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• Chemical Engineering is a group of industrial
processes in which row materials are changed
or separated into useful products
• - Chemical Engineer design the most optimal
technology for production of a specified
substance from row materials
• Unit Operations is a method of analysis and
design of chemical engineering processes in
terms of individual tasks/operations

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UNIT Operation

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E
J
E
C
T
O
R
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Vacuum Equipment
• Vacuum Pump: A compressor that takes a gas
at a pressure bellow atmospheric and
discharges against atmospheric pressure is
called a vacuum pump. Oil sealed pump can
produce 0.1mm Hg.

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Ejector Feature
1. Handle wet, dry or 6. Stable operation within
corrosive vapor mixture design range
2. Produce vacuum for 7. Capital cost low as
suitable for industrial against Vacuum Pump
operation 8. Small space required for
3. Available in all sizes to installation
meet small or large 9. Simple Operation
capacity requirement 10. Operation Cost
4. Efficiencies reasonable Competitive
to good
5. Noiseless in operation

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Steam Ejector
Ejector are widely
used for continuous
producing vacuum in
industrial production

Operated by stream and


liquid. Liquid ejector
produce modest vacuum
and mix liquids.
Steam ejector produce
vacuum and maintain
vacuum.
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Steam Ejector Application
• Vacuum distillation
• Vacuum dearation
• Evaporation
• Crystalliser
• Oil deodorizer
• Steam Vac. Refrigeration
• Vacuum pan dryers
• Dehydrators
• Vacuum impregnators
• Freeze dryer
• Vacuum filter

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Ejector
Capacity of Ejector Arrangement of Ejector
• Air Leakage • Single stage or multi stage
• Noncondensable from the • Extra stages may have inter-
process stage condenser to
condense steam
• Noncondensables from
• Extra stage produce more
direct condenser vacuum than single stage
• Condensate vapour • The condenser are:
saturating the non Barometric or Surface types
condensables • Variety of Combinations are
• Condensables vapour from possible
the process

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Arrangement of Condenser

• Precondenser used to condense vapour prior to the entry to the


ejector.
• Intercondenser condense steam from the preceding stage.
• Aftercondenser operate at atmospheric pressure. They act as
silencer
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Materials of Construction

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Terminology
• Pickup pressure • Suction pressure
• Back pressure • Suction temperature
• Increase of stream • Capacity
pressure • Types of load
• Effect of wet stream
• Effect of Superheated
steam

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Evaporation

By Dr. Md Tanvir Sowgath

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Ras Al Khair Desalination Plant, Saudi Arabia.

• Capacity
728
million
liters per
day

http://www.water-technology.net/projects/-
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Basic Concept
• Solution is concentrated by boiling the solvent
and condense vapour. More concentrated
solution remains.
• Usually desired product concentrated
solution. However some cases, desired
product evaporated solvent.
• Evaporation/concentrating the solution is
stopped before solute precipitate

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Basic concept
• Evaporator is usually have heat
Single Effect Evaporator
exchanger to boil up the
solution Vapour

• And mechanism to separate the


vapour phase from the boiling
liquid
• Usually saturated steam is used

concentrate

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Double Effect Evaporator

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Multiple Effect Evaporator
• Series of Evaporator is connected between
steam supply and condenser.
• The vapour from preceding effect serve as
heating medium of next.
• Temperature and pressure are gradually
decreases.

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Why is Vacuum used?

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Choice of steam
• Process steam at 0-5 psig is usually used in evaporators. 20
psig is commonly used
• High pressure steam are usually superheated is used in
electricity generation
• Moreover, low pressure steam has higher latent heat of
evaporation than high pressure steam

• Hence, the steam at 5 psia will deliver more latent heat than
high pressure steam.
• Moreover, construction of evaporator to hold 435 psia will be
more expensive than that of 5 psia
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Choice of steam

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Boiling point Rise (BPR)
For a given pressure in the vapor space of an evaporator, the boiling temperature of
an solution will be equal to that of solvent if the solute is not dissolved in the solvent
but rather consists of small, insoluble, colloidal material.

If the solute is soluble, the boiling temperature of solution will be greater than that
of solvent by an amount known as the boiling-point elevation of the solution.

In actual evaporators, however, the boiling point of a solution is affected by two
factors, boiling-point elevation and liquid head.

If, as is usually the case, the solute has little or no vapor pressure, the evaporator

pressure is equal to the partial pressure of the water in the solution. Then, by a
modified Raoult's law:

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Dürhring Rule of BPR
• It is empirical law.
• If a Boiling Point(BP) of
solution is plotted against
the BP of water at the
same pressure. A straight
line result for a given
concentration of solution
for all different pressure .
• Different parallel lines are
seen for different
concentration.

