Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Session XXII
Committee Overview (UNRWA), the Report of the Special
Committee on Israeli Practices, and outer
The General Assembly Fourth space.3 SPECPOL reaffirms the United
Committee, the Special Political and Nations’ aims to eradicate colonialism and
Decolonization Committee, was established to ensure the political, social, and economic
in 1962 for the purpose upholding and interests of current territories.
monitoring the Declaration on the Granting Though primarily focused on
of Independence to Colonial Countries and decolonization, SPECPOL also addresses
Peoples.1 This declaration was originally many issues directly tied to postcolonial
implemented in 1960 to affirm all peoples development and territorial disputes. The
right to selfdetermination, or to “freely Special Political Committee is dedicated to
determine their political status and freely the preservation of safe borders and
pursue their economic, social, and cultural autonomy: two crucial factors to the two
development,” as well as a call for topics we will be discussing. Topic A, the
immediate steps to be taken towards Migration in the Mediterranean, is one of
granting independence to Trust and the most prevalent international issues
NonSelfGoverning Territories.2 In the 50 today. Though focused in a single area, the
years that followed, SPECPOL has adopted political and economic implications of the
a fivepronged approach to alleviating resulting international action have had a
international issues relating to global influence. From the Syrian Civil War
decolonization and politically related to corruption in Libya to the Israeli
issues. These five areas include the effects Palestine conflict, the causes and
of atomic radiation, questions on consequences of this crisis are widespread.
information, peacekeeping operations and In recent years, the irregular migration
special political missions, the United patterns and unprecedented level of
Nations Relief and Works Agency for refugees have necessitated a cohesive
Palestinian Refugees in the Near East international effort to alleviate the domestic
chaos of refugee homelands and the strain
1
“The United Nations and Decolonization.” United Nations,
United Nations, www.un.org/en/decolonization/history.shtml.
2 3
“The United Nations and Decolonization.” United Nations, “United Nations, Main Body, Main Organs, General Assembly.”
United Nations, United Nations, United Nations,
www.un.org/en/decolonization/declaration.shtml. www.un.org/en/ga/fourth/index.shtml.
– 1 –
of receiving migrants in host lands. The
United Nations and the Fourth Committee
have issued numerous declarations and
resolutions concerning international
migration, but this progress is hindered by
a disjoint front and individual nations’
political goals.
Topic B, The Question of Kurdistan,
presents a similar seemingly isolated case
study with global effects. The region of
Kurdistan spans only four countries:
Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, however, the
reactions to the Kurdish people’s desire for
independence sets international precedents
for selfdetermination, minority rights, and
political autonomy. These goals are
encompassed by the Special Political and
Decolonization Committee, and thus as a
committee, we will address it accordingly.
SPECPOL is committed to upholding the
universal right to selfdetermination and
the basic human rights outlined in the UN
Charter, but more recently it has been
difficult to attain a balance between
memberstates’ autonomy and the Kurdish
people’s rights.
The United Nations’ Charter asserts
the importance of respecting the interests of
territories and the autonomous
administering powers maintained by
territories. As the Fourth Committee, we
will work to provide solutions to these two
issues while respecting both sides: the
sovereignty of states and the rights of
people, economic, political, and educational
progress. This dichotomy between
sovereign nations and the rights of their
citizens is contentious, and our resolutions
should be written with consideration to
both sides.
– 2 –
Topic A:
Migration in the Mediterranean
Introduction migration crises in modern history.5
Between January and August 2017, 2,408
For our first topic, Migration in the migrants died on the journey to Europe,
Mediterranean, this committee will and even more due to the extreme
simulate the Special Political and situations in their home country.6 In March
Decolonization Committee and address the of 2018, 10,949 refugees had arrived in
political, economic, and decolonization various coastal European states. In the
aspects of this migration crisis. As months since, the numbers have only
delegates, your job is to represent your increased. A crisis on this scale is
countries’ position to the best of your unprecedented and will continue to
ability regardless of your own personal compound if significant international action
opinions, and to create a resolution in line is not taken.
with your assigned position. With the The issue of Migration in the
proper research and preparation, I am Mediterranean is centered on the African,
confident you all will be capable of crafting Middle East, and European nations who
legitimate and countryspecific solutions to displace and receive the migrants in
this crisis. question. Specific state actors in this crisis
Topic A, Migration in the include but are not limited to Syria, Iraq,
Mediterranean, is an issue that has risen to Israel, Libya, Greece, Germany, Spain, and
the forefront of international politics in Italy. Migration in the Mediterranean has
recent years. Driven by conflict in Syria, brought attention to the harsh refugees and
Israel, and North Africa, levels of migration has caused a global shift in political
in the Mediterranean area have spiked. In responses to refugees. The sudden influx of
the Middle East and Mediterranean refugees to Europe in 2015 from the Syrian
Regions, an estimated 60 million people crisis caused a political shock not only in
have been forced to flee their countries due Europe, but in North America, Africa, and
to civil or external conflict, setting a record Asia7. Despite being centered in one area,
high for refugees, asylum seekers, and the effects of Migration in the
internally displaced persons.4 According to Mediterranean have been felt globally.
the United Nations High Commission of As a committee, we are focused on
Refugees, an estimated 300,000 people the political and economic implications of
attempted to cross the Mediterranean Sea to this crisis. We should address the causes of
Europe in 2016, marking the situation in the the migration crisis itself, the way in which
Mediterranean as one of the largest
5
“Mediterranean Migration.” Mediterranean Migration, Médecins
Sans Frontières (MSF) International, 2018,
www.msf.org/mediterraneanmigration.
6
Ibid.
4 7
Chamie, Joseph. “Desperate Migration in the Middle East.” Ben Wedeman. “How Syria's War Changed the World.” CNN,
Desperate Migration in the Middle East | YaleGlobal Online, Yale Cable News Network, 15 Mar. 2018,
University, 9 July 2015, www.cnn.com/2018/03/15/middleeast/syriaeuropebenwede
yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/desperatemigrationmiddleeast. manintl/index.html.
– 3 –
migrants traverse the area, and finally, the hundreds of thousands of persons are
way in which immigrants assimilate into displaced, making this region a primary
their host lands. Many of the issues factor in irregular migration across the
associated with or resulting from this Mediterranean. Though we cannot analyze
migration crisis directly fall in line with every dispute in the Middle East, we can
SPECPOL’s five goals, including aiding in further examine the two largest conflicts
selfdetermination and decolonization occurring today: the Syrian Civil War and
efforts, and mitigating refugee crises. This the IsraeliPalestine Conflict.
is a broad topic with many intricate facets, Perhaps the most familiar and
and it is the role of our committee during publicized cause of irregular Mediterranean
this conference to create a detailed, migration is the Syrian Refugee Crisis a
comprehensible, and realistic solution. direct result of the Syrian Civil War. Syria’s
tumultuous political climate can be traced
back to early 20th century British and French
Historical Background colonial presence, the power struggle that
The Mediterranean Sea is no stranger ensued once Syria gained its independence,
to conflict and irregular immigration. and Hafez AlAssad’s subsequent
Because of its geography, the dictatorship.9 Similarly, chaotic situations
Mediterranean has served to transport formed in surrounding Middle Eastern
refugees, displaced persons, and asylum nations such as Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and
seekers in unprecedented numbers since Israel, drawing the already insecure Syrian
World War II. The 1950s and onwards have government into numerous conflicts,
ushered in a period of migration across the culminating in antiregime protests in 2011.
Mediterranean in what is the largest In a mere matter of months, Syria was
migration crisis of our era.8 launched into a civil war having been
It’s difficult to attribute today’s divided into two major factions: the Syrian
migration crisis to any singular homeland Government and the Rebels. Though there
conflict or cause. We can, however, are two opposing forces, the situation is far
pinpoint and thus evaluate a choice few of more complicated. The Syrian government
the conflicts in certain areas in order to gain is backed by a series of powerful actors
a greater understanding of the motives including Russia, Iran, Hezbollah, and Shia
behind this irregular migration pattern. For Muslim militias. The rebels can hardly be
the purposes of our committee, we will look thought of as a unified force but instead a
at two different regions of historical conflict myriad of nonstate actors with the same
that have contributed the most to the opposition but vastly different aims. The
migration crisis: the conflicts in the Middle rebels have garnered support equally
East and the conflicts in Northern Africa. powerful to the Syrian government, having
received aid from states such as the US,
Turkey, Gulf Arab States, and Jordan.10
Middle East Since 2011, the Syrian Civil War has
The Middle East is ridden with expanded far beyond Syria’s borders and is
conflict, stemming from a variety of
cultural and territorial disputes. Every year,
9
“Syria Profile Timeline.” BBC News, BBC, 24 Apr. 2018,
8
Hammond, Timothy G. “The Mediterranean Migration Crisis.” www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast14703995.
