Name of student: Jason Harroo

School: Hillview College

School code: 160023

Subject: History

Unit 1: The Caribbean in the Atlantic World

Module 2: Slave Systems: Character and Dismantlement

Theme 2: Disintegration of Slave Systems

Topic: Were the Haitians the principal artifacts of their freedom?

Table of Contents

I.A. Description Header Page

Statement of Problem------------------------------ ----------------------------1----------------------------

Historical Setting----------------------------------- ----------------------------2----------------------------

Discussion-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------5----------------------------

Conclusion------------------------------------------- ----------------------------8----------------------------

Works Cited------------------------------------------ ----------------------------9----------------------------

 Harroo 1

Statement of Problem

In light of the darkness that beheld the Africans prior to 1791, St. Domingue (Haiti)

emerged as the first black ruled nation of the western hemisphere in 1804. This was a

cataclysmic event given the long established white sentiment that Africans were sub-human,

illiterate “monkeys” and that the “white is right” plantocracy system would last forever. The

Haitian slaves not only thrashed the ‘Massa’ mentality in St. Domingue but the rebels remained

in power for a substantial period, influencing revelations of slave revolts worldwide. From the

early 20th century, the history academe, such as James (1938), Williams (1970), Dubois (2004),

Popkin (2011) and Geggus (2014) have produced compelling debates on all aspects of the

Haitian Revolution with most in agreement on the causes of the revolt. The Haitian rebels were

the principal architects of their freedom in 1791.

 Harroo 2

Historical Setting

“The land of high mountains” formerly ruled by the Spanish, was later ceded to French

control (1697) via the Treaty of Ryswick (Ott 5). Economic affluence was achieved as Haiti’s

exports embodied two-thirds of France’s exterior trade, with production being over one million

in sugar, specifically 141,089,831, it exceeded production in every English colony combined

(Henochsberg 15). The French formerly cultivated indigo; however, the soil quickly became

exhausted which ultimately led to a dependency of sugar and coffee in the 1690’s (Arsenault and

Rose 57). Henochsberg (15) indicated, “For year 1788, the total trade volume was estimated at

about 214 millions francs (42 millions dollars) with approximately 155 million francs in exports

and 55 million francs in imports.” This, along with the boom in coffee production in the 1780s,

crucially made Haiti known as the wealthiest colony in the Antilles. This success was achieved

through excessive slave imports to Saint-Domingue to work on the plantations. James (5) notes:

“Africans had been shipped into St. Domingue in remarkable numbers. The 47,000
in 1720 had grown to 80,000 in 1730. Thereafter the growth was explosive: 172,000
by 1754, and rising more dramatically still between 1763 and 1789, from 206,000
to 465,429.”

This mass invasion of slaves also allowed for the extreme inequality in the population ratio with

one white to eighteen Africans. “The distribution of this population was 40,000 whites, 30,000

Affranchis (people of free color), and 450,000 slaves, which reflected the expansion of the

plantations that relied on slavery” (Coupeau 18). The Africans being imported so numerously

and frantically to prolong the economic success of the sugar and coffee exports, allowed for a

higher probability of skilled militaristic Africans to be introduced in collected tribes. According

to Thornton (934),
 Harroo 3

“French ships transported over 224,000 slaves from Africa in the decade before
the revolution, of which 116,000 (51%) came from the Angola coast and 55,000
(25%) from lower Guinea, Making together over three-quarters of the total… In
both Angola and Lower Guinea, slaves were taken in great military actions in
which armies mobilized and fought in battles, thus resulting in a high percentage
of the captives being prisoners of war, and veterans.”

