Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
June 2012
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 General.......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Objective Statement ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Thesis development .................................................................................................................... 11
2 Hydrogen – Basics & Challenges ......................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Hydrogen-General....................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Properties-physical and chemical ............................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Combustion properties ....................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Why Hydrogen Energy ................................................................................................................ 14
2.3.1 Organizational : ................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Technical ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.3.3 Regulatory ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.4 Financial .............................................................................................................................. 20
2.4 Security of Energy supplies ......................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Climate Change ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.6 Atmospheric pollution ................................................................................................................ 30
2.7 Electricity Generation ................................................................................................................. 31
2.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 34
3 Hydrogen Production-Feed stocks & Processes ................................................................................. 35
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 35
3.2 Hydrogen production from fossil fuels and biomass .................................................................. 37
3.2.1 Steam methane reforming .................................................................................................. 38
3.2.2 Partial Oxidation / Autothermal Reforming Of Methane ................................................... 39
3.3 Coal Gasification ......................................................................................................................... 40
3.4 Biomass Pyrolysis/Gasification ................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Heat and Alternative/Renewable Energy Sources ............ 42
3.6 Electrolysis .................................................................................................................................. 43
3.7 Sulfur-Iodine cycle....................................................................................................................... 48
3.8 Photosynthetic / Photobiological................................................................................................ 49
3.9 Photocatalytic Water Splitting .................................................................................................... 50
[1]
3.10 International Hydrogen demonstration projects:....................................................................... 52
3.10.1 Wind-to-hydrogen project .................................................................................................. 52
3.10.2 International projects ......................................................................................................... 54
3.11 Discussion.................................................................................................................................... 54
3.12 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 57
4 Renewable Resources of Pakistan-Assessing the H2 Potential ........................................................... 59
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 59
4.2 Renewable Resource Potential ................................................................................................... 61
4.2.1 Solar Potential ..................................................................................................................... 62
4.2.2 Data Inferences: .................................................................................................................. 66
4.2.3 Wind Potential .................................................................................................................... 67
4.2.4 Major wind resource areas: ................................................................................................ 73
4.3 Renewable Hydrogen-An estimation .......................................................................................... 74
4.3.1 Calculation methodology .................................................................................................... 74
4.3.2 Solar hydrogen generation ................................................................................................. 76
4.3.3 Wind hydrogen estimation ................................................................................................. 78
4.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 79
5 Energy Infrastructure-Evolution, Evaluation & Development ............................................................ 81
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 81
5.2 The challenging infrastructure .................................................................................................... 84
5.3 Infrastructure initiatives ............................................................................................................. 85
5.3.1 US Department of transportation ....................................................................................... 85
5.3.2 Anticipated long-term outcomes ........................................................................................ 85
5.4 Framework for Renewable Hydrogen infrastructure.................................................................. 88
5.4.1 Model Development ........................................................................................................... 88
5.4.2 Infrastructural Framework .................................................................................................. 92
5.4.3 Outward radiating distribution System: ............................................................................. 93
5.4.4 Optimization: (O3 for R3) .................................................................................................... 94
5.4.5 RESULTS............................................................................................................................... 95
5.4.6 Future Work ........................................................................................................................ 95
5.5 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................. 96
6 Infrastructure Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 97
[2]
6.1 General........................................................................................................................................ 97
6.2 Distributed Vs Concentrated production .................................................................................... 97
6.2.1 Wide spread H2 Vs limited use ............................................................................................ 98
6.2.2 Spatial/Storage issues: ........................................................................................................ 99
6.2.3 Futuristic vision ................................................................................................................. 100
6.3 Natural gas infrastructure in Pakistan ...................................................................................... 101
6.3.1 General .............................................................................................................................. 101
6.3.2 Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Ltd (SNGPL)............................................................................ 101
6.3.3 Sui Southern Gas Company Ltd (SSGCL) ........................................................................... 104
6.4 Layout of Natural Gas Infrastructure ........................................................................................ 105
6.4.1 Compressors ..................................................................................................................... 108
6.5 Model Formulation ................................................................................................................... 109
6.5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 109
6.5.2 Model Build up .................................................................................................................. 110
6.5.3 Assumptions ...................................................................................................................... 111
6.5.4 Variables’ definition .......................................................................................................... 113
6.5.5 Constraints: ....................................................................................................................... 116
6.5.6 Database ........................................................................................................................... 118
6.5.7 Cost for elements of Hydrogen supply chain .................................................................... 119
6.5.8 Discussion.......................................................................................................................... 123
6.6 Gas pipeline Network................................................................................................................ 127
6.6.1 Components & Terminology ............................................................................................. 127
6.6.2 H2 & Natural gas-Energetic attributes............................................................................... 129
6.6.3 Pipeline material aspects in H2 distribution ...................................................................... 132
6.6.4 H2-Natural Gas mixtures by % volume .............................................................................. 134
6.6.5 Transition to 100% hydrogen transport in NG pipelines. ................................................. 137
6.7 Options for transmission & distribution of Hydrogen .............................................................. 138
6.7.1 Alternate energy systems ................................................................................................. 139
6.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 146
7 Summary of Conclusions & Recommendation ................................................................................. 148
7.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 148
7.2 Hydrogen Supply Chain-Infrastructural Analysis ...................................................................... 148
[3]
7.2.1 Renewable Resource Assessment..................................................................................... 148
7.2.2 Integrated Renewable Hydrogen Network ....................................................................... 149
7.2.3 Gas Networks .................................................................................................................... 149
7.2.4 Biomass Based Renewable Hydrogen Model.................................................................... 149
7.2.5 Distribution and delivery................................................................................................... 150
7.2.6 Model application ............................................................................................................. 150
7.2.7 Transition to hydrogen economy ...................................................................................... 150
7.2.8 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 151
7.3 Infrastructure Analysis & Recommendations ........................................................................... 152
7.4 Food for thought-Future research direction............................................................................. 154
8 LIST OF APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 163
[4]
ABSTRACT
Energy being the life line of any flourishing economy is one of the foremost issues
faced by the developing and the developed world alike. Limited fossil fuel
reserves have constrained the energy planners to look for avenues that lead to
sustainable energy supplies. Hydrogen based on renewable resources is
purported to give a lasting solution to this problem.