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However
at higher
pressure
these lines
are not
parallel

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Heat transfer coefficient

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Overall heat transfer coefficient
• Individual film coefficients are difficult to measure. So,
Experimental result are expressed as Overall heat
transfer coefficient (U).
• U is based on the temperature drop corrected for the
Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) or Boiling point Rise (BPR)
• Therefore, Additional term Uo is used
• The overall coefficient, of course, is influenced by the
same factors influencing individual coefficients; but if
one resistance (say, that of the liquid film) is
controlling, large changes in the other resistances have
almost no effect on the overall coefficient.
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Solution Characteristics

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Solution Characteristics

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Solution Characteristics

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Performance of the Evaporator
• The performance of the Evaporator is measured by
– Capacity
– Steam Economy
• Capacity is defined as number of kilograms of water
vaporized per hour. The rate of heat transfer through
the heating surface of an evaporator.
• The rate of heat transfer q through the heating surface
of an evaporator is the product of three factors: the
area of the heat-transfer surface A, the overall heat-
transfer coefficient U, and the overall temperature
drop ΔT.
• q = UAΔT

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Performance of the Evaporator
• Steam Economy is the number of kilograms
water vaporized per kilogram of steam fed to
the unit.
• Factors affects the steam economy are:
– No of Effect
– Temperature of the feed
• Steam Economy 3 effect

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Performance of the Evaporator
• Multiple effect increases the steam economy
by evaporation of water (solvent) per kg of
steam using a series of evaporators between
the steam supply and the condensate

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SELECTION OF EVAPORATOR

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Horizontal Tube Evaporator

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Vertical Tube Evaporator

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Long Tube Vertical Evaporator

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FORCE CIRCULATION EVAPORATOR

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Exchanger Location & Uses

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Falling Film Evaporator
• Heat sensitive materials
such as fruit juices are
evaporated in a single
pass falling film
evaporator.
• Due to smaller holdup
time, the solution is not
overheated during
passage through the
evaporator
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Agitated Film/ Turbulent film
• This type of evaporator used for
viscous liquid.
• The unit can be adopted to the
evaporation of high viscous
solution or slurry to dryness
• Feed enters at the top of the
evaporator
• In the evaporator feed is
thrown to the heated wall by
rotating blades.
• The blades helps heated surface
free of solid deposit

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Submerged Combustion Evaporator
• Combustion gas pass through the solution.
This evaporation takes place by direct contact
no metal surface is involved.

• Corrosive material and high viscous material

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SINGLE EFFECT CALCULATION

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Design of Evaporator

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Specification Sheet

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Specification Sheet

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AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

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Drying of Solids/Dryer in
Chemical Process
Dr. Md Tanvir Sowgath

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Introduction

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Solid Handling in Dryer

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Solid Handling in Dryer

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Tray Dryer

Coulson and Richardson, Volume 6, 4th edition


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Vacuum Self Dryer

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Tray Dryer
• The simplest type of dryer is medium.
Tray dryer • Batch dryers have high
• No of tray may be 10 to 20 labour requirements
• Tray dryers are used for • Close control can be
batch operation to dry small maintained over the drying
quantities of solids, and are conditions and the product
used for a wide range of inventory, and they are
materials. suitable for drying valuable
• The material to be dried is products.
placed in solid bottomed • Vacuum tray dryer, in unit
trays over . operations lab, ChE Dept.,
• Steam, electricity and BUET is used for heat
heated air is usually drying sensitive materials.

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Conveyer Dryer

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A layer of material is dried slowly carried on
travelling screen trough a drying chamber.
Temperature are varied in different section

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Conveyor Dryer
The solids are fed on to an endless, perforated, conveyor belt, through
which hot air is forced.
The belt is housed in a long rectangular cabinet, which is divided up
into zones, so that the flow pattern and temperature of the drying air can
be controlled.

A layer 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in.) thick of material to be dried is slowly


carried
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tunnel.
Conveyor Dryer
The chamber consists of a series of separate sections, each with its own fan
and air heater.
At the inlet end (or wet end) of the dryer the air usually passes upward
through the screen and the solids;
Near the discharge end, where the material is dry and may be dusty, air is
passed downward through the screen.