10
Foreign Policy Journal, Foreign Policy Journal, 5 Sept. 2016, “Syria War: A Brief Guide to Who's Fighting Whom.” BBC
www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2015/05/19/themediterranean News, BBC, 7 Apr. 2017,
migrationcrisis/. www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast39528673.
– 4 –
one of the most prevalent and complicated the nation and another 6 million fled as
conflicts today. refugees, making this conflict the largest
The IsraeliPalestinian Conflict is contributor to the Mediterranean Migration
another of the most severe conflicts crisis.15 The responses to the influx of
plaguing the Middle East and Syrian refugees have varied greatly, raising
Mediterranean area. The conflict began in the question of how to integrate refugees
1917 with the Balfour Declaration: a British and asylum seekers into society. Many
Statement of support for a Jewish European states such as France, Germany,
homeland. After World War I, the League Italy, and Greece have faced internal
of Nations entrusted the United Kingdom opposition to receiving refugees. This
with the administration of the formerly opposition has exacerbated the problem of
Ottoman Mandate of Palestine.11 An uptick migration by jeopardizing the safety of
in antisemitism in Europe drove consistent migrants and criminalizing many migration
Jewish immigration into the territory, with routes. On the contrary, states such as
Jews outnumbering Arabs in concentrated Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey who receive
areas as early as 1933.12 Britain, in the unfettered numbers of refugees have faced
aftermath of World War II, later passed other domestic dilemmas. For the last
responsibility of administering Palestine to several years, Jordan has accepted millions
the United Nations, which convened a of Palestinian, Iraqi, and Syrian refugees
Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP); and currently hosts around 650,000 Syrian
this committee later recommended that the refugees.16 Initially, Jordan was flooded
mandate be partitioned between the Jewish with refugees but in 2012, they began
and Arab occupants of the mandate. implementing a policy of refoulement, or
Following the promulgation of the the deportation of refugees. Jordan, like
UNSCOP plan, Palestinian Arab forces many other nations, turned to refoulement
declared war against the Jews, beginning due to the social and economic strain of
the ArabIsraeli War of 1948.13 The war, these refugees. Refoulement is banned
resolved with a Jewish (now Israeli) victory, under the 1951 Geneva Convention and the
set the scene for numerous altercations United Nations High Council of Refugees,
between Jews and Arab nations for the rest and is also considered to be a violation of
of the twentieth century.14 international law and human rights.17
As a result of these conflicts, millions The IsraeliPalestinian conflict has
of refugees flee, many of them using the created a similar refugee crisis. There are
Mediterranean Sea for transportation. In the currently 4 million UNregistered
midst of the Syrian Civil War, nearly 6 Palestinian refugees who trace their origins
million people have been displaced within to 1948 and 750,000 to 1967.18 Palestinian
migrants have faced destitution, penury,
11
“Balfour Declaration Letter Written.” History.com, A&E
Television Networks, 2018,
15
www.history.com/thisdayinhistory/thebalfourdeclaration. Su, Alice. “Why Jordan Is Deporting Syrian Refugees.” The
12
“Historical Timeline: 1900Present IsraeliPalestinian Conflict Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 20 Oct. 2017,
ProCon.org.” What Are the Solutions to the IsraeliPalestinian www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/jordansyr
Conflict?, Procon.org, 2015, ianrefugeesdeportation/543057/.
16
israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.timeline.php?timelineID=0000 Ibid.
17
31. Asser, Martin. “Obstacles to ArabIsraeli Peace: Palestinian
13
“Israel Profile Timeline.” BBC News, BBC, 13 Aug. 2018, Refugees.” BBC News, BBC, 2 Sept. 2010,
www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast29123668. www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast11104284.
14 18
“Syrian Refugee Crisis: Facts, FAQs, and How to Help.” World Fraihat, Ibrahim. “What About the Palestinian Double
Vision, World Vision, Inc., 2 Aug. 2018, Refugees?” Brookings, Brookings, 28 July 2016,
www.worldvision.org/refugeesnewsstories/syrianrefugeecrisi www.brookings.edu/opinions/whataboutthepalestiniandoubl
sfacts. erefugees/.
– 5 –
and insecurity for years, and similarly to but instead a myriad of unstable
the Syrian refugees, have often attempted governments and internal chaos. Five out of
to flee their conflictridden country via the six countries surrounding Libya are
Mediterranean. The civil war in Syria has currently at war, numerous other nations
only compounded the Palestinian refugees' have corrupt governments, and even more
hardships, making many of these displaced face general poverty and destitution.21 In
peoples “double refugees,” meaning they Libya itself, there are almost 400,000
fled from their homeland to a neighboring internally displaced persons that have been
country to seek asylum and then again fled reported since 2014.22 In addition to the
due to conflict.19 Millions of Palestinian and internal conflict, the prevalence of refugees
other Mediterranean residents have been has bolstered the smuggling industry out of
forced to flee from country to country to try Libya, increasing other black market
to find safety, and the numbers and networks such as human trafficking and
severity of this issue is only increasing. slavery.23 Because of their political
instability, Libya is unable to create defined
Northern Africa borders for their state or properly regulate
Conflict and insecurity in Northern this migration and as a result, thousands of
Africa have had a similar effect on migrants are being endangered and the
migration in the Mediterranean. Like the country itself is being harmed.
Middle Eastern refugees, many displaced Syria, Israel, and Northern Africa
Africans escape through Libya across the each have contributed largely to the
Mediterranean to better their livelihoods Mediterranean migration crisis in recent
and prospects. The reasons for this years. By examining their situations and
migration vary, from military servitude and focusing our solutions on these three case
violent conflict to tyrannical governments. studies, we can better ameliorate this crisis.
During this time, Libya has become host to Each one of these regions presents a
migrants from all across the country. The different historical reason for conflict,
migration from Libya across the proving that there is no one reason for the
Mediterranean is prodigious and irregular migration pattern in the
dangerous: in 2013 nearly 200,000 migrants Mediterranean, but instead is the result of a
crossed the Mediterranean from Africa and myriad of conflicts, domestic or otherwise.
thousands drowned in the process.20
Though fewer migrants leave from
northern Africa than Syria and Israel, the Contemporary Conditions
route that African Migrants face is Despite attempts to mitigate this
considered one of the most dangerous in crisis, little progress has been made in
the world. Most of the 3000 deaths reported reducing fatalities in the transit process,
on the Mediterranean in 2017 occurred in assimilating refugees, or controlling the
the route between Libya and Italy. causal conflicts. In Syria, the severity of the
One problematic aspect of African refugee crisis and their ongoing civil war
Migration across the Mediterranean is the has only increased as nations including the
cause: no single conflict is the driving force,
21
Ibid.
22
“Libya.” International Organization for Migration, The UN
19
Sakuma, Amanda. “How Libya Became the Gatekeeper of Migration Agency, 26 Feb. 2018, www.iom.int/countries/libya.
23
Africa's Migrant Crisis.” MSNBC, NBCUniversal News Group, 16 Meloni, Lorenzo. “How Libya Became the Gatekeeper of
May 2016, www.msnbc.com/specials/migrantcrisis/libya. Africa's Migrant Crisis.” MSNBC, NBCUniversal News Group, 16
20
Ibid. May 2016, www.msnbc.com/specials/migrantcrisis/libya.
– 6 –
United States, Iran, and Russia lend Increased outside involvement in
support or express opposition to this Middle Eastern conflicts and the Syrian
conflict.24 The United States alone has Civil War has also complicated wartorn
around 2,000 troops planted in Syria in areas such as Israel and the Palestinian
opposition to the government and has territories. In 2017, the United States gave
executed numerous airstrikes against the $3.1 billion in military aid to Israel and
Syrian regime in recent years. In support of around $362 million to Ramallahbased
the government and on on the opposing (Fatah) Palestinian security forces.28
side of the U.S. is Russia, who backs Assad Conversely, Arab nations such as Turkey
to keep a reliable ally in the Middle East. and Iran have condemned the actions of
Since the start of the conflict in 2011, Russia Israel through cutting diplomatic ties,
has admitted to sending nearly 50,000 supporting arming the Palestinian citizens,
troops into Syria and also executed and criticizing Israel’s inability to
numerous airstrikes in Syria since the start peacefully communicate with Palestinian
of the conflict.25 Iran has similar ties to the forces.29 These recent and publicized
Syrian government, aiding the government stances on Israel have created unrest within
through troops, oil subsidies, and credit the already wartorn nation. The United
lines. Aside from support or opposition to States’ recent recognition of Jerusalem as
the government, nations such as Turkey Israel’s capital spurred a Palestinian
have been drawn into the conflict due to uprising, resulting in a violent conflict.30
other preexisting ties. Turkey’s military Surrounding conflicts in the Middle East
presence in Syria is largely a reaction to the (such as the Syrian Civil War) and
slowly mobilizing Kurdish region, involvement by foreign powers have
attempting to quell the Kurd’s nationalist instigated protests, violence and chaos in
sentiments so as to prevent a subsequent recent years. As tensions rise and fall
uprising of Kurds in Turkey. Proxy battles within the state due to foreign affairs,
such as this one are severely complicating surrounding wars, or internal policies, both
the Syrian conflict and migration crisis. Israeli and Palestinian forces clash and
Along with Turkey and the Kurds, Russia create refugees, most of whom are
and the United States, Turkey and the Palestinian. Currently, there are an
United States, Israel and Iran, and various estimated 3.8M Palestinian refugees and
smaller nonstate actors have also used their descendants, and around 260,000 are
instability and chaos in Syria to propagate
their own vendettas, exacerbating the
conflict and increasing casualties and www.brookings.edu/blog/orderfromchaos/2018/06/19/syrian
displaced persons.26 Since the start of the refugeesinturkeybeyondthenumbers/.