Given the abnormally large imbalance between whites and Africans, Haitian slaves
were controlled using gruesome constraints. Implementing the Code Noir (1685) condoned
the planter class subjugation of the “worthless” chattel African slaves and those who were
unbaptized to be buried (Dubois 12). On the word of the Code Noir,

“Slaves will not be allowed to be given offices or commissions with any

public function… Nor can slaves be party, either in judgement nor in civil
suits, either as plaintiff or defendant, neither in civil or criminal suites… The
slave who will have struck his master or the wife of his master, his mistress
or their children to bring blood, or in the face, will be punished with death…
The fugitive slave who has been on the run for one month from the day his
master reported him to the police, shall have his ears cut off and shall be
branded with a fleur de lys 1 on one shoulder. If he commits the same
infraction for another month, again counting from the day he is reported, he
shall have his hamstring cut and be branded with a fleur de lys1 on the other
shoulder. The third time, he shall be put to death.”

Moreover, a group of intellectuals called the Enlightenment (1685 – 1815) propagated the idea

that God did not create anyone’s destiny and that every man is born with life, liberty and

property. Philosophers such as Francis Bacon, John Locke and David Hume, to name a few,

instigated an evolutionary birth of thought where “new ideas and attitudes about government,

democracy, and the political rights of the people were the very ideas that would serve as the

foundation for the American Revolution” (1775-1783) (Paine 33). This alongside the French

Revolution (1789-1799) which “initiated a struggle against royal and ministerial despotism

culminating the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793.”(Bryan 15). August 26, 1789 the National

Assembly shaped the principles of the Enlightenment on the Declaration of the Rights of Man. I

1
A symbol of the French monarchy and remains an unofficial symbol of France. Used to brand slaves.
 Harroo 4

states that “Men are born free and equal in rights. The aim of every political association is the

preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are Liberty, Property,

Safety and Resistance to Oppression.”(Minnesota 1). This further solidified an upcoming revolt

for freedom. Saint-Domingue, in mirror of their leader (France), were under chaos, and in the

midst of this, a mulatto named Vincent Ogé (Father of the revolution), with aid of the Amis des

Noir (Friends of the Blacks), planned a revolt against the whites for their right to vote (1790).

Unfortunately, Ogé was “broken slowly on the wheel before being beheaded.” (Brown 43). His

death however gained international attention in France.

“The mulatto revolt in France’s most important colony, particularly its bloody
suppression, succeeded in reopening the Assembly debate… The Amis des Noirs
and the radicals thus joined forces to push for justice – full civic rights for free
men of color – in Oge’s name.” (Brown 45)

Persistent debates and feudalism between the whites and gens de couleur2 allowed for a superb

opportunity for the slave to fight for their freedom with comradery of the mulattoes (Bryan 17).

2
Freed mixed race people of colour, largely intelligent. The blacks were not fond of them
as they had white blood in them. Similarly, whites hated them for they had black blood and
believed that no black person should be granted such franchise.
 Harroo 5

Discussion

The Haitian revolution. The most notorious event in the French colonies, served as an

inspiration to all slaves worldwide as it exposed the capability of the slaves in overthrowing the

whites. Internal factors including demography, voodoo, geology and remarkable leadership were

assessed to vindicate that Haitian rebels were the principal source of their own freedom.

The first major contributing factor for rebel success included the dense slave population.

The sugar and coffee in the 1700’s led to the massive recurring cycles of slave importation “at a

rate of 33,000 slaves annually” (Coupeau 16). This proved detrimental to the French colonial

regime as their greed for slaves created an abnormally high amount of African born slaves, who,

unlike the Creoles, were not born into slavery and were more inclined to rebel. This high

importation of slaves instigated the demographic inequality where “there were nearly twelve

black slaves for every white inhabitant” (Popkin 10). Regular visits to the Kongo coast, which is

home to the great Civil War. “In the 1780s, French ships carried a total of over 116,000 slaves

from this coast, mostly to Saint-Domingue… the civil wars in Kongo really ended on the

colony’s coffee and sugar plantations.” (Thornton 935). Additionally, the highly militaristic

Kongolese were skilled at artillery, mounted on canoes and fortifications (Thornton 941). “These

soldiers, veterans of African wars, might well have had the military skills that made the

revolution in Saint-Domingue a success” (Thornton 936). Unrighteous treatment and

disproportional demography started the revolutionary bond shared between the gens de colour

and the blacks.

Another critical component in the success of the slave revolt was the practice of Voodoo.