It has been found that hydrogen can be produced from biomass at rates
competitive with steam methane reforming. The results can be refined with more
accurate and realistic statistical database of any region where the modeling tool is
employed. It has also been concluded that hydrogen can be transported as a
mixture with natural gas (without a major change over of material and hardware)
only in distribution network up to 17% by volume. Further the end-use appliances
i.e. burners etc. can tolerate up to 48% H2 mixtures with natural gas. Site specific
Multi-criteria Decision making (MCDM) techniques are recommended for
developing an integrated hydrogen supply chain for Pakistan.
[5]
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Pakistan is facing a severe energy crisis with power shut down of up to 12 hours in
rural areas. The problem originated in 1980s and has compounded further ever
since with no end in sight. Initially it started with the lack of planning on part of
the Government with authorities like the then “Water and Power development
Authority (WAPDA)” not being alive to the looming crisis. However later as time
passed by, with the lack of political will as well, hydel power (most suitable for the
region comprising of several North-south flowing rivers) could not be developed
to cope up with the rising demand.
Gradually as world woke up to the “climate change scenario” and moved to the
“post-oil peak era” as well as “post-fossil fuel” era, Pakistan lagged even further.
As oil production crossed over the peak combined with 9/11 triggered wars and
other socio-political factors world-wide, oil prices spiraled upwards. Consequently
Pakistan is presently faced with high oil import bills, energy drought and
challenges resulting from altered weather patterns. Globally “Sustainability” is the
catch word in the emerging alternate energy systems driven by a number of
causes:
Liberation of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has to be reduced to an
extent as low as Twenty percent by the end of this decade, as suggested by a
number of initiatives listed in Table 1.1.
[6]
Table 1.1 World-wide GHG initiatives
UK Emissions 2002-2006
United Kingdom Any sector Voluntary
Trading Scheme (closed)
Greenhouse Gas
New South Wales Abatement 2003-present Electricity Generation Mandatory
Scheme
2005-
Energy generation, refineries,
EU Emissions 2007(Phase I)
Europe ferrous metals, minerals, pulp, Mandatory
Trading Scheme 2008-
paper and others
2012(Phase II)
Japanese
Voluntary Food, drink, buildings, textiles,
Japan 2006-present Voluntary
Emissions pulp, paper, metals, and ceramics
Trading Scheme
2005-2007
Emissions Large direct emitters, linkage to
Norway (Phase I) 2008- Mandatory
Trading Scheme EU ETS in 2008
2012 (Phase II)
National
Large direct emitters expected to
Switzerland Emissions 2008-2012 Voluntary
participate
Trading System
[7]
TBA under
California 2012 start TBA Mandatory
Assembly Bill 32
Western Climate
Western USA TBA TBA Mandatory
Initiative
TBA under
United States Lieberman- 2012 start TBA Mandatory
Warner Bill
2005-2007
Chicago Climate
United States (Phase I) 2008- Any sector Voluntary
Exchange
2012 (Phase II)
Energy security issue that encompasses not only the reserves/resources but
also its economical availability and ease of transport-ability.
The beginning of the end of fossilized fuels is, and would cause a “sine-
wave” of their prices with a steep rise towards the complete exhaustion, that is
likely to be in the order of 40,65 and 150 years for petroleum, methane and coal
correspondingly.
Hydrogen has the potential to replace the fossil fuels and can be used as a new
mode of energy transfer. Interest in the hydrogen fuel has remained variable over
the years, rising and declining with the energy trends and situations. Surplus
electrical power can be stored in the form of hydrogen and has been a favorable
choice with the energy conservators and environmentalists supporting alternate
energies. Hydrogen is also compatible with coal conversion technologies as it
facilitates carbon sequestration. Similarly nuclear energy also can cleanly and
efficiently be used to generate hydrogen with the help of Very High Temperature
Reactor (VHTR)/Generation IV reactor.
[8]
Hydrogen has some very distinctive characteristics for its ability to be used as an
energy medium as well as a means of storing surplus power, in a variety of
applications:
This thesis does not advocate or refute the usefulness of Hydrogen Economy nor
does it support or negate the use of Hydrogen as a fuel. It however is assumed
that considering the present consumption and thereby exhaustion of fossil fuels,
hydrogen will find a central place in a future energy supply chain. In such an event
[9]
it is imperative that hydrogen be integrated or rather facilitated to make inroads
into the society to match the today’s energy vector-electricity. This study is
focused on the transition stage, as and when hydrogen economy is realized, the
means of producing, transporting and distributing hydrogen must be devised for
ease of availability to end user.
A new fuel that has entirely different sets of physical/chemical properties requires
a compatible infrastructure that can sustain the energy demand at current level.