28
“Israel and Palestine Events of 2017.” World Report 2018, Human
conflict in 2011 to this year, approximately Rights Watch, 18 Jan. 2018,
1,000 Syrians have been displaced each day www.hrw.org/worldreport/2018/countrychapters/israel/pales
tine.
due to fighting within their borders.27 29
“What Are the Official Positions of the Surrounding Arab
States, Turkey, and Iran in Relation to Israel and the Palestinian
Territories? IsraeliPalestinian Conflict ProCon.org.” What Are
24
Meloni, Lorenzo. “How Libya Became the Gatekeeper of the Solutions to the IsraeliPalestinian Conflict?, Procon.org, 28 Jan.
Africa's Migrant Crisis.” MSNBC, NBCUniversal News Group, 16 2016,
May 2016, www.msnbc.com/specials/migrantcrisis/libya. israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000
25
Ibid. 341.
26 30
Bremmer, Ian. “Syria's Civil War Complicated By Multiple Nelson, Louis, et al. “Protests Erupt as Hamas Calls for
Proxy Battles.” Time, Time, 16 Feb. 2018, Uprising in Israel after Trump's Jerusalem Decision.” POLITICO,
time.com/5162409/syriacivilwarproxybattles/. POLITICO, 7 Dec. 2017,
27
Kirişci, Kemal, et al. “Syrian Refugees in Turkey: Beyond the www.politico.com/story/2017/12/07/hamasuprisingtrumpjer
Numbers.” Brookings, Brookings, 19 June 2018, usalemisrael285265.
– 7 –
internally displaced within Israel.31 An unregulated and illegal route across the
Israeli military operation in Gaza in 2014 Mediterranean.36
has left over 29,000 Palestinians without Currently, the migration situation in
homes today, and because of the laws the Mediterranean seems bleak. Many of
restricting building permits or house the original instigators for this crisis have
purchases, many Palestinians stay only been exacerbated in light of recent
displaced for years.32 Violence within the global political affairs, foreign policies, and
West Bank and Gaza Strip is only complicated domestic conflicts.
increasing, and as a result, so is the number International responses to migration in the
of refugees fleeing their homes within and Mediterranean have also negatively
outside the country. affected the complexity of migration, with
Similar to Israel and the Syrian Civil the global community either refusing to aid
War, the desire and need for migration in the migrants, and meddling in civil wars
Northern Africa has increased in recent and internal politics.
years. According to Gallup World Poll, 28%
of Northern Africans wanted to leave their
continent in 2016, but that number Past United Nations and
increased to over 30% in 2017, with 46% of
Northern Africans between 1529 wanting
International Action
to migrate.33 Reasons for this rise in desired International reactions to this
migration include educational migration crisis have varied from country
opportunities, difficult economic to country. While many nations have been
conditions, and perpetual conflict within generous with humanitarian and monetary
many northern African nations, with the aid, others have been hesitant to allow
most popular destination for said migration migrants to live in their country, or if they
being Europe.34 Much of the contemporary do, provide haphazard resources or means
conditions for conflict and subsequent for attaining citizenship or assimilating into
migration in Northern Africa can be traced their new country. Countries such as
to the Arab Spring, a series of political Greece and Italy have accepted the brunt of
revolutions in 2011 across Africa and the refugees traveling from Libya and Syria
Middle East.35 In Libya specifically, these into Europe, with hundreds of thousands of
protests led to a civil war and government refugees flooding their ports and borders
overthrow, contributing to the political each year. This heavy influx of migrants has
instability today and posing Libya as the put a strain on Greece’s and Italy’s
ideal beginning to many migrants economy, and as a result, the EU and these
two nations have worked to relocate many
31
of the refugees from these countries into
“How Many Palestinian Refugees Are Here Today?” Americans
United for Palestinian Human Rights, Americans United for neighboring areas.37 Despite these attempts,
Palestinian Human Rights, 2003, Greece and Italy are both heavily flooded
www.auphr.org/index.php/resources/factsheets/refugees/15h
owmanypalestinianrefugeesaretheretoday. by migrants and have threatened to seal
32
33
“Israel and Palestine Events of 2017” their borders. Germany is in a similar
Berrached, Iman, and RJ Reinhart. “Desire to Migrate Rises in
North Africa.” Gallup.com, Gallup, 24 Apr. 2018,
36
news.gallup.com/poll/233006/desiremigraterisesnorthafrica.a Ibid.
37
spx Stone, Jon. “Syrian Refugee Crisis: How Different Countries
34
Ibid. Have Responded.” The Independent, Independent Digital News
35
“The Arab Spring: A Year Of Revolution.” NPR, National Public and Media, 1 Sept. 2016,
Radio, 17 Dec. 2011, www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/syrianrefugeecrisis
www.npr.org/2011/12/17/143897126/thearabspringayearof howdifferentcountrieshaverespondedfrancelebanonuka722
revolution. 0616.html.
– 8 –
situation, having accepted around one risk of being deported in the near future.
million refugees since 2015.38 Domestic Lebanon currently hosts the highest
reactions to these refugees and asylum number of refugees per capita, but despite
seekers have been twosided, with many these numbers has been lacking in
German citizens strongly supporting international monetary or humanitarian
Chancellor Angela Merkel’s decision to aid support.41
migrants and others protesting the refugee The European Union has been one of
influx with more conservative political the most influential international bodies in
ideologies. Though these European nations the implementation of Mediterranean
are the desired destinations for most migration law. Because of its close
migrants, countries such as Turkey, Jordan, proximity to the crisis, the EU has been
and Lebanon have accepted far more forced to create policies directly addressing
refugees with far fewer regulations or the migration influx. The European
resources. Turkey hosts one of the world’s Commission’s main policy areas include
largest communities of refugees, migrants, reducing incentives for irregular migration
and displaced persons, with through prosecuting smuggling networks,
governmentfunded shelter being provided and partnering with countries in the
to over 3 million refugees since 2011.39 Mediterranean to create safer pathways
Although their numbers are large, most between the nations.42 They also are
refugees have had difficulty assimilating attempting to better their immigration
into Turkish society and the Turkish policies to continue to bring in migrants
government is hesitant to improve refugee during Europe’s population decline and
registration or naturalization processes. make immigration to Europe more
Nations such as Jordan and Lebanon face transparent and secure. The EU has also
similar issues with an overflow of refugees. donated billions of euros in humanitarian
Jordan has closed their borders to refugees, aid to the previously mentioned sources of
leaving tens of thousands stranded at the this migration crisis, as well as set aside
edge of their country, many in need of funds domestically for refugees already in
medical or humanitarian assistance.40 Europe. In efforts to alleviate the strain of
Currently, Jordan is in the process of migrants on the economies of Greece and
resettling many of refugees, and as Italy, the EU has also set up relocation
previously mentioned, has begun to policies that have moved 24,000 refugees
implement a policy of refoulement. into other less populated areas.43 Though
Lebanon has also turned to refoulement, the EU’s efforts have made an impact, this
but on a much larger scale than Jordan. migration crisis still rages and increases in
Since 2016, almost 20,000 refugees were severity daily.
evicted from Lebanon with over 40,000 at The United Nations has passed a
38
series of resolutions to aid in irregular
Dockery, Wesley. “Two Years since Germany Opened Its
Borders to Refugees: A Chronology.” DW, Deutsche Welle, 9 Apr.
migration. In 2016, the United Nations
2017,
41
www.dw.com/en/twoyearssincegermanyopeneditsborderst “Lebanon: Mass Evictions of Syrian Refugees.” Human Rights
orefugeesachronology/a40327634. Watch, Human Rights Watch, 21 Aug. 2018,
39
Phillips, David L. “Turkey's Refugee Problem.” The Huffington www.hrw.org/news/2018/04/20/lebanonmassevictionssyrian
Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 26 Oct. 2016, refugees.
42
www.huffingtonpost.com/davidlphillips/turkeysrefugeeprob “Migration.” European Commission, European Commission, 12
lem_b_8391706.html. Sept. 2015, ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/migration_en.