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Conveyor Dryer
 The air temperature and humidity may differ in the various
sections, to give optimum conditions for drying at each point.
 Screen-conveyor dryers are typically 2 m (6 ft) wide and 4 to 50
m (12 to 150 ft) long, giving drying times of 5 to 120 min.
 The minimum screen size is about 30-mesh (0.595 mm).
 Coarse granular, flaky, or fibrous materials can be dried by
through circulation without any pretreatment and without loss
of material through the screen.
 Pastes and filter cakes of fine particles, however, must be
preformed before they can be handled on a screen-conveyor
dryer.
 The aggregates usually retain their shape while being dried and
do not dust through the screen except in small amounts.
Provision is sometimes made for recovering any fines that do
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Conveyor Dryer
Advantages:

• Screen-conveyor dryers handle a variety of solids continuously and with a


very gentle action;
• High drying rates can be achieved, with good product-quality control.
• Their steam consumption is low, typically 2 kg of steam per kilogram of
water evaporated.
• Air may be recirculated through, and vented from, each section separately
or passed from one section to another counter currently to the solid.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of this type of dryer are high initial cost and, due to the
mechanical belt, high maintenance costs.

Application
•These dryers are particularly applicable when the drying conditions must
be appreciably changed as the moisture
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content of the solid is reduced.
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Drum dryer
• Slurries and pastes
are dried in drum
dryer
• These dryers are
rotating horizontal
cylinders heated with
steam on the inside.
• The slurry to be
dried is spread over
the outside surface.
• The drum surface is
scrapped with doctor
knife. The product is
flaked form
• The rotation rates
1-10 rpm.

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Drum dryer

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Drum dryer

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Cylindrical Dryer
• These dryers used to
dry for continuous
sheet of paper. They
consists of a number of
steam heated rolls over
which sheet passes
continuously.

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Rotary Vacuum Dryer
• The dryer operate as
batches.
• At high moisture content,
the slurry is relatively free
moving. As dying
proceeds, it becomes
viscous and paste.
• It become heavy adhesive
material that is difficult to
move. Lumps
continuously break up
until free flowing granular
product.

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Tunnel Kiln

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Tunnel Kiln
• Wet solids to be dried is placed in trays and trucks which moves
progressively through the tunnel in contact with hot gases (combustion
gases or hot air). Kilns are direct fired
• Flow direction of hot gases and solid may be :
– Countercurrent
– Parallel
– Combination of both
• The air is heated directly or indirectly by combustion or at temperature
bellow 200oC by finned steam coils. So refractory lining is necessary
• Application: These dryers are suitable for large quantity production

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Tunnel Kiln
Depending upon the flow of wet solid and hot gases, the kilns can be
i) Parallel ii) Counter current or iii) combination of both.

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Tunnel Kiln
A tunnel klin is composed of several
units. Each units with individual
control

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Ceramic Klin BISF
• There are two computer-controlled, continuously
operating kilns tunnel kilns in BISF , Dhaka. One
for sanitary ware and the other for insulators.
These use natural gas as fuel.
• These kilns handles large irregular shaped
objects.

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Rotary dryer
In rotary dryers the solids are conveyed along the inside of a rotating,
inclined, cylinder and are heated and dried by direct contact with hot
air/ gases flowing through the cylinder.
In some, the cylinders are indirectly heated.

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Steam Tube Rotary dryer

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Rotary dryer
• Rotating dryers are suitable for drying free-flowing granular materials.
• They are suitable for continuous operation at high throughputs;
• have a high thermal efficiency
• relatively low capital cost and labor costs.
Some disadvantages of this type are:
- non-uniform residence time,
- dust generation and
- high noise levels.

Length/ Dia = 10 to12

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Rotary dryer

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Rotary dryer

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Air Heated Rotary Dryer

• Feed is introduced into the shell through a spout F. At the lower end the dried
product discharges into a screw conveyer H. Just beyond the feed discharge point is
Set steam heated fined pipes which preheat the air. The air is moved through the
dryer by a fan. The discharge fan is placed in the stack, so that it draws air through
the dryer a d syste u der a slight a u . This type of draft is k o as i du ed
draft . This is desira le the aterial te ds to dust.
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Direct Heat Rotary klin

• This is a metal cylinder lined on the interior


with insulating brick and/or refractory brick.
• It is suitable for high temperature operation
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Steam Tube Rotary Dryer

• In this dryer, steam tubes run through the drying


cylinder to maintain the air temperature and act as
drying surface
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Calculate the diameter and length of an adiabatic rotary dryer to dry
2800 Ib/h (1270 kg/h) of a heat-sensitive solid from an initial moisture
content of 15 % to a final moisture content of 0.5%, both dry basis. The
solids have a specific heat of 0.52 Btu/lb-oF; they enter at 80oF (26.7°C) and
must not be heated to a temperature above 125°F (51.7°C). Heating air is
available at 260°F (126.7oC) and a humidity of 0.01lb of water per pound of
dry air. The maximum allowable mass velocity of the air is 700 Ib/ft2-h
(3420 kg/m2-h).
Solution

In view of the heat sensitivity of the


solids, cocurrent operation will be used.
The outlet gas temperature is found from
Eq. (24.8) for adiabatic drying.

Assume the number of transfer units is 1.5.