Dutty Boukman, a Vodou priest, led a large assembled group of African rebels in Bois Caïman

(Accilien et al 98) on August 14, 1791. Boukman spoke of the white planters living in luxury
 Harroo 6

with their numerous homes while the blacks were toiling for days straight with no rest; he spoke

life and freedom into his fellow Africans:

“God who made the sun that shines upon us, who causes the sea to rise, the
thunder to roar, do you hear me, all of you? Hidden in the clouds, god witnesses
the atrocities the whites commit against you. The God of the white sanctions their
crimes and does not care about us. But God who is so good, orders us to avenge
ourselves. He will direct our arms and stand beside us. Destroy the image of the
white man’s God who is thirsty for our tears, listen to the voice of freedom rising
in you heart.” (Accilien et al 98)
These words uplifted he African rebels, physically and emotionally indestructible. This bravery

was immediately suppressed as Boukman declared a blood pact oath, provoking fright into the

African rebels; they were more afraid of betraying their vow than dying in war. Boukman

chanted:

“Eh! Eh! Bomba! Heu! Heu! Canga, bafio té! Canga, mouné de lé! Canga, do ki
la! Canga, do ki la! Canga, li! (We swear to destroy the whites and all they
possess. Let us die rather than fail to keep this vow.)” (Abbott 21)
Boukman ignited a spark where there was no light, he gave the rebels confidence through this

culture of voodoo which instilled communication and co-operation.

Another factor that assisted the annihilation of the whites was leadership. Highly

courageous and intelligent individuals surfaced in St. Domingue to lead the 1791 revolt. One

such example occurred after Boukman’s death where a charismatic, militaristic and literate

African called Toussaint L’Ouverture emerged. The whites mistakenly underestimated Toussaint

in belief that he was illiterate, uneducated, liable and an incompetent slave. This surmise was

challenged, as eyewitness indicated that Toussaint was “fearless on the most resistant horse”

(Popkin Facing Racial Revolution 279), educated and “he showed that he was worthy of being

considered that natural genius” (Popkin Facing Racial Revolution 279). Toussaint, with his

fluency in guerrilla warfare, saw an opportunity opened in the revolt to join in fight for liberty
 Harroo 7

and equality. Other essential leaders arose, Jean-Jacques-Dessalines (Toussaint’s general) who,

unlike Toussaint, was heartless when it came to the white masses. For instance, General

Rochambeau did not intimidate him when the captured 500 Africans hostages, which was later

executed. Dessalines retaliated by capturing 500 white planters mercilessly hanged each. Henri

Christophe, like Toussaint was formally a slave who eventually joined Dessalines in the fight

against the whites. Christophe was seen as a captivating leader to the slaves for his wisdom and

skill, famous for his militaristic strategy of setting aflame Le Cap and retreated with 2000 white

hostages.

Haiti’s geology played a critical role in encouraging revolutionary activity within the

colony. According to Munford (1) “in 1789 Saint Domingue agriculture encompassed some 50

cocoa farms, 3,117 coffee plantations, and more than 3,000 small indigo farms. [There were

also] 793 sugar plantations, ranging in area from 300 to 1,000 hectares…” Munford (17) adds

that "Sugar plantations dominated three-quarters of the Cap region…” and Williams

(238) further noted that “the typical plantation of the period…required 100 carreaux of land, of

which two-thirds were planted with cane.” These plantations suppled a dense coverage that

allowed the slave rebels to move with ease, from plantation to plantation, gathering supporters

and wiping out the white masters. Haiti’s geology also shaded the Haitian rebels when they

solemnized their struggle in a blood pact oath on August 21, 1791. Anderson (32) states that this

meeting, later dubbed the Bois Caiman ceremony, took place in “...the woods on a hill

called morne rouge…” Shilliam (n. pag.) notes that Bois Caiman (or Bwa Kayiman) is

an “ ..alligator woods that surround a swamp in the Choiseul and Dustou estates…" The area was

heavily wooded and veiled the voodoo ceremony that riled up the slave rebels and sparked a

crucial point in the revolt.