However the impediment in any fuel in the initiation and transition stage is the
famous “chicken & egg” problem. Till the time users of the new fuel are not
available, investors are reluctant to invest any new infrastructure, while on the
other hand users are willing to buy hydrogen-enabled applications only when a
well-established and sustaining infrastructure is available. Thus a supply &
demand chain relationship is necessary to overcome the deadlock.
Further, the end of fossil fuels and its rising prices is likely to open up avenues for
Renewable energy sources and technologies to flourish. Hydrogen and electricity
are complimentary and compatible; hence in any energy system hydrogen cannot
be treated in an isolated manner. Thus this study considers the production of
hydrogen from renewable energy sources integrating it with the existing
infrastructure.
The transition to the hydrogen economy has already been studied elsewhere
however certain inadequacies have been observed:
Emphasis is seen on producing hydrogen with no mention of its
transmission and distribution.
Hydrogen is mainly considered for transport applications while stationary
Fuel cell applications are completely over looked.
[10]
Energy demand and supply is an ever fluctuating scenario, hence while
considering the need for storage the variability in demand must be taken into
account.
Transition to the new fuel infrastructure is much important than the model
for a full-fledge Hydrogen Economy.
Chicken & Egg scenario is often ignored resulting in an assumption that FC
applications are readily and economically available while the same is likely to
remain uneconomic until widespread demand for the new fuel H2 gas is created.
An attempt has been made to address the above mentioned issues thereby
providing a means for facilitating the transition by use of existing Natural gas
pipe-line network for transporting large quantities of hydrogen as a mix with
methane. This can address the chicken & egg scenario to some extent by averting
the need for economical and widespread accessibility of FC applications. In this
study mainly renewables are suggested as means for generation of H2. An
integrated model for distribution is also developed that is based on renewable
resource availability all over the region under consideration.
[11]
4th chapter explores the Renewable resources of Pakistan and evaluates the
complete wind and solar potential with a concluding output of hydrogen from
these resources.
Chapter 5 evaluates the energy infrastructure of Pakistan and develops an
Integrated modeling approach for the transmission of surplus energy from one
grid to another.
6th chapter describes the development of a MINLP for a biomass based
Hydrogen supply chain. Subsequently transport of hydrogen in the existing
pipeline infrastructure is handled and further suggests means for transporting
hydrogen in the form of synthetic methane/methanol. NG infrastructure of
Pakistan is described along with the energetic and material aspects of pipe line
material.
7th chapter provides a summary of all conclusions and provides thought for
future work on the subject.
[12]
CHAPTER 2
2 Hydrogen – Basics & Challenges
2.1 Hydrogen-General
Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic table with only a single proton in its
structure. It is also one of the most abundant element present not only in the
universe but on this planet as well. Hydrogen is a chemically active element
especially in presence of oxygen and carbon. Hydrogen gas in its diatomic form is
not freely available in the atmosphere but usually exists as a compound mainly as
H2O and in the form of hydrocarbons or fossil fuels. Being the smallest element it
normally exists as a gas at atmospheric conditions. Its energy value is highest
when considered in terms of weight; however it is lowest in terms of volume.
Properties of H2 in comparison with other fuel gases such as natural gas and
methane are shown in Table 2.1 obtained from Baade [1] and Padro [2], along
with CO2 which is frequently obtained as a by-product.
Combustion properties of H2 and methane are given in Table 2.2. Wobbe Index is
the most significant parameter with regards to combustion; it determines the
interchangeability amongst different gases with respect to the burners and a
means of categorizing the group to which each gas belongs [3]. It also classifies
the end use gas appliances. Mathematically Wobbe Index Ws is given by:
(2.1)
√
where
[13]
Hs Higher heating value (HHV) MJ/Nm3
d relative density
Present day fuel or the world energy reserves mainly comprise of various
hydrocarbons that have accumulated over the years. Once expended the fossil
fuels cannot be reclaimed. Distinguishingly on the other hand the Renewable
resources are sustainable, yet short-lived in the sense that they are to be used as
[14]
generated for example wind, solar, tidal energy. Other renewables such as hydro
or biomass can be stored for a limited time.
Table 2.2 Combustion properties[4][5]
[15]
Fig 2.1 A sustainable Hydrogen economy [7]
Though a very favorable proposition, Hydrogen economy is still farfetched
because renewable resources themselves do not complete the picture as they are
not cost competitive and difficult to harness on a scale as required by the present
day world. The nuclear power option is also undesirable owing to the radioactive
by-product it generates.
Hydrogen, although found in abundance in the universe, yet in elemental form it
is scarce. Thus external energy is required to extract it from other compounds
most commonly water or the less common and more sought after hydrocarbons.
Hence hydrogen itself is not an energy source but a vector. Various paths are
available for hydrogen production and are summarized in Fig 2.2:
[16]
Fig 2.2 Hydrogen Supply options and major uses [8].
Hydrogen being a medium for storing energy is produced from a primary resource
and can be used to convey energy to the point of utilization. Thus hydrogen has
an analogy with electricity which is also a secondary form of energy. Hydrogen
and electricity are complementary as well as inter-convertible. Hence electricity is
used to generate hydrogen by electrolysis and hydrogen can be used in fuel cells
to generate electricity, the efficiency of these electrochemical devices is however
[17]
less than an ideal 100%. Success of the proposed hydrogen economy is
unquestionably related with the development of such efficient devices.