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The inlet wet-bulb temperature Twb , from Fig. 23.2, is 102°F.
Since Thb is 260°F, Eq. (24.8) gives

Tha = 137°F and Tsb may reasonably be set at the maximum


alIowable value, 125°F.
Other quantities needed are
 at 102°F = 1036 Btu/lb (Appendix 7)

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The quantity of heat transferred per unit mass of solid qT/ms is

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Equation 24.2

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The dryer length can be calculated from

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Flash Dryer

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Flash Dryer

Frequently, the
flash tube has
a venturi
section,
Cyclone
separator so
that the high
gas velocity
disperses the
solid.

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Flash Dryer

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Fluidized Bed Dryers

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Fluidized bed dryers

Dryers in which the solids are fluidized by the drying gas.


Fluidized bed dryers are suitable for granular and crystalline
materials within the particle size range 1 to 3 mm.
They are designed for continuous and batch operation.
The main advantages of fluidized dryers are: rapid and uniform
heat transfer; short drying times, with good control of the drying
conditions; and low floor area requirements.
The power requirements are high compared with other types.
Many large-scale uses include the drying of fertilizers, plastics
materials, foundry sand, and inorganic salts Small fluidized-bed
dryers also find use in, for example, the drying of tablet granulations
in the pharmaceutical industry
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Fluidized bed dryers
•Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid.
•Wet feed is admitted to the top of the bed; dry product is taken out
from the side, near the bottom.
•In the dryer there is a random distribution of residence times; the
average time a particle stays in the dryer is typically 30 to 120 s when
only surface liquid is vaporized and up to 15 to 30 min if there is also
internal diffusion.
•Small particles are heated essentially to the exit dry-bulb
temperature of the fluidizing gas; consequently, thermally sensitive
materials must be dried in a relatively cool suspending medium.

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Spray Dryer

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Spray Dryer
• The material to be dried is
atomized in a nozzle, or by a disc-
type atomizer, positioned at the
top of a vertical cylindrical vessel.
Hot air flows up the vessel (in
some designs downward) and
conveys and dries the droplets.
• The liquid vaporizes rapidly from
the droplet surface and open,
porous particles are formed.
• The dried particles are removed
in a cyclone separator or bag
filter.
• It combine the functions of an
evaporator, a crystallizer, a dryer,
a size-reduction unit, and a
classifier.

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Advantages

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Advantages

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Disadvantages

 Considered as dryers alone, spray dryers are not highly


efficient. Much heat is ordinarily lost in the discharged
gases.
 They are bulky and very large, often 25 m (80 ft) or
more high, and are not always easy to operate.
 The bulk density of the dry solid-a property of especial
importance in packaged products-is often difficult to
keep constant, for it may be highly sensitive to
changes in the solids content of the feed, to the inlet
gas temperature, and to other variables.

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Steps of Selection of Drying equipment
• Initial selection of dryer

• Drying tests

• Final Selection of Dryer

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General Guidelines
• Batch contact?)
• Continuous dryer? • Operation
• Feed and product • Dust problem
handling • Energy efficiency
• Thermal sensitive • Types of fuel
material • Maintenance cost
• Adiabatic and non • Labor cost
adiabatic dryer (direct
contact or indirect • Pollution
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General Guidelines of Slection

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General Guidelines of Slection

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General Guidelines of Slection

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Crystallizer
Dr. Md Tanvir Sowgath

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Crystallization

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Advantages of Crystallization

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Solubility ,
Saturation point,
Super saturated,
unsaturated

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Supersaturation is the first step for
Crystallization. Supersaturation is
the driving force of nucleation. The
next step is nucleation due to birth
of new crystal and growth on new
particle. Subsequent growth is
happen until equilibrium reach

1. Super saturation by cooling alone − Tank rystallizer, Agitated at h rystallizer.


These two are used in batch process, though tank crystallizer is obsolete one.
Swenson Walker crystallizer falls under this category and it is used in continuous
process.
2. Super saturation by evaporation: Krystal evaporator and salting evaporator are
two examples under this type of super saturation.
3. Super saturation by adiabatic cooling: Different kinds of vacuum crystallizers are
used to make crystals by this method.
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Crystallization steps
• The process has two stages
– First stage: formation of Nuclei (Primary Nucleation)
– Second stage: Growth of Nuclei (Secondary Nucleation)
• Primary Nucleation: First steps or growth of new
crystals
• Secondary Nucleation: Requires seeds or existing
crystals
– Crystals growth initiated with contact. Contact may be with
• Another crystal
• Mixing blade
• A pipe
• Vessel wall, etc

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Crystallization steps
• Feed location unsaturated
• Solution cools to saturation
• Enter metastable zone
nucleation begins
• Rapid nucleation
• Concentration of mother
liquor decreases with the
growth of crystals
• Crystal growth during main
cooling cycle
• Exit of crystals
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Crystallization from Solution

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Pump

Dr Md Tanvir Sowgath

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Pump

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Introduction
• Pump, fan, blower, and
compressor are terms that
do not have precise
meaning. Generally pumps
move liquids while fans,
blowers and compressors
add energy to gasses.

