarbonate plate was used as a transparent material on the inner surface of the chimney.
The device was partially glued under the polycarbonate plate. The model was exposed to light from
a solar spectrum light source (ES01-297, EKO) (Figure 2). Light intensities of 255 W/m2 , 350 W/m2 ,
450 W/m2 , 655 W/m2 , and 780 W/m2 were used.
The OPV device was obtained from Konarka Technologies whose specifications are listed
elsewhere. The stacking sequence of the device is shown in Figure 3. Energy conversion efficiency
ranged from 1% to 1.6% depending on the temperature.
Technologies 2018, 6, x 3 of 13

Technologies 2018, 6, 93 3 of 12
Technologies 2018, 6, x 3 of 13

Figure
Figure 1. Projection
Projection
1. Figure drawing
drawing
1. Projection of
of small-scale
drawing of small-scaleOPV-solar
small-scale OPV-solar chimney
chimney
OPV-solar chimney model
model
model (Unit:
(Unit:(Unit: mm).
mm). mm).

Figure 2. Exposure of OPV-solar chimney to solar spectrum light source.

The OPV device was obtained from Konarka Technologies whose specifications are listed
Technologies 2018, 6, x The stacking sequence of the device is shown in Figure 3. Energy conversion efficiency
elsewhere. 4 of 13
Figure
ranged from 1%2.
Figure toExposure
Exposure of
of OPV-solar
OPV-solar
1.6% depending chimney to solar spectrum light source.
on the temperature.

The OPV device was obtained from Konarka Technologies whose specifications are listed
elsewhere. The stacking sequence of the device is shown in Figure 3. Energy conversion efficiency
ranged from 1% to 1.6% depending on the temperature.

Figure 3. Drawing of transverse section of OPV device showing stacking structure.

Figure 3. Drawing of transverse section of OPV device showing stacking structure.

The intensities of light for various simulated weather conditions are listed in Table 1. A zero-
degree pitch angle is defined as the OPV plane relative to the incident beam. The pitch angle of the
OPV-solar chimney was set to 10°, 30°, or 45°.

Table 1. Simulated weather as a function of solar intensity.

Intensity of Light (W/m²) Simulated Weather

Technologies 2018, 6, 93 4 of 12

Figure 3. Drawing of transverse section of OPV device showing stacking structure.

The intensities of light for various simulated weather conditions are listed in Table 1. A zero-degree
pitch angle
Theis defined asofthe
intensities OPV
light forplane relative
various to the
simulated incident
weather beam. The
conditions are pitch
listed angle of 1.
in Table theAOPV-solar
zero-
chimney was set to ◦
10 is, 30 ◦ , or 45 ◦
degree pitch angle defined as .the OPV plane relative to the incident beam. The pitch angle of the
OPV-solar chimney was set to 10°, 30°, or 45°.
Table 1. Simulated weather as a function of solar intensity.
Table 1. Simulated weather as a function of solar intensity.
Intensity of Light (W/m2 ) Simulated Weather
Intensity of Light (W/m²) Simulated Weather
255 Rain
350255 Rain
Cloudy
450350 Cloudy
Partly sunny in winter
655450 SunnyPartly sunnypartly
in winter, in winter
sunny in summer
780655 Sunny in winter,Sunny
partlyin
sunny in summer
summer
780 Sunny in summer

Figure 4 shows
Figure the set-up
4 shows the position of the anemometer
set-up position and thermocouples.
of the anemometer A hot-wire
and thermocouples. anemometer
A hot-wire
(Custom
anemometer (Custom WS-03SD) was used to measure wind velocity. K type thermocouplestowere
WS-03SD) was used to measure wind velocity. K type thermocouples were used measure
the temperature.
used to measureThe data was acquired
the temperature. outacquired
The data was using aout12-channel temperature
using a 12-channel recorder
temperature (Lutron
recorder
BTM-4208SD).
(Lutron BTM-4208SD).

Figure 4. Set-up drawing of small-scale OPV-solar chimney model (Unit: mm).