Almost all renewable resources have an immediate conversion to electric power
where it is to be used. However for applications such as transport that run on
fuel, it entails that the renewable resources be converted into hydrogen which
can then used in fuel cell to drive an electric powered vehicle or used for
combustion in an IC engine. Such a process is highly inefficient as well as quite
uneconomic. It is preferable to use Renewable energy generated electricity
directly. Certain exceptions are always there, such as in isolated communities or
island where the renewable resources exceed the consumption. Excess electricity
can then be stored in hydrogen for use as part of the greater Hydrogen Supply
Chain or later converted to electricity on demand. Ultimately when fossil fuels are
really scarce and expensive and when renewable energy technology has become
economically competitive it may prove practical on much wider basis to convert
renewable electricity to hydrogen fuel. However that time is still far from
realization. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has forecasted that renewables
(excluding hydro and nuclear) will still account for only 10% of world energy
supply by 2030 [9]; of this more than half is expected to be derived from biomass.
The initiatives for Hydrogen economy as the fulfillment of an environmental
dream for the long term future are driven by four key motivational factors:
Secure energy provision
Global warming
Atmospheric pollution
Electrical power production
[18]
The complexity of the above mentioned drivers is interrelated and increasingly
multifaceted, however there are a number of other factors that are to be
overcome before “Hydrogen Economy” becomes a reality. These obstacles are
categorized as:
2.3.1 Organizational :
2.3.2 Technical
[19]
Use of clean energy technologies for production of economical and
environmentally friendly hydrogen.
The absence of any reliable hydrogen storage technologies especially for
fuel cell vehicles; transport being a major energy consumption sector.
The limitations of fuel cell applications for their reliance, longevity and
practical usage.
2.3.3 Regulatory
2.3.4 Financial
The above mentioned impediments are real and trying and there is a strong
necessity to devise an all-inclusive strategy to address these issues in a
[20]
wholesome manner. Fossil fuels such as petroleum, diesel and natural gas are
widely available and comparatively cheaper while hydrogen fuel on the other
hand may not demonstrate itself evenly compatible in terms of its price. A
competition is probable only when the price of the traditional hydrocarbons reach
a point when they become comparable with that of hydrogen or the policies for
carbon mitigation are stringent enough to incur huge taxes.
By 2030 the global energy requirements are expected to reach 17,000 Million
TOE, which is a 40% rise considering the energy supplies of 2005. The sharp
increase is not only due to an exponential rise in population but it is also linked to
a general increase in the affluence. This validates a strong relation between the
increase in the Gross Domestic Product and the energy expenditure of any nation.
For the nearer future, there is not likely to be any marked difference between the
fossil fuel dominated current share of energy market in relation with that
foreseen in 2030. However it is expected that there will be an escalation in gas
shares, coal will remain relatively stable while nuclear generation would decline
as old stations are not replaced by newer ones on completion of their
commissioned life. Despite these predictions certain facts seem to point the other
way keeping in view the huge resources of coal with India and china along with
the economic boom these economies are experiencing. This is the official stance
of International Energy Agency and hence it can be deduced that Renewable
sources are to face stiff opposition in the wake of availability of cheap fossil fuels.
The introduction of hydrogen as a fuel within this time span thus also remains
questionable. Nevertheless these forecasts might prove otherwise with the turn
of the events.
[21]
Geological and petroleum experts maintain a ballpark figure in the range of 2 to 3
trillion barrels of the globe’s oil stocks. It is further considered that about half of
the same have already been consumed while ninety percent of the predictable
reserves have been revealed and under exploration. Most of the significant
reserves have already crossed the peak of the output and are on the regress, the
remaining are fast approaching the peak. Moreover the pace of discovery is far
behind the production output resulting in an unsustainable cycle.
Saudi Arabia is the only country whose reserves are easily exploitable in contrast
to ones that are inaccessible and require huge investments for any worthwhile
output.
Countries experiencing an economic boom such as Malaysia, India and China are
likely to have larger import requirements predictable with their growing GDP.
Resultant affluence would have a probable mechanization of society that in turn
multiplied with the swelling population would reveal a greater demand in the
energy pie. Consequently these circumstances would lead to escalating prices
resulting from the limited availability of oil and related petroleum products, not
withstanding a political facet emerging out of the complete scenario.
More than half the discovered and available sources of oil lie in the Arabian Gulf
region. Keeping in view the limited supplies these countries may choose to
minimize the output to enhance the life of their stocks, or to escalate the prices
for political gain
60% of the explore-able supplies are concentrated in just five Arab countries i.e.
Saudi Arab, UAE, Kuwait, Iraq and Iran. In the wake of competition these
[22]
countries may decide to restrict production for political reasons to extend the life
of reserves or to raise the prices. Even if they decide to increase the production
along with the rise in demand, this might not prove possible practically or in
terms of capital requirement. It is widely forecasted that oil prices will continue to
spiral upwards. The situation as regards natural gas is somewhat better.
Authorities believe that global reserves of natural gas have been greatly under
estimated and that, despite growing demand, there is unlikely to be any supply
limitation throughout the course of this century. In this context it is noteworthy
that total world reserves stood at 42x1012 m3 in 1970 and are now 176x1012 m3
despite 56x1012 m3 having been consumed during this period. In the longer term,
if/when natural gas supplies become depleted, the world can fall back on its
massive reserves of coal, which are sufficient to last for a century at least. This
fuel switching will be dependent upon clean coal technologies being well
advanced to produce hydrogen for use in gas turbines or fuel cells with almost no
emissions of CO2.