• Pumps and fans do not


appreciably affect the
density of the fluids that
they move and thus
incompressible flow theory
is applicable.

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•Pumps come in a
Classification variety of sizes for
a wide range of
applications.
•In principle, any
Pumps liquid can be
handled by any of
the pump designs.
•Centrifugal
Others (e.g. Positive pump is generally
Dynamic the most
Impulse, Buoyancy) Displacement
economical but
less efficient.
•Positive
Centrifugal Special effect Rotary Reciprocating displacement
pumps are
generally more
efficient than
Internal External Slide centrifugal
Lobe pumps, but higher
gear gear vane
maintenance
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Positive Displacement Pump
• To move fluids positive
displacement pumps
admit a fixed volume of
liquid from the inlet into a
chamber and eject it into
the discharge.

• Positive displacement
pumps are used when
higher head increases are
required. Generally they
do not increase velocity.

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Types of Centrifugal Pumps
1. Centrifugal Pump
(Single Stage)
2. Domestic Pump
(Monoblock
pump)
3. High Pressure
Multi stage Pump
(For Boiler Feed
Water Pump)
4. Non-Clogging
Pump
(For Sludge, BTP,
Paper Mill)

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Positive Displacement Pump

• Reciprocating pump
• Displacement by reciprocation of piston plunger
• Used only for viscous fluids and oil wells

• Rotary pump
• Displacement by rotary action of gear, cam or
vanes
• Several sub-types
• Used for special services in industry
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Reciprocating Pump
Type Discharge pressure Application
Piston pumps 50 atm (max) ZFCL dosing Cl2 to river waterline
Plunger pumps 150 atm or more Metering Pumps (Due to constant
Diaphragm pumps 100 atm or more volume flow)

𝑉 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ
𝑉 𝑖 𝑖 𝑦
𝑉 𝑤 𝑦 ℎ 𝑖

The Volumetric efficiency is nearly constant for the reciprocating pumps.

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Gear Pumps

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Gear Pumps

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Double Screw pump

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Centrifugal Pump: Single stage

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Centrifugal Pumps
• Most common type of pumping
machinery. There are many
types, sizes, and designs from
various manufacturers who also
publish operating characteristics
of each pump in the form of
performance (pump) curves. The
device pictured on the cover
page is a centrifugal pump.
• Pump curves describe head
delivered, pump efficiency, and
net positive suction head (NPSH)
for a properly operating specific
model pump.
• Centrifugal pumps are generally
used where high flow rates and
moderate head increases are
required.

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Cutway view of Centrifugal pump

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Sixstage Centrifugal Pump

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Casing
• Volute case
• Impellers inside casings
• Balances hydraulic pressure on pump shaft

• Circular casing
• Vanes surrounds
impeller
• Used for multi-
stage pumps

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Impeller & Shaft
Impeller Shaft
• Main rotating part that • Transfers torque from
provides centrifugal motor to impeller
acceleration to the fluid during pump start up
• Number of impellers = and operation
number of pump stages
• Impeller classification:
direction of flow,
suction type and
shape/mechanical
construction

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Centrifugal Pump Impeller

Types
1. Straight Vane single-
suction closed Impeller
2. Double Suction
Impeller
3. Nonclogging impeller
4. Open Impeller
5. Semiopen Impeller
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6. Mixed Flow Impeller
Characteristics Curves of Centrifugal Pump

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Centrifugal Pump Characteristics Curve

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Effect of Impeller Diameter (1700 rpm)

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Effect of Impeller Diameter (1700 rpm)

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Effect of Impeller Diameter (3550 rpm)

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NPSH

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Mixing and Agitation
Introduction
• This is widely used unit operation and unit
process. Agitation implies mixing of the fluid
masses without quantifying the endpoint.
• Failure of the mixing resulted unsatisfactory
product.
Mixing Operation involve
1. gases with gases.
2. gases into liquids: dispersion.
3. gases with granular solids: fluidization,
pneumatic
4. liquids into gases: spraying and atomization.
5. liquids with liquids: dissolution, emulsification,
dispersion
6. liquids with granular solids: suspension.
7. pastes with each other and with solids.
8. solids with solids: mixing of powders.
Some practical Examples of Mixing
Operations
• Blending of miscible liquids.
• Dispersion of immiscible liquids.
• Dispersion of gases in liquids.
• Suspension of solid particles in a slurry.
• Enhancement of heat exchange between the
fluid and the
• Enhancement of mass transfer between
dispersed phases.
Mixing Equipment
Mixing is achieved by the rotating action of an impeller in a
continuous fluid. This action shears the fluid and creates eddies
throughout the fluid mass.
There are devices where no rotating actions are necessary