Figure 4. Set-up drawing of small-scale OPV-solar chimney model (Unit: mm).
Technologies 2018, 6, x 5 of 13
Figure 5 shows an experimental view of a large-scale OPV-solar chimney model. The outer
dimensions were Figure1400 mmanlong,
5 shows 700 mm
experimental wide,
view of a and 100 mm
large-scale high.chimney
OPV-solar The gap between
model. the top and
The outer
dimensions
bottom of cavity waswere 1400 Air
30 mm. mm flow
long, 700
wasmm wide, andby
visualized 100smoke.
mm high. The gap
A solar between
light the toptoand
was used irradiate the
bottom of cavity was 30 mm. Air flow was visualized by smoke. A solar light was used to irradiate
OPV-solar chimney. The wavelength of the light (500 W capacity, SOLAX XC-500EF) was varied from
the OPV-solar chimney. The wavelength of the light (500 W capacity, SOLAX XC-500EF) was varied
350 to 2500from
nm350in to
12,600 cdinunder
2500 nm 12,600 irradiation.
cd under irradiation.

5. Experimental
Figure Figure view
5. Experimental viewof
of large-scale OPV-solar
large-scale OPV-solar chimney
chimney model.model.

3. Results and Discussion

The thermal shading effect is an important concern for the OPV-solar chimney because a
substantial increase in temperature around the perimeter zone in a house during summer is a crucial
issue for the environmental friendliness of architectures and buildings.
Figure 6 shows the reflectance of a full-size OPV sheet as a function of wavelength. These results
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 5 of 12

3. Results and DiscussionFigure 5. Experimental view of large-scale OPV-solar chimney model.

3. Resultsshading
The thermal and Discussion
effect is an important concern for the OPV-solar chimney because a
substantial increase in temperature
The thermal around
shading effect is an the perimeter
important zone
concern for in
theaOPV-solar
house during
chimneysummer
because isa a crucial
substantial increase in temperature around the perimeter
issue for the environmental friendliness of architectures and buildings.zone in a house during summer is a crucial
issue for the environmental friendliness of architectures and buildings.
Figure 6 shows the reflectance of a full-size OPV sheet as a function of wavelength. These results
Figure 6 shows the reflectance of a full-size OPV sheet as a function of wavelength. These results
were used to evaluate heat transmittance andandthetheheat 2 K and
were used to evaluate heat transmittance heatgain coefficient.
gain coefficient. They
They werewere 5.912KW/m
5.91 W/m and
0.34, respectively.
0.34, respectively.

Technologies
Figure2018, 6, x
6. Reflectance of full-size OPV sheet as a function of wavelength as calculated using Japanese6 of 13
Figure 6. Reflectance of full-size OPV sheet as a function of wavelength as calculated using Japanese
Industrial Standards R 3106 R
Industrial Standards and
3106Aand
5759.
A 5759.
Figure 7 shows the power generation performance of an OPV sheet as a function of temperature
for aFigure
large-scale
7 showssolar chimney.
the power Although
generation crystalline
performance photovoltaics
of an OPV sheet asdegrade
a functionenergy conversion
of temperature for
efficiency as the temperature increases, the efficiency increased as the temperature increased
a large-scale solar chimney. Although crystalline photovoltaics degrade energy conversion efficiency with the
OPV
as thesheet. This is an
temperature advantage
increases, of OPV from
the efficiency the architectural
increased point of increased
as the temperature view. with the OPV sheet.
This is an advantage of OPV from the architectural point of view.

Figure 7. Power generation performance of OPV sheet as a function of temperature for large-scale
Figure 7. Power generation performance of OPV sheet as a function of temperature for large-scale
solar chimney.
solar chimney.