40 43
“Jordan: Syrian Refugees Must Not Be Abandoned.” Amnesty “The EU and the Migration Crisis.” EU Law and Publications,
International, Amnesty International, 25 June 2018, Publications Office of the European Union, July 2017,
www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/06/jordansyrianrefug publications.europa.eu/webpub/com/factsheets/migrationcrisi
eesmustnotbeabandoned/. s/en/#whatistheeudoing.
– 9 –
adopted the New York Declaration for
Refugees and Migrants, which expressed
the UN’s and member nation’s commitment
to protect migrants’ basic human rights and
increase humanitarian aid to nations most
affected.44 In the years since its creation, this
doctrine has aided European resettlement
programs and increased humanitarian aid,
however, few nations are adhering to its
commitments to the anticipated degree.
Although the United Nations condones
accepting refugees, there is still a large
stigma surrounding migrants that deter
most developed nations from opening their
borders.45 The United Nations High
Commission on Refugees has similar aims,
providing a broad range of support to
refugees including humanitarian and
monetary aid, better programs in host
countries for refugees, and helping refugee
communities better express their concerns
and participate in their new homes.46 Both
the UNHCR and the UN have taken
tangible steps towards bettering the
migration crisis, however, few nations have
abided by their doctrines and aspirations
for a myriad of reasons.
44
“New York Declaration | Refugees and Migrants.” United
Nations Refugees and Migrants, United Nations, 2018,
refugeesmigrants.un.org/declaration.
45
Clarkson, Amanda. “The New York Declaration on Refugees:
One Year On.” OpenDemocracy, OpenDemocracy, 18 Oct. 2017,
www.opendemocracy.net/amandaclarkson/newyorkdeclarati
ononrefugeesoneyearon.
46
“Europe Situation.” UNHCR USA, UNHCR, 2017,
www.unhcr.org/enus/europeemergency.html.
– 10 –
– 11 –
7. For nations such as Greece, Turkey, Jordan, 8. Once migrants and refugees reach a nation,
Italy, and Lebanon who are overrun by how can they be assimilated into the culture
refugees and migrants, what steps should be so as to prevent domestic disputes?
taken to alleviate their economic strain Many nations harbor ill sentiments towards
without resorting to refoulement? refugees or migrants because of their inability
As previously discussed, refoulement is to assimilate into their hostcountries’ culture.
prohibited under international law and In Europe, there’s been a rise in altright
should be avoided. These mentioned nations, political movements vying to bar migrants
however, often have legitimate economic and refugees from entering to preserve their
backing to their refoulement policies that culture. In order to prevent these types of
should be addressed. extreme political actions, it is necessary to
provide pathways for migrants to integrate
into their host country's society.
– 12 –
Bloc Positions
● Europe ● The Middle East
As mentioned above, European Nations such as Middle Eastern Nations such as Iran, Syria,
Greece, Italy, and Germany have had some of Iraq, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon have
the most contentious responses to the migration been most impacted by the migration crisis.
crisis. While these three nations have hesitantly Though they have been the most lenient on
accepted refugees crossing the Mediterranean, refugees flooding their borders, they also have
many other nations such as France, Hungary, been the main instigators of this issue. As
Slovenia, and Austria have tightened their aforementioned, many nations are now
borders and have successfully barred many beginning to turn away refugees at the border
refugees from entering their nations.47 In the or evict already settled refugees within their
midst of this migration crisis, many European nations. These Middle Eastern Nations perhaps
nations have seen a rise in conservative have the most diverse policies on the future of
political ideologies and subsequently altright the migration crisis, however, they all are
parties in an attempt to bar immigrants from accepting mass amounts of refugees daily and
entering.48 Though there are attempts by the have taken similar measures to accommodate
European Union to increase immigration into the refugees within their borders.
Europe and to send more aid to refugees in
Europe and abroad, many nations are altering
their migrant policies and slowly restricting
their borders.
47
Boghani, Priyanka. “The ‘Human Cost’ of The EU's Response to the Refugee Crisis.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 23 Jan. 2018,
www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/thehumancostoftheeusresponsetotherefugeecrisis/.
48
Ghent, and Stolkholm. “How ‘Identitarian’ Politics Is Changing Europe.” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 28 Mar. 2018,
www.economist.com/europe/2018/03/28/howidentitarianpoliticsischangingeurope.
– 13 –
● North Africa ● The West
North African Countries such as Libya, Tunisia, Nations such as the United States, Canada, and
and Algeria have some of the major actors in the United Kingdom have had their own
the migration crisis. Because of the perpetual domestic dilemmas regarding the migration
conflict in many of these northern nations, crisis in the Mediterranean. Though the United
refugees flood out of Libya to Europe daily. States and Canada both increased the number
Many of these countries lack stable or of refugees they accepted in 2017, the United
legitimate governments, and this migration Kingdom decreased the number of refugees by
crisis is only exacerbating this chaos by 14%.50 However, neither Trudeau nor Trump
enlarging the smuggling and trafficking have made significant attempts for their nations
markets. There are nine main subSaharan to accept more refugees in recent years and as
nations that are the main contributors to human political tensions rise surrounding immigration
trafficking along the Mediterranean route: debates, the possibility of assistance to this
Nigeria, Eritrea, Sudan, Gambia, the Ivory migration crisis diminishes.51 The internal
Coast, Guinea, Somalia, Mali, and Senegal.49 controversy over immigration and refugees has
These nine nations along with the coastal inhibited the United States, Canada, and the
nations of Africa are in dire need of a solution United Kingdom’s ability to provide aid for this
to their migration crisis yet have lacked crisis.
adequate humanitarian or monetary aid nor
have they made significant policies themselves
that mitigate this issue.
49
“North Africa: The Other Side of Europe's Migrant Crisis.” Stratfor, Stratfor Enterprises, 7 Oct. 2016,
worldview.stratfor.com/article/northafricaothersideeuropesmigrantcrisis.
50
“Asylum in the UK.” UNHCR USA, UNHCR, 2018, www.unhcr.org/enus/asylumintheuk.html.
51
Wright, Teresa. “Global Refugee Numbers Reach Record High, U.S. and Canada Take in Record Numbers.” CTVNews, BellMedia, 19 June
2018, www.ctvnews.ca/world/globalrefugeenumbersreachrecordhighusandcanadatakeinrecordnumbers1.3979399.
– 14 –
Conclusion
The continuation of the migration crisis in the Mediterranean is one of the greatest
issues in the global community today. As this issue fails to be resolved, lives are lost, political
instability grows, and general chaos ensues. The gravity of this situation has caused it to be a
serious security concern on many international fronts and has caused protests and riots on
huge scales. Though not many countries are directly on the Mediterranean Sea, nor personally
dealing with the influx of migrants, every nation can apply this committee's solutions to their
own domestic problems.
As you, the delegates, continue with your research you will undoubtedly find positions
on immigration or refugee policy, both of which can be applied to resolutions for this topic.
Use past United Nations resolutions, your country’s own policies, and historical resources to
craft your position paper and subsequent resolution. This committee will engage in substantial
debate over one of today’s most prevalent and serious international issues.
∎
– 15 –
Topic B:
The Question of Kurdistan
Introduction were drawn, their allegiance and legal
foundations for Kurdistan were ignored.
The Question of the Kurdish State, is The Kurdish people were then separated by
a multifaceted issue spanning numerous four countries’ borders, and though their
economic and political debates. Rooted in autonomy is still considered a basic human
longstanding cultural differences, right, their placement within other
Kurdistan, or the conglomerate fighting to autonomous nations severely complicates
create a Kurdish State, is engulfed by four their situation.
nations: Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. In Today, the Kurdish people are the
each one of these nations, the Kurdish largest centered ethnic community without
population is a highly centralized minority their own autonomous state. Their
and is attempting to maintain political tumultuous quest for statehood has almost
autonomy, despite state borders. However, spanned a full century, growing more
the main crux of this issue lies around the complicated as conflict in the Middle East
question of selfdetermination. increases. In 2017, the Iraqi Kurdish
Selfdetermination is defined as the population voted in a referendum for
universal right for peoples to “freely Kurdish independence. 92% voted “yes” for
determine their political status and freely an independent Kurdish state, launching a
pursue their economic, social and cultural series of Kurdish nationalist movements in
development.”52 Although the other 3 nations with Kurdish minorities.
selfdetermination is a simplification of this 54
Turkish and Iranian governments showed
topic, the Question of the Kurdish State the most adversity to the question of
revolves heavily around minorities’ Kurdish independence, with Turkey
autonomy, treatment, and political threatening economic and diplomatic
representation in larger states. repercussions if the independence vote was
In the context of Kurdistan, carried out.55 In all four Kurdish host lands,
selfdetermination must be viewed the Kurdish people face severe persecution.
considering the four main nations, Iran, In Turkey, a 1924 mandate outlawed
Iraq, Turkey, and Syria. The origins of these Kurdish schools and publications, going so
nations borders can be traced back to World far as to illegalize the words “Kurd” and
War 1, postcollapse and reallocation of the “Kurdistan.”56 In Iran, the Kurdish people
Ottoman Empire.53 Though the Kurdish
people mobilized in an attempt to create a 54
Qiblawi, Tamara. “Kurds Vote in Favor of Independence from
Iraq.” CNN, Cable News Network, 27 Sept. 2017,
unified state before other nations’ borders www.cnn.com/2017/09/27/middleeast/kurdishreferendumres
ults/index.html.