1. Mechanically agitated vessel


2. Jet mixers
3. In-line static mixer
4. In-line dynamic mixer
5. Dispersion Mills
6. Valve homogenizers
7. Ultrasonic homogenizers
8. Extruders, etc.
Quality of Mixing
• Concentration uniform
• Density uniform
• Certain viscosity attained
• Certain electrical conductivity attained.
Purposes of Agitation
Typical Agitation Vessel
Static and Dynamic Mixer
Types of Impeller
Cont’d
Flow Pattern
Flow Pattern
Flow Pattern
Standard Turbine Design
Typical Shape Factor
• Evaluation of mixing involves the study of
these
• Power consumption of agitation as a function
of geometric, operating and Physical Variables
• Rate of quality of mixing
• Flow Pattern
The power “P” required to rotate the shaft and the
blades of the impeller through the fluid may be
expected to be some function of the following:
• Geometric properties: Imp. Dia Da, tank dia DT,
liquid depth H, height of the impeller above the
vessel bed C, impeller pitch S, length of the
impeller blades L, width of the impeller blades W,
no of baffles R, width of baffle J, no of blades B.
• Fluid properties: ρ and µ.
• Kinematic and dynamic quantities: rpm of
impeller N, acceleration due to gravity g.
• The relationship in general terms is therefore
Pgc= f(Da, DT , H, C, S, L, W, J, ρ, µ, N, g, B, R )
• Dimensional analysis leads to
Rules of Thumb
Gas Compressor

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases


the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the


pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid
through a pipe.

As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces


the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible,
so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.
Types
General Application Guide

Centrifugal

Lobe & Screw Axial Flow

Vane

Reciprocating

Blower & Fans


Cont’d

General Compression
Selection of compressors is influenced by:

• Inlet flow rate of gas


• Inlet temperature and pressure
• Outlet conditions
• Nature of the gas
General considerations for any type of compressor

Flow Conditions

• Intake or suction flow rate- Normal, Maximum and


Minm
(through process material balance)
• Inlet pressure and Temperature of corresponding
flow rates
• Discharge pressure
• Duration of reduced or over-normal flow rate
• Do not purchase excess horse power for your
compressor driver (ask manufacturer to state the
max load/conditions that will fully load the
horsepower of compressor driver)
Cont’d

Fluid Properties

• Vital to establish compressor performance


• Composition of the fluid
• Ratio of specific heat and avg. molecular weight
• Entrained solids or liquids in the gas stream
• Solids (wet/dry scrubbing) and liquids (mist
eliminator) should be removed ahead the compressor
unit
Cont’d

Compressibility
Gas compressibility greatly affects compressor capacity
performance
Establish compressibility factor at each individual
intake conditions (Some manufacturers use average
value betn intake & discharge condn)
Correct the gas volume at each intake conditions (for
multistage) using corresponding compressibility
factor
Cont’d
Corrosive nature
Corrosiveness will influence the selection of materials of
construction, seals and lubrication etc.
Moisture
Moisture content (condensable vapor) of any percent shall be taken
into consideration in compressor volume calculation
Special conditions
• Limiting temperature before polymer formation, chemical
reaction, explosive conditions and excess heat for lubrication
materials should be cited.
• Limiting pressure drop betn stages (due to pass through piping,
cooling equipment and/or condensate knock-out equipment)
should be specified.
• 3-5 psig between stages is allowable in most cases; special cases
may limit this value to 0.5 to 1.0 psig. (Larger the pressure drop,
larger will be the horsepower of the driver)
Reciprocating Compressor

The reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement


unit with the pressure on the fluid developed within a
cylindrical chamber by the action of a moving piston.
• Small capacity and high pressure rise machine
• Gas density has no effect on the pressure rise,
because the pressure rise is due to the positive
movement of the piston in the cylinder.
• At the same piston speed, the pressure rise would be
the same irrespective to different molecular weight
of different gases.
• Large capacity reciprocating compressor requires
expensive foundation (for vibration free operation)
and more space. It also requires more maintenance
Mechanical Considerations