The thermal shading effect of an OPV sheet was demonstrated by measuring the perimeter
thermal load and the surface temperature of an OPV sheet. The sheet was applied to single-glazed
glass in a commercial building in Ibaraki prefecture, Japan [28]. The perimeter thermal load was
estimated by measuring the globe temperature, which indicates the thermal radiation in the
perimeter zone with sunlight.
The solar power absorption of an OPV sheet was determined by measuring the temperature of
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 6 of 12

The thermal shading effect of an OPV sheet was demonstrated by measuring the perimeter
thermal load and the surface temperature of an OPV sheet. The sheet was applied to single-glazed
glass in a commercial building in Ibaraki prefecture, Japan [28]. The perimeter thermal load was
estimated by measuring the globe temperature, which indicates the thermal radiation in the perimeter
zone with sunlight.
The solar power absorption of an OPV sheet was determined by measuring the temperature of
the sheet’s surface. Figure 8 shows the thermal profile during 24 h in winter, reflecting the thermal
shading effect. The surface temperature of the OPV sheet ((b) in Figure 8) increased as the sun rose,
reaching a maximum when the sun’s inclination angle exceeded 50◦ . In contrast, that of a single-glazed
glass((c) in Figure 8) remained below 30◦ even during the day. This difference of more than 20◦ can
serve as the driving force of the updraft in a solar chimney.
In our solar chimney demonstration, the backside materials were urethane foam insulation with
a black coating. This means that solar light passing through a semi-transparent OPV sheet might be
absorbed by the backside wall and converted into updraft thermal energy. A double-skin façade can be
constructed by applying OPV film to single-glazed glass. Such a solar chimney system would exhibit
not only natural ventilation but also a thermal insulation effect. In fact, the globe temperature in the
OPV perimeter zone ((d) in Figure 8) was dramatically lower, evidence of a thermal insulating effect in
this solar chimney
Technologies 2018, 6, x system. 7 of 13

Figure 8. Thermal profile during 24 h in winter.

Figure 8. Thermal profile during 24 h in winter.
If the transparency of the OPV is not sufficient to enable sunlight to warm the solar chimney,
If the transparency
the chimney of the
will not be able OPV is not
to generate sufficient
wind. to enable
The results sunlight
plotted to warm
in Figure the
9 show solar
that thechimney, the
application
chimney will not be able to generate wind. The results plotted in Figure 9 show that
of an OPV sheet does not interfere with wind generation. These results shown that the OPV-solar the application
of an OPV
chimney sheetcan
concept does
benot interfere with
implemented wind
in new generation.
ventilation These results shown that the OPV-solar
systems.
chimney concept can be implemented in new ventilation systems.
Figure 10 shows the inlet and outlet temperatures of the chimney as a function of the light
intensity. The inlet temperature profile displays a plateau while the outlet temperature profile increases.
The wind velocity can be determined from Bernoulli’s principle:

1 2
v + ω + gz = constant (1)
2
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 7 of 12

where v is fluid velocity, ω is enthalpy, g is gravity, and z is height. The ω can be written as
ω = Tds + Vdp, where T is temperature, s is entropy, V is volume, and p is pressure. The ω may
vanish for ideal gas since an isentropic process occurs. In that case, Equation (1) can be expressed as
Figure 8. Thermal profile during 24 h in winter.
q
v = Cd ( Tout
2gLsinθ to
If the transparency of the OPV is not sufficient − Tinsunlight
enable )/Tout to warm the solar chimney, the
(2)
chimney will not be able to generate wind. The results plotted in Figure 9 show that the application
where v is the velocity of the generated wind, Cd is the discharge coefficient, g is gravity, L is the
of an OPV sheet does not interfere with wind generation. These results shown that the OPV-solar
longitudinal length of the chimney, θ is the pitch angle, Tout is the outlet temperature, and Tin is the
chimney concept can be implemented in new ventilation systems.
inlet temperature.

Technologies 2018, 6, x 8 of 13

v = Cd 2 gLsin θ (Tout − Tin ) / Tout (2)

where v is the velocity of the generated wind, Cd is the discharge coefficient, g is gravity, L is the
longitudinal length of the chimney, θ is the pitch angle, Tout is the outlet temperature, and Tin is the
inlet temperature.
Figure 9. Velocity of generated wind in OPV-solar chimney with and with OPV sheet.
Figure 9. Velocity of generated wind in OPV-solar chimney with and with OPV sheet.