 Harroo 8

Conclusion

In short, through this research, it can be concluded that African rebels were the principal

artifacts of their own freedom. Supportive factors included the numerous importation of African

slaves to Saint-Domingue, which engendered the high ratio of racial inequity. This instigated

communication amongst the African tribes, thus promoting resistance. Such unionization

propagated culture, such as voodoo ceremonies for the dethroning of the white populace. The

revolution surfaced many highly skilled, intelligent and capable leaders to forgo Haitian’s

victory over the whites, which included Toussaint L’Ouverture, Jean-Jacques-Dessalines and

Henri Christophe. Not to mention, Haiti’s mountainous landscapes which composed multitudes

of coffee plantations and supported the clandestine voodoo ceremony. All listed factors were

crucial in the creation of the rebel’s most fruitful victory.

 Harroo 9

Works Cited

Anderson, Sean Dane. “Thee King, a Queen, and an Oath Sealed in Blood: A Cultural Re-

Evaluation of the Bois-Caiman Ceremony and its Impact on the Early Haitian

Revolution.” M.A. Diss. Lehigh University, 2016.

Abbott, Elizabeth. Haiti: A Shattered Nation. 2012 ed., Duckworth P, 2011.

Accilien, Cécile, et al. Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and

Imagination in Haiti. Educa Vision, 2006.

Arsenault, Natalie, and Christopher Rose. "Africa Enslaved A Curriculum Unit on Comparative

Slave Systems for Grades 9-12." Slavery in Haiti, March 2009.

liberalarts.utexas.edu/hemispheres/_files/pdf/slavery/Slavery_in_Haiti.pdf. Accessed 3

Feb. 2019.

Beard, John R. Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography and Autobiography. Ayer Company

Pub, 1971.

Thornton, John. “African Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution.” Caribbean Slavery in the Atlantic

World: A Student Reader, eds. Hilary & Verene, Ian Randle Publishers, 2000, pp. 933 –

945.

Beckles, Hilary M., and Verene A. Shepherd. Liberties Lost: The Indigenous Caribbean and

Slave Systems. Cambridge UP, 2004.

Brown, Gordon S. Toussaint's Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution.

Mississippi UP, 2005

Bryan, Patrick E. The Haitian Revolution and Its Effects. Heinemann, 1984.
 Harroo 10

Buck-Morss, Susan. Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History. Pittsburgh UP, 2009.

Dubois, Laurent. Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. Harvard

UP, 2009.

Geggus, David P. The Haitian Revolution: A Documentary History. Hackett Publishing

Company, 2014.

Henochsberg, Simon. "Public debt and slavery: the case of Haiti (1760-1915)." Thomas Piketty

– Accueil, December 2016. piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Henochsberg2016.pdf. Accessed

3 Feb. 2019.

James, Cyril L. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution.

Penguin UK, 2001.

Munford, Clarence J. “The Pearl of the Antilles is Born: Haiti and Black Slavery - The Early

Years, 1629-1715.” Degruter,

n.d. https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/jbla.1991.28.issue-

1/jbla.1991.28.1.1/jbla.1991.28.1.1.pdf. Accessed on 5 Mar. 2019.

Nicholls, David. Haiti In Caribbean Context. Macmillan P, 1985.

---. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti. Rutgers

UP, 1996.

Ott, Thomas O. The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804. Tennessee UP, 1973.

Paine, Thomas. Common Sense. Edited by Edward Larkin, Broadview P, 2004.

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Popkin, Jeremy D. A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

---. You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery. Cambridge

UP, 2010.

---. Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection. Chicago

UP, 2010.

Shilliam, Robbie. “Race and Revolution at Bwa Kayiman.” Wordpress,

n.d. https://robbieshilliam.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/shilliam-revolution-and-race-at-

bwa-kayiman.pdf. Accessed on 5 Mar. 2019.

University of Minnesota. "The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and

the American Bill of Rights." HathiTrust Digital Library,

catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/007420618. Accessed 5 Mar. 2019.

Williams, Eric. From Columbus to Castro. Carlton Publishing Group, 1970.