Renewable resources are and will continue to grow progressively and the
costs of manufacture and installation will decline through the benefit of large
scale production. Despite these developments the new energy forms will make
only a modest contribution to the global energy supplies during the next couple of
decades with marked variation from country to country. Exxon Mobil has
forecasted that the contribution of non-fossil fuels to the total world energy
supply will be less than 20% in 2020, and that wind and solar will provide only
0.3% of the total.
[23]
Fig 2.3 Contribution of non-fossil fuel to Total energy supply [10]
On the top of all the above mentioned calculated concerns is another dimension
that is political in nature. Generally the public and its political representatives are
more worried about the prevailing state of affairs. They are primarily concerned
with the imminent and foreseeable risks and hazards and hence the elected
officials are preoccupied with the challenge of upcoming elections.
Correspondingly the common man is more thoughtful of its own short term
problems such as livelihood, shelter and other domestic comforts and the risks to
humanity and planet are a far-off consideration, low in priority. The responsibility
is thus taken up with members of civic society that include engineers, planners
and environmentalists who then shoulder to create awareness about the looming
dangers of the energy scarcity and its effects on climate change. A major portion
of this task has to be taken up by educators to inculcate the growing generation
about the long term effects of energy security. Addressing this issue through
teachers has already worked appreciably well as far as the global warming and its
[24]
effects to ozone layer are concerned. Resultantly terms such as “Greenhouse gas
emissions” and “ecological footprints” are well known amongst today’s society.
The following are unarguable facts in the context of Climate change scenario and
its initiation:
(ii) ever since the Industrial Revolution gained ground the amount of CO2 being
released in the atmosphere has continued to rise
(iii) these large concentrations of carbon dioxide prevent the escape of reflected
infrared radiation from the earth’s surface resulting in warming of the planet.
It is widely believed that the above three points describe the complete picture of
carbon dioxide release in the atmosphere and that hydrocarbons are the sole
accountables for the global warming. The other side of the story is however
different.
Many aspects contribute to the climate change scenario and the same are not
widely comprehended. CO2 is absorbed into the atmosphere from a number of
originators that include processes that follow a natural cycle such as the
photosynthesis taking place in biological life forms as well as in their
decomposition. Similarly sea life in the form of algal forms and land animals also
contribute to large amounts of carbon dioxide in the environment. Other
contributors include volcanic eruptions and evaporating process continuously
taking place in seas, oceans and other water bodies. Such large scale releases of
[25]
carbon through natural processes diminish what is contributed by fossil fuels and
its combustion. With such large scale releases the natural sinks to absorb and
recycle these emissions have gradually shrinked with extensive deforestation that
has been occurring with the expansion of civilization. An analytical summary from
[11][12] of the world wide increase in carbon dioxide is exhibited in Table 2.3.
The tabulated values above indicate that Hydrocarbon based fuels are responsible
for only a portion of the gross influx i.e. 6 Giga Tonnes out of a total of
approximately 200 Giga Tonnes forming about 3.5% of the entire figure. Apart
from carbon dioxide other contributors to Greenhouse emissions include:
NOX: Oxides of nitrogen also result from the burning of fossil fuels as well
as from performing certain farming processes such as fertilization of soil and
biodegradation of biomass. Other contributors to NOX emissions include chemical
production and a variety of naturally occurring environmental and ecological
processes.
[26]
CH4 is generated from various human as well as vegetative activities such as
developing and extraction of minerals like coal, oil and natural gas. Similarly
conventional use of biomass for cooking and heating also contribute to methane
formation. Sowing of crops such as rice and cattle/livestock growth practices also
increase the methane flux. Moreover flora decomposition and metabolism
process within the huge population of insects and ruminant creatures release
considerable amount of methane. Studies have also indicated the release of
methane from surface as well as marine plantations.
Refrigerant blends and gases to include all forms of organoflourine
chemicals such as Chloroflorocarbons, Hydrofluorocarbons as well as
hydrochlorofluorocarbons have all contributed to global warming and green
house gas emissions. SF6 used in producing Aluminium and Magnesium is also a
significant contributor of harmful gases.
The radiation absorption rates of these chemicals is spread over a wide spectrum
corresponding to their existence in the environment till they are subjected to the
sun-light-triggered effects or finally taken up by surface or marine absorption.
Troposphere (the closest atmospheric space indicated in Fig 2.4) holds methane
at about 1.7 parts per million by volume which is quite small in comparison with
CO2.
[28]
metres and 6 metres respectively if the Greenland and the West Antarctic ice
sheets melt down. Other weather altering factors include the concentration of
water vapours in the atmosphere, ash of combustion and SO2. The extensive
Countries with growing economies especially China and India that are not party to
the Kyoto protocol have large requirements of fossil fuels. Thus promoting
[29]
alternative fuels may trigger use of coal which has high carbon content leading to
a gross increase of carbon dioxide as much as up to 40 Giga tons within the next
two decades. Thus all carbon mitigation techniques may falter unless stringent
policy measures are adopted to curb the trend.
Atmospheric pollution has successfully been curbed to a certain extent over the
last half of the century. Early Legislation in the developed world has lead to an
early control of the atmospheric pollution. However growing traffic population all
over the globe has resulted in smog over large cities. Petrol emissions have been
managed through policy measures, use of catalyst devices as well as better
combustion processes. Particulate emissions originating from diesel engines are
still under research. Sulfur present in small quantities gets oxidized and reacts
with water to cause acid rain and thereby causing acidification of the water
[30]
bodies. These sulfur contents have been lowered considerably by oil companies
after strict policy measures. Vehicular traffic is not the sole polluter of
atmosphere, rather a great number of large ocean-liners as well as locomotives
also contribute to the polluted air. Similarly factories engaged in manufacture of
metals, building materials and those requiring boilers and power generators have
a much greater share. Besides legislation for limiting discharge of sulfur oxides in
the environment, catalysts or reactors are also employed at the exhaust to
neutralize the discharge to lesser harmful substances.