Figure 10 shows the inlet and outlet temperatures of the chimney as a function of the light
intensity. The inlet temperature profile displays a plateau while the outlet temperature profile
increases. The wind velocity can be determined from Bernoulli’s principle:

1 2
v + ω + gz = constant (1)
2
where v is fluid velocity, ω is enthalpy, g is gravity, and z is height. The ω can be written as ω = Tds +
Vdp, where T is temperature, s is entropy, V is volume, and p is pressure. The ω may vanish for ideal
gas since an isentropic process occurs. In that case, Equation (1) can be expressed as

Figure 10.
Figure Inlet and
10. Inlet and outlet
outlet temperatures
temperatures of
of OPV-solar
OPV-solar chimney
chimney as
as aa function
function of
of light
light intensity.
intensity.

The values computed using Equation (2) are in good agreement with the experimental data
The values computed using Equation (2) are in good agreement with the experimental data for Cd
for Cd = 1.30, as shown in Figure 11. The wind velocity at θ = 10◦ might have been suppressed
= 1.30, as shown in Figure 11. The wind velocity at θ = 10° might have been suppressed by air stagnation
by air stagnation due to the shallow pitch angle in the chimney. Nevertheless, the experimental
due to the shallow pitch angle in the chimney. Nevertheless, the experimental data show good
data show good agreement with the computed values at higher pitch angles. According to Cho
agreement with the computed values at higher pitch angles. According to Cho and Kimura [30], Cd in
and Kimura [30], Cd in Equation (2) is inversely proportional to the square root of the air density.
Equation (2) is inversely proportional to the square root of the air density. The Cd used here is about
The Cd used here is about 18% smaller than that of the fitting value. This indicates that the evaluated
18% smaller than that of the fitting value. This indicates that the evaluated data did not sufficiently
data did not sufficiently satisfy the time duration to stabilize the thermal conditions affecting the
satisfy the time duration to stabilize the thermal conditions affecting the equilibrium condition.
equilibrium condition.
An OPV-solar chimney with a pitch angle greater than 30° may be usable for irradiation at 655
An OPV-solar chimney with a pitch angle greater than 30◦ may be usable for irradiation at
W/m . We speculate that the friction resistance of the laminar air flow against the inside of the wall
2
655 W/m2 . We speculate that the friction resistance of the laminar air flow against the inside of the
is reduced at higher pitch angles.
wall is reduced at higher pitch angles.
 18% smaller than that of the fitting value. This indicates that the evaluated data did not sufficiently
satisfy the time duration to stabilize the thermal conditions affecting the equilibrium condition.
An OPV-solar chimney with a pitch angle greater than 30° may be usable for irradiation at 655
W/m2. We speculate that the friction resistance of the laminar air flow against the inside of the wall
is reduced
Technologies at higher
2018, 6, 93 pitch angles. 8 of 12

2
Figure 11. Velocity
Figure 11. Velocity of
of generated
generated wind
wind in
in OPV-solar
OPV-solar chimney
chimney atatlight
lightintensity
intensityofof655
655W/m
W/m2 as
as aa
function of pitch angle.
function of pitch angle.

Figure 12 shows temperature profiles in the chimney as a function of time. The highest
Figure 12 shows temperature profiles in the chimney as a function of time. The highest
temperature was observed for channel 3, which was at the top surface of the irradiated area.
temperature was observed for channel 3, which was at the top surface of the irradiated area. The
The temperature showed saturation after 12 min from the outset. Most temperature profiles of
temperature showed saturation after 12 min from the outset. Most temperature profiles of the top
the top surface behaved in the same manner while the temperatures at the bottom rose more slowly.
surface behaved
Technologies in the same manner while the temperatures at the bottom rose more slowly.
2018, 6, x difference 9 ofThis
13
This temperature may cause air flow in the chimney due to migration of uplifting warm air.
temperature difference may cause air flow in the chimney due to migration of uplifting warm air.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Temperature
Temperatureprofiles
profilesininsmall-scale
small-scaleOPV-solar
OPV-solarchimney
chimneyas
asaafunction
functionof
oftime.
time.Dashed
Dashedcircle
circle
indicates
indicateslight-exposed
light-exposedarea.
area.