Basic Components of Reciprocating Compressor


A. Cylinders
1. Single acting
2. Double acting
Single acting & Double acting Cylinder
B. Frames
1. Horizontal
2. Vertical
3. 90o angle
4. V or Y angle
5. radial
6. Duplex (cylinders mounted in parallel on two separate
frames from common crankshaft)
7. Balanced Opposed (cylinders mounted opposite
(180o) and driven off same crankshaft)
8. Tandem compressor cylinder (two or more cylinders are
on same compressor rod)
Frames
C. Suction and Discharge Valve
• To function properly, a valve must seat uniformly and tightly
• Until pressure builds up to the discharge point, the valve must
remain closed, open at discharge pressure, and then reseat as
the pressure in the cylinder drops below the discharge value.
• The same type of action is required for the suction valves.
• Cylinder efficiency depends to a certain extent upon the proper
selection and sizing of the valves. Valves must be adequately
cooled, so provision is usually made for water jackets
immediately adjacent to the valves, particularly the discharge
valves.
Construction Materials of Valve

• Valves must be made of fatigue-resistant carbon or


alloy steel or 18-8 stainless steel, depending upon the
service.

• The 18-8 stainless and 12-14 chrome steel is often


used for corrosive and/or high temperature service.

• Any springs required for valves, are made of either


carbon or nickel steel.
D. Piston Rod, Piston and Piston Ring

Piston rods are usually forged and hardened steel or alloy.

Pistons may be of aluminum, built-up carbon or graphite, cast iron,


cast steel, fabricated and metalized steel, stainless steel, or
forged carbon or stainless steel. The selection involves the
corrosive nature of the gas and weight balancing problem of the
manufacturer.

Piston rings are rings mounted on the piston that seal against the
cylinder wall and allow the piston to develop required pressures.
There are usually at least two rings per cylinder for low pressure
applications; six or more for high pressure services.
Cast iron, bronze, aluminum, and carbon (graphite) are common ring
materials.
Figure: Piston Rod, Piston and Piston Ring
E. Cylinders

• Cylinders are made of materials consistent with pressure range


and gas service.

• Sometimes a liner is used for wear (or corrosion) or possible


future changes in capacity.

• Liners may be graphite, aluminum, cast iron, steel, tungsten


carbide, or other suitable materials

• Most cylinders have water jackets to remove some heat of


compression and to maintain reasonable cylinder and/or liner
temperatures.

• The cooler cylinder walls usually allow more efficient lubrication


of the cylinder.

• When oil cannot be tolerated in the presence of the gas, non-


lubricated cylinders are used with graphite (or carbon) liners or
piston rings.
Performance Considerations (Cooling & Driver)
• Cooling with Water through Cylinder Jackets
Inlet water temperature usually: 90-140oF
Temperature rise of cooling water usually: 10-15oF
Precisely:

(oF)

This cooling water is usually arranged in a closed loop with the


water being pumped through secondary coolers or over cooling
towers and then returned to the jackets for reuse. Water
quality must be good, with steam condensate being preferred,
properly treated to prevent corrosion and scale formation.

• Forced air cooling (small horse-power unit)


• No cooling
Drivers

Reciprocating compressors are driven by the following:


Diaphragm Compressors

A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor ) is a variant of the


conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the
movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth
movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the
membrane and the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.
Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG)
as well as in a number of other applications

Diaphragm compressors are the preferred compression equipment for gas compression
applications where there are environmental and safety concerns. Their basic design
provides leak-tight and non-contaminating gas compression and transfer. A typical
diaphragm Compressor is a combination of two systems - a hydraulic system and a
gas compression system. A metal diaphragm group is the isolating component
between these two systems.
Ideal P-V Relationship for Reciprocating Compressor

Clearance volume
Ideal Reciprocating Compression diagram
Actual Compression Diagram
Compressibility factor of a gas mixture
Gases deviate from the ideal state when pressures and/or
temperatures are greater than 100—500 psia and 100°F.

In that case ideal gas equation will be


PV=ZmNRT (Zm=mean compressibility factor)

Gas mixture consists of gases A, B, C…….. with mole fractions ya, yb,
yc,……….

Pseudo critical temperature of the gas mixture,


T1c= yaTca+ybTcb+ycTcc+…..

Pseudo critical pressure of the gas mixture,


P1c=yaPca+ybPcb+ycPcc+…..
Cont’d

If T and P of the mixture are known,


Pseudo reduced temperature of the gas mixture,
T1r= T/T1c
Pseudo reduced pressure of the gas mixture,
P1r=P/P1c

By using generalized compressibility chart Zm can be


obtained
Some deviations yield a compressibility factor, Z, less
than 1.0, and others give values greater than 1.0.
Compressor Performance Characteristics

1. Piston Displacement
Piston displacement is the actual volume of the cylinder
displaced as the piston travels its stroke from the
start of the compression (condition (1)) to the end of
the stroke (condition (3)) expressed as ft3 of volume
displaced per minute (ft3/minute).
For single-acting cylinder

PD = Aps(rpm)/1,728

where PD piston displacement, (cfm)