Electric energy is considered as one the most flexible, multi-purpose and greenest
type of power available in today’s world that has widely penetrated in our
society. Electricity was approximately 17% of the final global consumption in
2005 [9]. Its versatility is evident from the various techniques that it can be
produced as well as the supply chains i.e., alternative energy, biomass feeds as
well as hydrocarbon based fuels. The generation capacity of electricity has also
multiplied several times over the years. The fourth quarter of the last century
registered a 2.75% increase while it rose by 8.65% in just two years from 2003-
2005. Electricity use has also increased in the recent years, mostly in the
industrial sector that was recorded at 41.75%, while transportation sector used
only 1.65% depicted in the pie diagram at Fig 2.4
[31]
Fig 2.6 Electricity as Final energy consumption [9]
Efforts are under way for access to grid electricity to the masses. China has now
provided electric power to 98% of the populace, despite this a coal-fired plant
with a capacity of 30-40 GW is added each year. Expansion in India’s electricity
grid is also growing rapidly. However 25% of the world’s population mainly
dispersed in the African region is still without electric power.
Another point of concern in the developed world is the ageing of the plants setup
in 1960s which are due to be decommissioned by the end of present decade. The
power industry is also progressing towards distributed generation employing
micro turbines or engines, solar energy or wind turbines.
Localized electricity or stand-alone generation have an inherent problem of the
need for a back-up system necessary for a fluctuating electricity supply to match a
fluctuating demand. This can be
[32]
Mains electricity
Alternate local source such as diesel generating sets or
Energy storage
The prime candidates for local electricity storage are batteries and hydrogen; the
fuel cells being the main requirement in case of hydrogen, for conversion into
electricity.
Considerable efforts are in progress for the development of fuel cell vehicles and
various automotive companies are marketing fuel cell vehicles. However the goal
of replacing the conventional vehicle with a fuel-cell powered one is not only
ambitious but lucrative as well keeping in view the number of vehicles plying on
road as of today. It must though be kept in mind that such a transition requires a
well-established infrastructure which would evolve over the years. Moreover
hydrogen is likely to be derived from fossil fuels/hydrocarbons till wide availability
of renewable energy. Interest in hydrogen also stems from its desirable feature as
[33]
an energy vector (similar to electricity) as well as an alternate medium for storing
energy.
2.8 Conclusion
[34]
CHAPTER 3
3 Hydrogen Production-Feed stocks & Processes
3.1 Introduction
Several pathways exist for producing hydrogen which not only include a variety of
feed stocks but also how each feed stock can be treated to generate desired
quantities of hydrogen from it. The idea behind the concept of hydrogen
economy aims to address two broad issues i.e.
Thus the benefits of hydrogen economy can be exploited to the fullest extent if
hydrogen production is carried out through renewable sources of energy. It has a
two-fold scenario as well, firstly the production of hydrogen from hydrocarbon
based feed stocks would again pose a query of their long-term sustainability.
Secondly if the input energy for any hydrogen production process continues to be
derived from fossil fuels, the original question remains answered. Therefore
production of hydrogen from sustainable feed-stock as well as sustainable energy
input methods can only lead to a sustainable hydrogen supply chain that can
effectively produce large quantities of hydrogen enough to match the present day
energy requirements being met by fossil fuels. This chapter briefly discusses the
conventional and renewable methods of hydrogen production.
Renewable paths of hydrogen generation are shown in Fig 3.1, originating mainly
from solar, wind and biomass, which form the discussion scope of this study.
[35]
Fig 3.1 Pathways for Renewable Hydrogen production [16]
Figure 3.2 indicates the allocation of today’s world resources being used for
producing hydrogen. It is evident that with the present reign of fossil fuels over
the energy market, the hydrocarbons lead the way in this context as well.
Resultantly Methane comprises about 47.5% while petroleum constitutes about
30.5% of current global production of hydrogen. Electrolysis being the simplest
process yet available for producing hydrogen from renewably generated
electricity forms only a small portion i.e. 4% of the entire distribution pie.
[36]
Hydrogen derived from petroleum resources has been found to be consumed
within the refineries itself. For electrolysis it is worth mentioning that the
electricity used currently in the process is mainly derived from hydrocarbon based
sources of energy. Figure 3.3 indicates an energy comparison for different
hydrocarbons that indicate the amount of input energy required for producing
hydrogen from the various feed-stocks. Electrolysis based hydrogen generation
has the highest energy consumption while light hydrocarbons require the least
energy input.
Thus for all practical purposes Hydrogen economy will have to take a jump start
based on fossil fuels subsequently to be replaced by more sustainable feed stocks.
The other different methods of hydrogen production are described below to
assess their feasibility as well as to draw a comparison for their suitability for
Hydrogen Economy.
[37]
Production of hydrogen from Fossil fuels is not only the historically tried and
tested system but is also one of the most economic as well. As fossil fuels are
hydrocarbons hence oxides of carbon are the predominant by-products when
they are treated to release stored energy. Consequently production of hydrogen
from carbonized feed stocks does not address the apprehensions which hydrogen
economy is supposed to eradicate i.e. pollution caused by greenhouse gases and
the need to minimize dependence on non-sustainable fuels. Biomass based
methods have been made part of this section since their behavior is compatible
with fossil fuels i.e. carbon present in their chemical composition. Pyrolysis and
gasification processes have also been included in this section because they are
very similar to fossil fuel reforming and gasification processes. Biomass is also a
carbon based fuel, so its treatment by any means adds to carbon dioxide releases
in the atmosphere.