52 55
“SelfDetermination.” UNPO: SelfDetermination, Unrepresented Zucchino, David. “On Eve of Kurdish Independence Vote, a
Nations and Peoples Organization, 21 Sept. 2017, Warning From Turkey.” The New York Times, The New York
unpo.org/article.php?id=4957. Times, 23 Sept. 2017,
53
Panayiotides, Nicos. “The Kurds' Enduring Struggle for www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/world/middleeast/turkeykurd
SelfDetermination.” Asia Times, Asia Times, 18 July 2018, sindependencereferendum.html.
56
www.atimes.com/thekurdsenduringstruggleforselfdetermin Dominique, Callimanopulos. “Kurdish Repression in Turkey.”
ation/. Cultural Survival, Cultural Survival, June 1982,
– 16 –
face religious persecution as Sunni Muslims political vacuum remained in the Kurdish
in a Shi’a supported state, and much of this regions of southeastern Anatolia and
animosity boils over into employment, northern Iraq.60 In the wake of the new
education, and housing disparity57. Iraqi geopolitical climate, a political vacuum
Kurds have endured genocidal onslaughts existed in the Kurdish regions of
by former president Saddam Hussein, and southeastern Anatolia and northern Iraq.61
in Syria, the government regularly attacks After the war, Britain had indicated support
Kurdish gatherings and unlawfully arrests of establishing an autonomous Kurdish
Kurdish leaders.58,59 In the words of the nationstate, as evident in the 1920 Treaty of
Massoud Barzani, the president of Turkey’s Sevres. Despite these promises, the Kurdish
Kurdish region, “You have punished us for lands were forcibly incorporated into Iraq
one hundred years. Are you not tired yet?” and Turkey in the Lausanne Treaty of 1922,
The Question of the Kurdish State is driven by a British strategy to appease the
a complicated and historical situation. As a Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal
committee, we have the potentially Ataturk to preserve imperial interests in the
daunting task of creating a solution to this Middle East.62 The development of new
issue. Though focused in one geographical nations ultimately disregarded the cultural
region, the Question of the Kurdish State unity of the Kurds. Today, the modern
will set a precedent for our reaction to Kurdistan includes parts of eastern Turkey,
selfdetermination, mistreatment of northern Iraq, northern Syria, and
minorities, and state autonomy for years to northwestern Iran.63
come.
Kurds in Turkey
Kurds constitute approximately 20
Historical Background percent of the Turkish population, and the
Dating back to the early centuries of Kurdish people have had historically
the Ottoman Empire, the Kurdish people tenuous relations with the Turkish
have attempted to assert their government.64 Under Ataturk’s program of
independence. In the decades following the modernization and secularization, minority
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the rights were not recognized and cultural
Kurdish population continued to face homogeneity was enforced. Through
numerous obstacles to political attempts at linguistic standardization, the
representation, equality, and autonomy. Turkish government aimed to force the
The aftermath of World War I presented an assimilation of cultural and religious
opportunity for the Kurdish people to form minorities into a unified secular, Turkish
their own nationstate. In the wake of the identity.
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, a Resistance to the policies under
Ataturk manifested in various ways. There
www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/culturalsurvivalquarter were several Kurdish revolts against the
ly/kurdishrepressionturkey.
57
“Iran: Human Rights Abuses Against the Kurdish Minority.”
60
Amnesty International, Amnesty International Publication, 2008, Othman Ali. "The Kurds and the Lausanne Peace Negotiations,
www.crin.org/en/docs/mde130882008eng.pdf. 192223." Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 33: 521534.
58
“Iraq's Resilient Minority.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283891.
61
Institution, 1 Dec. 2005, Ibid.
62
www.smithsonianmag.com/history/iraqsresilientminority1103 Ibid.
63
65442/. "Where are the Kurds?" Kurdistan Project., accessed 10/16/,
59
“Syria: End Persecution of Kurds.” Human Rights Watch, Human 2018, https://thekurdishproject.org/kurdistanmap/.
64
Rights Watch, 26 Nov. 2009, "Who are the Kurds?" BBC., accessed 10/16/, 2018,
www.hrw.org/news/2009/11/26/syriaendpersecutionkurds. https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast29702440.
– 17 –
new regime during the 1920s and 1930s, use of arbitrary imprisonment and
notably the Kurdish Rebellions of Sheikh torture—contributed to a general shift in
Said in 1925, Mt. Ararat in 1930, and attitudes in favor of or relatively neutral
Dersim from 19371938.65 In response, the toward the PKK since 1985.69
Turkish government brutally suppressed The Turkish government has
these revolts, resulting in the deaths of continually attempted to stifle Kurdish
hundreds of thousands of Kurds; political mobilization. In 1994, Leyla Zana,
predominantly Kurdish regions of Turkey the first Kurdish women elected to
have remained consistently militarized Parliament in Turkey, was imprisoned on
since.66 the grounds of “separatist speech.”70
To mobilize politically, Kurdish The Turkish government remains in
activists generally aligned with leftist conflict with the PKK, which increasingly
Turkish parties with common goals. During relied on guerrilla warfare and terrorist
the late 1960s and into the 1970s, the rapid tactics. While the ban on speaking Kurdish
growth of leftist organizations and Kurdish in Turkey was lifted, most other
support often resulted in violent conflicts expressions of Kurdish of culture remain
with rightwing groups that were restricted.71 Additionally, the Turkish
frequently supported by the police.67 government remains committed to its
Moreover, the army coup of 1971 marked military campaign against the PKK.
the beginning of a period of heightened
repression in Kurdish areas. Kurds in Iran
During the 1970s, numerous Kurdish In contrast to the Turkish
nationalist groups developed with the goal government, the Iranian government has
of seceding from Turkey and becoming an never committed severe acts of brutality
independent state. Arguably the most against the Kurds to the extent to which its
influential party is the Kurdistan Workers Turkish counterparts have. Despite the
Party, known as the PKK. In 1980, political comparatively decent relations between
instability and clashes between left and Kurds and the Iranian government, the
right wing groups resulted in another Iranian regime remains opposed to Kurdish
military coup, ushering a period of autonomy. This position is largely
arbitrary detention, torture, executions, and motivated by the fear that other minority
disappearances.68 The PKK subsequently groups within Iran, including its Arab,
launched a violent campaign of insurgency Turkic, and Baluchi minorities, would also
against the regime in 1984. While the demand independence.72 Iran is composed
broader Kurdish population initially of numerous ethnic and cultural minorities,
disapproved of PKK tactics, the severity of inheriting this diversity from the prior
the brutality of state forces—especially the Persian Empire, and this created a need for
the Iranian government to prevent
65
Olson, Robert. "The Kurdish Rebellions of Sheikh Said (1925), fragmentation. However, Kurds constitute
Mt. Ararat (1930), and Dersim (19378): Their Impact on the
Development of the Turkish Air Force and on Kurdish and
69
Turkish Nationalism." Die Welt Des Islams, New Series, 40, no. 1 Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A
(2000): 6794. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1571104. Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (20)
66 70
Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A "The Kurds in Turkey." Federation of American Scientists.,
Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (18) accessed 10/16/2018,
67
Ibid. https://fas.org/asmp/profiles/turkey_background_kurds.htm.
68 71
Timeline: A History of Turkish Coups." Al Jazeera., last Greg Bruno. "Inside the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)."
modified July 2016 Council on Foreign Relations., accessed 10/16/2018.
72
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2012/04/2012447281 Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A
4687973.html. Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (22)
– 18 –
a much smaller proportion of the Throughout the remainder of the
population in Iran, comprising around 11% 20th century and the beginning of the 21st
of the population, according to the United century, Iranian Kurds continue to
Nations.73 maintain tense relations with the Iranian
In 1946, Kurds in Iran and Iraq government. Political organizations
established a shortlived independent continue to advocate for Kurdish
nation, the Republic of Mahabad.74 While autonomy.
the newly formed state enjoyed the support
of the Soviet Union, it failed to gain Kurds in Iraq
sufficient Kurdish nationalist support and Kurds represent the largest ethnic
ultimately collapsed in less than a year. group in Iraq, comprising approximately 16
However, the Republic of Mahabad is percent of the population.77 Throughout
considered by many Kurds to be a symbol Iraq’s history, Kurds have consistently
of hope for future independence. challenged the Iraqi government. After the
Under the Pahlavi dynasty, breakup of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was
nationalist sentiment mobilized through the occupied under a British mandate.
Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI). Britishcontrolled Iraq consisted of the
However, nationalist sentiment did not former Ottoman provinces of Mosul,
substantially manifest during these years in Baghdad, and Basra.78 Furthermore, Mosul
Iran. The government generally perceived was subsequently divided into four distinct
Kurdish nationalism as a threat to its governorates: Mosul, which was majority
control. Arab, Erbil and Sulaimaniya, which both
The demise of the Shah in the 1979 possessed Kurdish majorities, and Kirkuk,
coup d’etat provided an opportunity for the which was predominantly Turkmen. 79 The
Iranian Kurds to potentially develop new Kurds rejected the authority of the British
relations with the government. However, occupation from the beginning, largely on
the revolutionary government opposed religious grounds—Kurds were devout
Kurdish autonomy because it feared that it Sunni Muslims.
would prompt similar demands from other From 1919 through 1924, the Kurdish
minority groups, which could result in the tribal leader Shaykh Mahmud Barazanji
fragmentation of the country.75 As a result, organized a series of revolts against the
armed conflict ensued as the new regime in Iraq, declaring an independent
government attempted to assert control in Kurdish kingdom in Northern Iraq.80
Kurdish regions. However, the uprisings were ultimately
The outbreak of the IranIraq war suppressed and the Kurdish regions were
ostensibly offered opportunities for Kurds fully integrated into the Iraqi state.
in both nations, yet the situation ultimately Resistance to the British mandate
became substantially worse for both; it was within the Kurdish community persisted
evident that both governments were
exploiting the war as “a means of dealing 77
Mohamed, Besheer. "Who are the Kurds?" Pew Research
with their internal Kurdish problem.”76 Center., accessed October, 2018,
http://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2014/08/20/whoareth
73
https://unpo.org/members/7882 eiraqikurds/.
74 78
Tabatabai, Ariane. 2017. "Iran and the Kurds: What the Jawad, Saad Naji. 2008. "The Kurdish Question in Iraq:
Referendum Means for Tehran." Foreign Affairs Magazine, Historical Background and Future Settlement." Contemporary Arab
September 26, 2017 Affairs.
75 79
Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A Ibid.
80
Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (23) "Iraqi Kurdistan Profile Timeline;" BBC.,
76
Ibid. https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast15467672.
– 19 –
and manifested politically with the Kurdish people. While hostilities briefly
emergence of the Kurdistan Democratic subsided in 1964, the conflict was renewed
Party (KDP), as well as through additional in 1965 when government troops launched
attempted uprisings. Additionally, a military offensive against Kurdish rebels
demands for Kurdish sovereignty remained on October 22, 1965.85
even after the end of the British mandate in This pattern of repeated conflicts
1932. While the KDP initially supported the continued throughout the 1960s. In 1970,
establishment of the independent Mahabad the Iraqi government agrees to recognize
Republic, the collapse of that state resulted Kurdish autonomy, even amending the
in a temporary decline in the activity of the constitution to affirm that: "the Iraqi people
KDP. However, the KDP was revived in is made up of two nationalities, the Arab
1951 by new Kurdish nationalists. While the nationality and the Kurdish nationality."86
official president of the KDP was Mustafa However, the agreement failed to lead to
Barzani, the exiled leader of the attempted meaningful reforms, and relations between
uprising in 1943, Ibrahim Ahmad, a leftist Kurdish parties and the Iraqi regime
with ties to the Iraqi Communist Party, also deteriorated. Eventually, Barzani and the
exercised significant influence in the KDP. KDP reached out to the United States in an
81
appeal for military aid.87 In 1975, internal
With the Iraqi coup d’etat of 1958, dissent within the KDP resulted in the
Kurdish nationalists gained the ability to establishment of the Patriotic Union of
mobilize publicly after remaining largely Kurdistan (PUK) under the leadership of
underground for many years. While the Jalal Talabani, a former KDP leader.
new provisional constitution recognized the With the onset of the IraqIran war in
“national rights” of Kurdish people and 1980, KDP forces closely allied with Iran,
facilitated the return of Mustafa Barzani, yet the PUK opposed this cooperation.
tensions grew between the new During this conflict, numerous Kurdish
government and the Kurdish population by nationalist parties in both Iraq and Iran
the early 1960s.82 attempted to exploit the situation for the
In fact, the 1960s was a period goal of driving state forces out of
characterized largely by continual conflict Kurdistan.88
between Barzani’s KDP and the Iraqi As the 1980s progressed, the Iraqi
regimes.83 In 1961, the KDP initiated a government exercised heightened
revolt against the Iraqi government. The repression. In response, the KDP, PUK, and
military extension of the KDP, the several smaller Kurdish groups united to
peshmerga, received support from both the establish the Kurdistan Front in 1987.89
Iranian government and the Soviet Union, However, Iraqi forces instituted the Anfal
while Syria deployed around 5,000 troops Campaign against the Kurds in 1987, which
to support the Iraqi regime.84 As the conflict was a systematic attempt to eliminate the
intensified, the Soviet Union accused the Kurdish resistance movement; tens of
government of Iraq of genocide against the thousands of civilians and combatants died,
81 85
Ibid. Ibid.
82 86
Ibid. "Iraqi Kurdistan Profile Timeline;" BBC.,
83
Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast15467672.
87
Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (27) Ibid.
84 88
"Iraq and Kurds (1932Present)." University of Central Arkansas Kreyenbroek, Philip G. and Sperl, Stefan. 1992. The Kurds: A
Political Science., accessed 10/16/, 2018, Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. (28)
89
http://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadmproject/middleeastnorth "Iraqi Kurdistan Profile Timeline;" BBC.,
africapersiangulfregion/iraqkurds1932present/. https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast15467672.
– 20 –
and hundreds of thousands were forced The Turkish government launched
into exile.90 Chemical weapons and mass numerous attacks against Kurdish groups,
executions were employed against tens of including Iraqbased extensions of the PKK.
thousands of civilians including women Additionally, ISIS has initiated campaigns
and children, according to Human Rights to conquer Kurdish territory, yet the
Watch. 91Moreover, thousands of civilian Peshmerga have resisted territorial
Kurds were killed in a poison gas attack in incursions and challenged ISIS throughout
March of 1988 in Halabja as a part of the Northern Iraq.96
Iraqi government’s genocidal campaign
against the Kurds.92 Kurds in Syria
In the aftermath of the Gulf War, The Kurdish region of northern
another Kurdish rebellion was suppressed Syria, known as Rojava, is home to a
by the Iraqi government, forcing over 1.5 substantial proportion of Syria’s Kurds.
million Kurds to flee the region.93 In 1991, Kurds represent the largest ethnic minority
the KDP and the PUK began negotiations in Syria, comprising approximately 10
with Saddam Hussein regarding Kurdish percent of its population.97 After the first
autonomy, yet fighting broke out between world war, France was granted authority to
Peshmerga and government forces. control Syria. Under the French mandate,
Moreover, internal disputes resulted in a Syrian Kurds began to develop a unified
civil war involving KDP and PUK forces political identity. In 1927, Kurdish groups
from 19941997.94 While the two parties formed the Khoybun League to advocate
signed a peace accord in 1998, the Kurdish for Kurdish nationalism.98 Prior to French
government remained divided between the governance, Kurds in Syria were generally
two conflicting administrations. tribalist and locally oriented. However, the
Iraq remained plagued by conflict Khoybun League aimed to mobilize a
throughout the duration of the United unified Kurdish national identity.
Statesled invasion of that country in 2003. Syria became an independent nation
During the Iraq War, Kurdish military in 1946, and a subsequent period of political
groups opted to cooperate with US forces, instability was characterized by numerous
supporting the overthrow of Saddam coups and uprisings. In 1957, the first
Hussein’s repressive regime. In 2005, the official Kurdish political party was
new constitution designated Iraqi established: the Democratic Party of Kurds
Kurdistan as an autonomous federal entity in Syria (DKPS).99 The DKPS supported the
and recognized Kurdish as an official efforts of its Iraqi counterparts of the KDP,
national language.95 However, the 2000s as well. Numerous other Kurdish parties
remained years of instability and conflict. developed during this period, yet this
90
development occurred in an environment
"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile Timeline;" BBC.,
https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast15467672. “dominated by Arab nationalism.”100
91
Human Rights Watch. 1993. Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign
96
Against the Kurds. Beauchamp, Zack. "18 Things about ISIS You Need to Know."
92
https://editorials.voa.gov/a/rememberinghalabjamassacre/4 Vox., last modified November, accessed 10/16/, 2018,
298678.html https://www.vox.com/cards/thingsaboutisisyouneedtokno
93
"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile Timeline;" BBC., w/whoarethekurds.