Ap= cross-sectional net area of piston, (in.2)
If cylinder is head-end, Ap is total area of piston;
If cylinder is crank-end, Ap is net area of piston area minus rod
cross-section area.
s = stroke length, (in).
Rpm = revolutions per minute of crank shaft or number of
compression strokes per minute
For double-acting cylinder
The displacement of the head end and crank end of the
cylinder must be added for the total displacement.

where Ar cross-sectional area of piston rod, (in.2)

For a multistage unit, the piston displacement is often only given


for the first stage.
2. Compression Ratio
The compression ratio is the ratio, Rc, of the absolute
discharge pressure to the absolute suction pressure of
the cylinder.
P2/P1= Rc

Compression ratios usually vary between 1.05—7 per


stage;

However, a ratio of 3.5—4.0 per stage is considered


maximum for most process operations.
Concept of inter-cooling in multistage compression

High discharge pressure increases discharge temperature


The maximum temperature rise is governed either by
1. maximum operating temperature of the compressor cylinder
or by
2. the maximum temperature the gas can withstand before
decomposition, polymerization, or auto ignition
Volumetric efficiency decreases with the increasing compression
ratio (high discharge temperature rise)

So a reasonable limiting discharge pressure should be selected

With a known maximum temperature, the maximum ratio of


compression can be calculated from the adiabatic temperature
rise relation.

Optimum minimum horsepower occurs when the ratios of


compression are equal in all cylinders for multistage units.
3. Actual Capacity
Volume of gas measured at the intake to the first
stage or multistage compressor at stated intake “T
& P” and expressed as CFM

Va = PD (EV)
PD: Piston displacement
Ev=Volumetric efficiency
Va=Actual volume
4. Clearance Volume
This is the total volume remaining in the cylinder at the
end of the piston stroke.
This consists of the volume between the end of the
piston and the cylinder head, in the valve ports and
the volume in the suction valve guards and the
discharge valve seats.

Volumetric efficiency
increases with a
decrease in clearance
volume
5. Percent Clearance
Percent clearance is the volume % of clearance volume
to total actual piston displacement.

For double-acting cylinders, % clearance is based


on total clearance volume for both the head end
and crank end of the cylinder divided by the total
net piston displacement.
The values range from about 8% for large 36-in. cylinders to
40% for small 3- and 4-in. cylinders.
6. Volumetric Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of actual cylinder capacity (at


actual intake T &P) to piston displacement

It can also be measured by the formula:


7. Compression Efficiency (Adiabatic)

Compression efficiency is the ratio of the work required


to adiabatically compress a gas to the work actually
done within the compressor cylinder. It depend on:

a. Compression ratio
b. Compressibility of the gas at inlet and discharge conditions,
c. Compression valve friction and leakage.
d. Nature of the gas,
e. Leakage across the piston rings during compression
stroke.
f. Loss through intake and discharge valves.
g. Moisture or condensable in the gas being compressed.
h. Clearance volume of cylinder.
8. Mechanical Efficiency
Ratio of compressor cylinder indicated horsepower to brake
horsepower. (driver horsepower is not included)

90-93% for direct driven cylinders


87-90% for steam engine units

9. Piston Speed
Depends on experience and manufacturers’ recommendation:

More significance in corrosive or polymer-forming services than in


clean hydrocarbon or air applications.

Hydrogen chloride and chlorine service use cylinders with either (a)
cast iron liners or (b) carbon piston rings, a speed of around 600
ft per min is acceptable.
10. Horsepower
Horsepower is the work done in a cylinder on the gas by
the piston connected to the driver during the
complete compression cycle.
Theoretical HP:
The theoretical horsepower is that required to
isentropically (adiabatically) compress a gas through a
specified pressure range.
Indicated HP:
The indicated horsepower is the actual work of
compression developed in the compressor cylinder(s) as
determined from an indicator card.
Brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual horsepower input at the
crankshaft of the compressor drive. It does not include the losses in
the driver itself, but is rather the actual net horsepower that the
driver must deliver to the compressor crankshaft.
HP Calculation
11. Temperature Rise (Adiabatic)
The relation between the suction and discharge
temperatures of a gas during any single compression
step is:
[Note that for reciprocating compressor work, values of “n” may be used
as “k” up to 1.4. “n” represents the polytropic coefficient that is
related to “k” by
(n-1)/n = (k-1)/[(k)(ep)], where (ep) is the polytropic efficiency.]
Spec For Reciprocating Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor

C.C is used for the operation in which large volumes are


handled at medium pressures.
A single stage CC has the following basic components:
1. Inlet connection
2. Impeller
3. Diaphragm and Diffuser
4. Casing
5. Shaft and Bearings and
6. Shaft seal
Selection of Shaft seal
Capacity control
Specification

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