The first step produces a mixture of CO, CO2 and H2 along with certain other by
products. A greater amount of steam is used in the process to increase the
reaction rate as well as to avoid thermal cracking which is expected in this
Boudouard reaction [18].The increased amount of steam accelerates the second
sub-reaction which is the production of syngas to Hydrogen gas.
The last part of this reaction takes place at a comparatively lower temperature
than the initial reforming process. Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is used to
purify and segregate the residuals such as CH4, CO2, CO, Nitrogen and the actual
[38]
product i.e. hydrogen gas. Another method of separating hydrogen can be carried
out by chemical absorption with the help of amine contactor and later reacting
with methane to remove oxides of carbon [19].
Industrial Hydrogen production is mostly carried out in steam methane reformers.
It is one of the most cost effective methods of producing hydrogen (if the CCS,
carbon capture and storage is excluded) due to the cheap availability of methane
gas and the simple chemical process which is highly efficient as well. Also the
infrastructure or the Natural Gas Supply Chain is well established in terms of large
pipeline networks and the technology for their extraction, transportation and
end-use is highly developed and very economical. Steam methane reformation is
well suited for mass production of hydrogen, however in any future Hydrogen
economy that may emanate from Distributed generation; this process is un-
economic for small scale generation.
It is hence considered that the SMR can only be a stepping stone for a full-fledged
Hydrogen Economy and can advance its pace during the early stages of inception.
It can be of significant use when a transition of fuel takes place, however because
of its short-lived reserves the process is to be overtaken by more sustainable and
longer lasting feed stocks, primarily Renewable resources such as wind and solar.
Another substitute to Steam Methane Reforming is the partial oxidation and auto
thermal reforming of CH4. Partial oxidation is a single step process, oxidizing
methane directly, however in auto thermal reforming oxidation and reforming
takes place in a single step. A mix of carbon monoxide and hydrogen results from
partial oxidation of CH4 chemically represented as:
[39]
Total oxidation is inhibited by increased temperatures and volumetric supply of
oxygen in the desired stoichiometric proportions. In this process there is no
requirement of catalyst however its use can increase the production of hydrogen
and decrease the overall heat input. Rhodium, platinum and nickel as catalyst
have been under investigation however the rhodium based catalysts have been
demonstrated to be able to achieve over-oxidation of hydrogen with a greater
input of activation energy [20]. In partial oxidation CH4 is combusted in the
container holding the reactants, which is also an exothermic reaction it is not
possible to re-use the purge gas to enhance the efficiency [21].
Projects based on auto thermal reforming of CH4 on a mega scale are still under
investigation, however demonstration projects such as one installed in Canada by
Kellogg Brown & Root, and a syn gas plant in China are in the initial stages. [22]
Biomass is another feedstock and includes crops and other agricultural product or
residue such as wood, chaff, straw, husk etc. Other forms of biomass can take the
shape of solid waste that can be combusted to produce steam which can then be
used for gasification. Gasification and pyrolysis are two such methods by which
biomass can be treated to generate hydrogen.
Biomass gasification is analogous to coal gasification as discussed in the previous
section. In another process called pyrolysis, an oil type substance is produced by
reforming biomass. These reactions are chemically represented as: [25]
Biomass + Energy →Bio-oil + Char + Gas Impurities (pyrolysis)
Bio-oil + H2O → CO + H2 (reforming)
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (shift reaction)
The process is low yielding because only 8.5 gms of hydrogen are extracted out of
100 gms of bio-oil. The reaction is as follows:
CH1.9O0.7 + 1.26 H2O → CO2 + 2.21 H2
Biomass gasification is relatively a new advent in the commercial arena, hence the
only plants yet available are for demonstration purposes only that are able to
generate electrical power or utilized in other chemical production. [26]
As biomass resources can be termed as renewable hence they can be significant
contributors to any future hydrogen supply chain. The only inhibiting aspect is the
low yield of hydrogen from large amounts of biomass that have to be transported
over large distances from the agricultural fields to the gasification plants. The
weight percentage of H2 in biomass is only 6.45%. While comparing the two
methods the pyrolysis option is considered more favorable than gasification
because of the ease in transportation as well as the greater energy density of bio-
oil. Carbon capture and sequestration is required in both the methods and would
entail further investments in terms of hardware and operational requirements,
thereby raising the price as well.
[41]
Carbon mitigation in biomass gasification is not considered essential by certain
experts owing to the natural cycle in which biomass decomposes after a period of
time and releases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It is comparable to the
plants that consume carbon dioxide during the day as part of the photosynthesis
process and release as they decompose. [25]
Heat generated from nuclear resources as well as renewable energy sources can
also be used to split water for generating hydrogen. These are technically novel
methods as compared to the gasification processes discussed earlier. As the
technologies are still lacking maturity hence the hydrogen production from these
resources tend to be costlier as compared to the more easily and readily available
hydrocarbon based methods. The main advantage of these technologies is the
absence of any environmentally harmful byproducts such as the oxides of carbon
and NOX gases etc. Radiation from the sun is used for photo-biological/photo-
catalytic methods while nuclear sources provide energy for the sulfur iodine
method.