97
https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast15467672. "Who are the Kurds?" BBC., accessed 10/16/, 2018,
94
Ibid. https://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast29702440.
95 98
Samii, Cyrus. 2012. "Iraq After the 2003 US Invasion: The Schott, Anne Sofie. 2017. The Kurds of Syria.
Kurdish Question." Comparative Political Economy of Affirmative https://pure.fak.dk/files/7248264/The_Kurds_of_Syria.pdf
Action, NYU.
99
https://wikis.nyu.edu/display/cpeaa/Iraq+after+the+2003+US+ Ibid.
100
invasion%3A+The+Kurdish+Question. Ibid.
– 21 –
In 1962, the Syrian government Kurdish role in resistance to ISIS helped
deprived 120,000 Jaziran Kurds —20 gain support from Europe and the United
percent of Syria’s Kurdish population—of States in advancing Kurdish interests.
citizenship.101 The government began to However, the prolonged conflict has also
adopt numerous legislative measures to created tension and fragmentation among
further disenfranchise Kurds through the the various Kurdish parties.
redefinition of citizenship, depriving Kurds
of their rights to education, property, and
political participation, among others.102 A Contemporary Conditions
new government under the Ba’ath party The Middle East today has been a
ascended to power in 1963 after a coup, hotspot of conflict and turmoil, largely
intensifying Kurdish oppression. affecting Kurdistan and the push for an
After over a decade of political independent state. Drawn in by repeated
suppression, the Kurdish Workers Party Islamic State (IS) attacks in Northern Iraq
(PKK) was established in Syria based on and the Turkish border of Syria, Kurdistan,
ideals of Kurdish nationalism and an across its four states, is currently at the
independent Kurdistan.103 Eventually, the forefront of the fight against the terrorist
PKK came to dominate the political sphere group. In a multinational front with the
of Kurdish interests in Syria. However, the United States and other countries, the
PKK presence in Syria diminished during Kurds, comprised of the Syrian Kurd
the late 1990s out of fear of Turkish People’s Protection Units (YPG) and KRG’s
invasion.104 Peshmerga forces in Iraq, have played an
During the early 2000s, new integral role, especially in the battle for
independent Kurdish activist organizations their cities of Sinjar, Kobane, and Raqqa,
developed. Wit the death of oppressive chronologically, across the two countries.107
President Hafiz alAsad in 2000, Syria As the situation drags on and potentially
experienced the “Damascus Spring,” a brief becomes more complicated, Kurdistan will
period of open political debate and remain an important partner in the fight
activism, which came to an end a year later against ISIS, making the question of their
with the arrests of prominent activists.105 statehood an essential one.
Throughout the remainder of the 2000s, the
government strengthened its suppression
of Kurdish parties, including the newly
Iraq
established Democratic Union Party (PYD). Kurdistan’s recent independence
In 2011, Syria erupted into civil war, referendum sparked conflict with the
mobilizing young people and activists who central Iraqi government. By including the
challenged the oppression of the Assad historic, oilrich city of Kirkuk in its region
regime. Kurdish groups within Syria view for independence, Kurdistan provoked the
the civil war as an opportunity to realize arrival of Iraqi forces to the city to seize it
their goal of autonomy and and put a physical, as well as symbolic,
selfdetermination.106 Moreover, the hold on Kurdish “expansionism”.108 This
101
Ibid. https://www.mepc.org/journal/sowingdivisionkurdssyrian
102
Ibid. war.
103 107
Ibid. “Who Are the Kurds?” BBC News, BBC, 31 Oct. 2017,
104
Ibid. www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast29702440.
105 108
Ibid. Issa, Philip. “Why the Battle for Kirkuk Matters.” The
106
Kaya, Zeynep and Matthew Whiting. 2017. "Sowing Division: Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 17 Oct. 2017,
Kurds in the Syrian War." Middle East Policy Council 24. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middleeast/kirkukbattl
– 22 –
posed a serious roadblock to Kurdish hedge against the Kurds and that their
autonomy, and even more so, statehood. advance across the border and into Aleppo
The Iraqi government took over the was a violation of Syrian sovereignty.113
previously semiautonomous territory Thus, until recently, Syria had been
around Kirkuk, including the city, indirectly aligned with Kurdistan, as the
surrounding oil fields, and other towns, government supported Turkish rebels and
which the Kurds rely on for strength and both were pitted against Turkey.
survival.109
Many of these areas were taken by Political Structure
the Kurds during the chaotic fighting None of this translates well for
between the Iraqi government and the IS Kurdistan’s status as a state, currently. Its
that left the region open, an area which the political structure is divided among the
Kurds held ancestral ties to. Now, with the Kurdish territory in the four countries it
Iraqi government’s attention turned back spreads across, creating large divisions
onto Kurdistan, they have taken close to between the regions and thus another
onefifth of Kurdishcontrolled territory obstacle to a future Kurdish state, lacking
since the referendum.110 such unification.
Although described as a
Syria parliamentary democracy, parliament for
Recently, the Kurds have fought the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG),
under the title of the Syrian Democratic which functions in Iraq, has not met since
Forces (SDF), united with the US coalition November 2016 and President Masoud
and local Arab militias. As a result, they Barzani has ruled without a mandate since
have come into direct clash with Syrian 2015.114 Today, the staunchly divided
government forces backed by Russia and Kurdish political parties still halt any
Turkishsupported rebels, spurring progress in running parliament or the
111
heightened tensions in the region . coalition government. In Iraq, the Change
Meanwhile, Syria has also indirectly parties and Islamic group withdrew
supported the Kurds in their united entirely from the government and the two
resistance to Turkish militant forces. main parties, the KDP, led by Barzani, and
Because Turkey sees the Kurdish militia the PUK currently control different cities
(YPG) as a terrorist organization, they and have stalled cooperation between them.
115
moved into parts of northern Syria where In Syria and Turkey, the Kurds are
the Kurds were located, prompting Syria to aligned between the PKK, which operates
respond against Turkey by calling for UN PKK military camps in northern Iraq, and
Security Council action.112 Syria believed the PYD, which operates the YPG armed
Turkey was supporting terrorist groups force.116 Both are united in their poor
linked to alQaeda in northern Syria as a relations with Turkey, which is currently
fighting the PKK and is hostile towards the
eiraqikurdishcitywhyitmattersisishaideralabadiregionref
erendumgovernmenta8004316.html.
PYD, and, like the KRG in Iraq, which
109
PeÇanha, Sergio. “How the Kurdish Quest for Independence in
113
Iraq Backfired.” New York Times, 5 Nov. 2017, Ibid.
114
www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/11/05/world/middleeast/ Pike, John. “Kurdistan Regional Government [KRG] Politics.”
kurdindependenceiraqturkeyiransyriamapsbackfired.html. GlobalSecurity.org, 5 Mar. 2018,
110
Ibid. www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/krgpolitics.htm.
111 115
“Who are the Kurds?” Ibid.
112 116
“Syria Calls for UN Action on Turkish Attacks on Kurds.” BBC “Syria Calls for UN Action on Turkish Attacks on Kurds
News, BBC, 15 Feb. 2016, ‘Frank Talks’” BBC News, BBC, 15 Feb. 2016,
www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast35576153. www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast35576153.
– 23 –
operates the Peshmerga forces, are all affairs.122 Oil is the central focus and
fighting against ISIS, largely with ground controversy of this federalism. The KRG,
forces.117 Still, Turkey has amicable relations using the Iraqi constitution as a basis,
with the KRG, unlike with the other two disputably signs oil contracts with foreign
main Kurdish political bodies, and is also states, including the US and China, as it sits
fighting against the Islamic State, especially on some of the largest of these (oil and gas)
with air strikes. reserves. As a result, if they were an
The KRG, which now controls six independent state, the KRG would be the
territories in Iraq, is structured by a country with the 10th largest oil reserves.123
provisional constitution, which is called the
Provisional Constitution of the Federated Plans for the Future
Republic of Kurdistan.118 It was drafted in Kurdistan is looking to formally
1996, creating a unicameral parliament with resolve the issue of its boundaries as an
111 seats. The President of Kurdistan, most effort to gain real selfdetermination,
recently Barzani, is the commanderinchief eventually as a state. They wish to expand
of the Peshmerga, chief of state, and head of current boundaries to include the Iraqi
the cabinet.119 They are elected by the cities of Mosul and Kirkuk. These efforts,
people of the region, and can delegate however, are challenged by the large
executive powers to the cabinet, which is Turkmen, Assyrian, and Arab populations
elected, along with the Prime Minister, by in these cities, as well as opposition from
the majority party. While the president can Turkey, which is worried that the potential
veto bills, the Prime Minister is the head of for the KRG to break from Iraq would
the legislature, which drafts and passes mobilize Kurds in Turkey to attempt a
laws by majority vote.120 similar secession.124
Recently, the KRG finally started to What does lay ahead, though, is the
increase its involvement in politics again challenge for the Kurds, spread across the
after Barzani’s resignation from, and region, to gain the support of the UN and
subsequent vacancy of, the presidency after the international community to draw its
his failed independence referendum. Now own boundaries as an independent state.
as the Kurdish Prime Minister, he served on The first step, which they have already
a delegation that met with the Iraqi outlined and begun to execute, is supplying
government and Prime Minister to form a the Peshmerga with sufficient training and
new cabinet and address a large range of resources to defend Iraqi Kurdistan from
domestic issues.121 ISIS’s plans to establish an Islamic
Iraq is constitutionally a federated Caliphate.125 This, coupled with continuing
republic, meaning it is divided into federal Kurdish efforts to maintain and expand
regions responsible for their own domestic their growing territorial control in Syria,
affairs, with the central government in would provide a hedge against the IS’s
Baghdad as the center for international stronghold in the region and solidify the
117
Ibid.
territory for a Kurdish state.