Theamount
The amountofoflight
lightirradiation
irradiationononthe
theOPV-solar
OPV-solarchimney
chimneyisisanother
anotherfactor
factorininhow
howthe thechimney
chimney
behavesunder
behaves undervarious
variousintensities.
intensities.Figure
Figure99shows
showsthe theinlet
inletand
andoutlet
outlettemperatures
temperaturesalong alongwith
withthe
the
relativedifferences.
relative differences.TheThetemperature
temperaturedifference
differenceisisthe
thegreatest
greatestconcern
concernininterms
termsofofwind
windgeneration,
generation,
andthe
and thefigure
figureshows
showsthat
thatititincreases
increaseslinearly
linearlywith
withlight
lightintensity.
intensity.
Figure13
Figure 13shows
showsthethegenerated
generated wind
wind velocity
velocity as as a function
a function of light
of light intensity.
intensity. The The velocity
velocity of theof
the generated
generated windwind is proportional
is proportional to the
to the square
square root root
of of
thethenormalized
normalizedtemperature,
temperature,asasshownshownin in
Equation (1). The experimental data agrees well with the computed values
Equation (1). The experimental data agrees well with the computed values for Cd is 1.30. for Cd is 1.30.
behaves under various intensities. Figure 9 shows the inlet and outlet temperatures along with the
relative differences. The temperature difference is the greatest concern in terms of wind generation,
and the figure shows that it increases linearly with light intensity.
Figure 13 shows the generated wind velocity as a function of light intensity. The velocity of the
generated wind is proportional to the square root of the normalized temperature, as shown in
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 9 of 12
Equation (1). The experimental data agrees well with the computed values for Cd is 1.30.

Figure 13. Velocity of generated wind in small-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of light intensity.
Figure 13. Velocity of generated wind in small-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of light intensity.
A prototype large-scale OPV-solar chimney was used for evaluating the temperature distribution,
windAvelocity,
prototype and large-scale OPV-solar
power generation. Thechimney
experiment waswas used for out
carried evaluating the temperature
using a light intensity of
distribution,2 wind velocity, and power
◦ generation. The experiment
320 W/m and a pitch angle of 60 . Figure 14 shows the temperature distribution as a was carried out using a light
function of
intensity of 320 W/m
time. The temperature profiles show that an initial increase in the OPV surface temperature for thea
and a pitch angle of 60°. Figure 14 shows the temperature distribution as
2

function ofchimney
large-scale time. The temperature
became profilestoshow
slow compared that
that for an initial increase
a small-scale chimney.inThe theoutlet
OPVwind
surface
air
temperature for
temperature for the
the large-scale
large-scalechimney
chimneyshowed
became instability
slow compared to thatstage.
in the early for aThis
small-scale
indicateschimney.
that air
The outlet wind
stagnation mightair temperature
continue for the large-scale
until sufficient chimney
heat capacity showed The
is achieved. instability
size of in the
the early stage.
exposed This
area may
indicates
Technologiesthat
2018,air
6, xstagnation might continue until sufficient heat capacity is achieved. The size of
also affect thermal dissipation along the periphery of light. the
10 of 13
exposed area may also affect thermal dissipation along the periphery of light.

Figure 14. Temperature distribution in large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.