118
“KRG: Kurdistan Regional Government.” The Kurdish Project,
thekurdishproject.org/historyandculture/kurdishdemocracy/k
rgkurdistanregionalgovernment
119
Ibid.
120
Ibid.
121 122
Ebraheem, Mohammed. “Sadr, Kurdish Delegation Press for Ibid.
123
Forming New Government Soon.” Iraqi News, 23 Sept. 2018, Ibid.
124
www.iraqinews.com/baghdadpolitics/sadrkurdishdelegation Ibid.
125
pressforformingnewgovernmentsoon/. Ibid.
– 24 –
– 25 –
break its ties with the YPG.130 The US has actions.133 However, the UN has also taken
demonstrated that it is unlikely to give in to action individually on the issue.
Turkish demands here, as Turkey wants to Warning about the potentially
pursue military reprisals against the YPG, destabilizing effects of a Kurdish
an important US ally in the fight against IS, independence referendum, the 15 members
east of the Euphrates.131 But, the US, in of the UN Security Council unanimously
maintaining its simultaneous relations with voted against such a referendum, adding to
Turkey, decided to harden its stance on the the weight of already existing international
PKK, which is centered in Turkey, instead, opposition to it.134 They identified that it
asking the Turkish government to soften up could prevent refugees from returning
on the YPG in return.132 This put Turkey in home and hurt military efforts versus the IS
a unique position, because they have because it was scheduled for during
recently taken unilateral military actions counterISIS operations, for which Kurdish
against the YPG in Syria but have been in a forces had thus far played an integral role.
135
war versus militants in the PKK for The UN offered to help resolve the issue
decades, costing hundreds of lives in postvote and sent senior Iraq envoy Jan
Turkey. As a result, they have gone as far as Kubis to mediate tensions between the Iraqi
to support the Iraqi government, alongside government and KRG.136 Ninetythree
Iran, in challenging Kurdish leaders there percent of Kurds voted in favor of
(“How the Kurdish Quest for Independence independence, angering the international
in Iraq Backfired”). This created an even community, and urging the UN to get
broader band of international action involved to ease the turmoil and preserve a
stymying Kurdish progress in the region, balance around Kurdistan for the time
while also threatening USTurkish relations being.
in a crucial geopolitical location and era.
United Nations
Besides the calls for UN Security
Council operations by Syria to remove
Turkish fighters from their northern
Kurdish territory, the UN has also been
called by Iraq to take action pertaining to
the Kurds. As a response to the KRG’s
autonomous decisions to export oil, the
Iraqi government, which claims the KRG
has no constitutional or legal right and is
instead hurting Iraqi sovereignty, 133
Peker, Emre, and Benoit Faucon. “Iraq Threatens Kurds With
U.N. Action.” The Wall Street Journal, 9 June 2014,
threatened to complain to the UN about its www.wsj.com/articles/iraqssemiautonomouskurdishregionsh
ips2ndtankerofoil1402332052.
134
News Wires. “UN Security Council Opposes Kurdish
Independence Vote.” France 24, 22 Sept. 2017,
www.france24.com/en/20170922unitednationssecuritycouncil
saysopposeskurdistaniraqindependencevote.
135
Ibid.
130 136
Gurcan, Metin. “Turkey's Trigger Finger Grows Itchy over Cockburn, Harry. “UN Offers to Help Resolve Iraq's Kurdish
USKurd Relations.” AlMonitor, 16 Nov. 2018, Independence Crisis.” The Independent, Independent Digital News
www.almonitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/11/turkeysyriaisa and Media, 28 Sept. 2017,
notherfrontdevelopinginnorth.html. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middleeast/unhelpres
131
Ibid. olvebaghdadiraqkurdistankurdishreferendumcrisissyriaa79
132
Ibid. 72911.html.
– 26 –
– 27 –
Bloc Positions
● The Middle East ● Former Colonies/Africa
Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran clearly do not Though many former colonies have restrained
support an independent Kurdistan. Though from expressing opposition or support for the
Iraq has proved to be more sympathetic Kurdish independence, given their history of
towards the Kurdish people in hosting a selfdetermination and oppression, these
referendum, they did not act on the majority former colonies likely hold similar opinions of
consensus. The other nations have Kurdistan. Many former colonies faced similar
systematically persecuted the Kurdish people oppression by their administering power as the
and have continually extinguished any attempt Kurdish people face today, thus they may be
to mobilize as an independent state. Israel, able to use their own experiences to aid the
however, does support an independent Kurdish situation.
Kurdistan, stating that they “support the
legitimate efforts of the Kurdish people to attain ● The West
a state of its own.137” Many western nations including the United
States and Canada have expressed hesitant
● Europe support of the Kurdish people, but not support
Many European nations including Sweden, for an independent Kurdish State. Though all
Belgium, and Germany have all supported the have consulate presences in Erbil, the
Kurdish State. Sweden has supported Kurdistan Kurdistan capital in their Iraqi region, they
for economic and trade reasons, with bilateral have also demonstrated a higher allegiance to
trade reaching $154 million dollars in 2011.138 Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran, and thus do not
Germany and Belgium both support the fully support independence139. The United
Kurdish people, but have not explicitly States recently called the Iraqi referendum
supported Kurdish independence. Though each “provocative and destabilizing” though has
are dedicated to preserving the rights and had cordial relations with Kurdistan in the past,
safety of the Kurdish people, they prioritize the and this sentiment seems to be reflected in
peace and stability of the region. theses other nations as well.140
137
Lee, Ian. “Why Israel Supports an Independent Iraqi Kurdistan.” CNN, Cable News Network, 2 Oct. 2017,
www.cnn.com/2017/10/02/middleeast/iraqikurdistanisraelsupport/index.html.
138
“Kurdistan to Double Trade Volume with Sweden.” Iraq Business News,
www.iraqbusinessnews.com/2012/04/18/kurdistantodoubletradevolumewithsweden/.
139
“Erbil Foreign Consulates.” Laos Embassies and Consulates, EmbassyPages.com, www.embassypages.com/city/erbil.
140
Goldman, Russell. “Kurds Voted for Independence. Here's Who Else Has a Say.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 29 Sept. 2017,
www.nytimes.com/2017/09/29/world/middleeast/kurdsindependencereferendumexplainer.html.
– 28 –
Conclusion
The Question of the Kurdish State is one of the most complex and political issues of
selfdetermination today. Selfdetermination is often discussed in the context of NonSelf
Governing Territories and Colonization, however in the case of Kurdistan, the borders of four
other autonomous states complicate this right. This fight for selfdetermination has continued
for over a century with no resolution.
Despite historical promises for an autonomous Kurdistan, the four other nations,
Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, have concertedly prohibited the formation of the Kurdish state
through persecuting the peoples, disregarding referendums, and ignoring potential political
influence. Each one of these nations has brutally persecuted the Kurdish people, bringing into
question the rights of ethnic minorities as a subset of selfdetermination, and how the
treatment of minorities changes the effectiveness of their attempts for political autonomy. In
the context of the Kurdish people, their century of persecution and mistreatment has only
compounded their desire for their own nationstate, making their situation increasingly dire.
The international community’s failure to address the issue of Kurdistan reveals a level
of obstinacy within many states, and further exposes the United Nations’ inability to uphold
selfdetermination, a basic right on which they were founded. The United Nations’ Charter
states that the purpose of an international governing body is “to develop friendly relations
among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and selfdetermination of
peoples,” yet Kurdistan shows a different perspective.141 Without resolving this quintessential
example of equal rights and selfdetermination, the international community is unable to
progress and further address other similar situations. The case study of Kurdistan sets the
precedent for further international action in any region of the world and is of the utmost
importance to resolve.
∎
141
“United Nations Charter.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/sections/uncharter/chapteri/index.html.
– 29 –
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