Figure 14. Temperature distribution in large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.
Figure 15 shows the velocity of the generated wind at the outlet opening of the large-scale
Figurechimney
OPV-solar 15 showsasthe velocity of
a function ofthe generated
time. The windwindvelocity
at the outlet opening
stabilized of about
after the large-scale OPV-
1 min. Thus,
solar chimney as a function of time. The wind velocity stabilized after about 1 min. Thus, the
the wind velocity for a large-scale chimney can be obtained by extrapolating the results for a small-scale wind
velocity for
chimney. Theawind
large-scale
velocitychimney
at a pitchcan be of
angle obtained by extrapolating
60◦ as estimated from thethe results
results shownfor in
a Figure
small-scale
7 is
chimney. The wind velocity at a pitch angle of
about 0.2 m/s. This agrees well with the prediction. 60° as estimated from the results shown in Figure 7 is
about 0.2 m/s. This agrees well with the prediction.
 Figure 15 shows the velocity of the generated wind at the outlet opening of the large-scale OPV-
solar chimney as a function of time. The wind velocity stabilized after about 1 min. Thus, the wind
velocity for a large-scale chimney can be obtained by extrapolating the results for a small-scale
chimney. The wind velocity at a pitch angle of 60° as estimated from the results shown in Figure 7 is
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 10 of 12
about 0.2 m/s. This agrees well with the prediction.

Figure 15. Generated wind velocity in large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.
Figure 15. Generated wind velocity in large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.
Figure 16 shows the power generated by the OPV device at a light intensity of 320 W/m2 .
In general, 16
Figure theshows
powerthe power generated byasthe OPV device at aincrease
light intensity of 320 W/m 2. In general,
generated decreases the temperature in solid-silicon photovoltaics.
the power generated
In contrast, the OPV decreases
device as the temperature
generated increase
a constant in solid-silicon
power even whenphotovoltaics. In contrast,
the temperature of the
the OPV device generated a constant power even when the temperature of the sheet
sheet increased. These results demonstrate the thermal stability of the OPV device in terms increased. These of
results demonstrate
Technologies 2018,
power generation. 6, x the thermal stability of the OPV device in terms of power generation. 11 of 13

Figure 16. Electric power generated by large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.
Figure 16. Electric power generated by large-scale OPV-solar chimney as a function of time.
We can conclude that solar power generation is compatible with heat absorption in the
We can
OPV-solar conclude that solar power generation is compatible with heat absorption in the OPV-
chimney.
solar chimney.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The proposed energy-efficient building ventilation system achieved a wind velocity of 0.25 m/s
and The proposed
electric powerenergy-efficient
generation of building
about 1.03ventilation
W at an system achieved
artificial lighta intensity
wind velocity
of 320of 0.25
W/m m/s2,
and electric power generation of about 1.03 W at an artificial light intensity of
which corresponds to cloudy weather. These results support the basic study of systems combining 320 W/m 2, which

correspondsand
ventilation to power
cloudygeneration.
weather. These results support
The integration of solarthe basic study
chimney of systems
ventilation with OPVcombining
power
ventilation and power generation. The integration of solar chimney ventilation
generation could be a promising system for energy savings in the future. The proposed integrationwith OPV power
generation could be a promising system for energy savings in the future. The proposed
could contribute to the generation of sustainable and renewable energy. The energy-saving effect integration
could contribute
would be enhanced to by
theapplying
generation
thisofsystem
sustainable and
to larger renewable
scale energy.
architectures andThe energy-saving
buildings. effect
Future work
would be enhanced by applying this system to larger scale architectures and buildings.
includes developing a system suitable for a wide range of structures and evaluating its feasibility Future work
for
includes developing a system suitable for a wide range of structures and evaluating its feasibility
industrial use. The practical use of this system requires that several issues such as production cost and for
industrial use. The practical use of this system requires that several issues such as production cost
and performance be addressed. Furthermore, this system should be compared with other
applications to determine the potential energy savings.

Author Contributions: K.H. was responsible to main body of this manuscript. A.M., H.H., and Y.S. were
responsible to experimental part of it. K.M. and Y.N. supervised entire study. N.Y. was planning this study and
responsible to OPV part of this manuscript.
Technologies 2018, 6, 93 11 of 12

performance be addressed. Furthermore, this system should be compared with other applications to
determine the potential energy savings.

Author Contributions: K.H. was responsible to main body of this manuscript. A.M., H.H., and Y.S. were
responsible to experimental part of it. K.M. and Y.N. supervised entire study. N.Y. was planning this study and
responsible to OPV part of this manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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