In methods that use electrolytic splitting of water the electrical power provides
the energy used in such processes. Conventionally fossil fuels are used to
generate this electrical power however renewable resources such as hydel, wind
and solar can be used to provide the electricity. Electrolytic generation of
hydrogen from water is recommended because of the absence of any carbon
thereby eliminating formation of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide etc as by
products in the reaction.
[42]
Fig 3.4 Renewable Hydrogen
3.6 Electrolysis
In this process electrical energy is used to split water into its constituent elements
to give hydrogen and oxygen. Electrical current is passed through an alkaline
electrolyte solution which acts as the carrier for the electrons that are introduced
through the electrodes. The electrolyte is generally potassium hydroxide.
Hydrogen and oxygen is released at the cathode and anode respectively. The
reaction is chemically denoted by [27]:
[44]
Cathode: 2 H+ + 2 e- → H2
Anode: H2O →½ O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e-
H2O → ½ O2 + H2
Large amounts of electricity are required to generate a good quantity of hydrogen
to sustain any future hydrogen supply chain. The renewable resources like wind
and solar although widely available are still under research for any major
economic and technically feasible output in practical terms for implementation.
Studies are under way to develop highly efficient electrolysers that operate at
increased temperature ranges as compared to the conventional electrolysis units.
Nuclear heat is one of such option to generate higher heating temperatures.
Nuclear Hydrogen Initiative run by the US department of Energy is one such
initiative. The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL)
has been tasked to develop a 5MW project to demonstrate its technical feasibility
and assess its commercial utility.[29]
[45]
The electrodes in a high temperature electrolysis unit are made up of a porous
material which are kept apart by an impermeable solid electrolyte. The cells of
the electrolyser are provided with inter connected channels that allow the flow of
hydrogen and steam from one side and O2 from the other. Electricity can pass
through these interconnected channels in an axial direction. The concept is
explained in the diagram below:
[46]
important as higher pressures are required to compress hydrogen for storage
purposes and has a comparatively lower density. Thus it is less costlier to
compress the water than to compress hydrogen at the end of the cycle.
Demonstrative plants provide the heat for the process by placing the complete
plant in a heating system. Larger plants however require greater heat input which
is then supplied by nuclear sources through restorative heat exchangers. [29]
[47]
Electrolysers for industrial production of hydrogen are commercially available and
marketed by various companies. Amongst the major ones, The Stuart, Teledyne,
and Norsk Hydro systems are based on the bipolar filter press while Avalence is a
unipolar tank type system. Proton provides the system that has a proton
exchange membrane type electrolyzer. The production ability and comparable
efficiency of each is given in Table 3.1 [28].
Thus the net result is the formation of oxygen and hydrogen by adding water and
providing heat to the reactants. No polluting byproducts are formed. The initial
step, also known as Bunsen reaction is carried out by reacting increased amounts
of iodine in melted form with a combination of I2, SO2 and water.
S-I is also in its infancy and quite a lot of effort is required before any worthwhile
economic and commercial benefits are achieved. The acids used in this cycle i.e.
sulfuric acid as well as Hydrogen Iodide are intensely corrosive in nature, and the
temperature range surpass 850oC, hence anti-corrosive and strong heat resistant
materials are required to carry out the reactions repeatedly for extended
durations. Hence material development is the fore-most challenge to scale up this
cycle for an industrial sized plant. Similarly catalysts that are able to withstand the
[48]
sulfuric acid environment for long durations also need to be developed and
evaluated. [32]
Green algae contain the hydrogenase enzymes for catalytic reduction and
generation of hydrogen gas. Controlled environment is used to propagate the
generation of hydrogenase enzymes that can then be used for production of
hydrogen. The hydrogenase enzymes are of three variants:
[NiFe]-hydrogenases
[Fe]-hydrogenases &
Those without a catalytic metal center
The second variant i.e the [Fe]-hydrogenase is hundred times as much active as
the remaining two. HYdA protein is a special type of such enzyme that has protein
content with an activity of 1000 units/mg. The genetic material for this type is
found in green algae such as Chlorococcum littorale, Chlorella fusca, S. obliquus
and Chlamydomonas rein hardtii. [33]
[49]
Fig 3.8 Non PV Solar pathways [ 34]
[50]
acceptor as well as donor. The band-gap for semi-conductors is small indicating
the small amount of energy change from the valence band to the conduction
band. The latter freely allows the carriage of electricity while in the former the
electrons are restrained to the ion lattice. Thus band-gap is also a measure of
conductivity of any material. Metals have no band-gap hence are good
conductors of electricity while insulators have a large band-gap because no free
electrons are available in the conduction band. Semi-conductors have an
intermediate band-gap and visible light can provide the band-gap energy. [35]
This method has been only demonstrated at a laboratory scale and not feasible
for commercial production of hydrogen. Water-splitting process generating
oxygen and hydrogen is environmentally safe as no harmful by products are
obtained. Further the solar energy involved is sustainable in long term. At present
the hydrogen production from this method is not large enough to be used as fuel.
[51]
Also the effectiveness and price issues are yet to be determined and its
competitiveness is to be evaluated in comparison with other methods [36].
This section lists a number of Renewable energy powered projects that have been
installed worldwide for demonstration purposes. These projects are a
manifestation that the projects are not only practical but also have the
prospective feasibility to be run on commercial basis. The facilities/set ups listed
here do not constitute all that are available but only a sample size of various set-
ups with different technologies, sources and location. Most of these are based on
electrolytic generation and are located in United States, wind and solar resource
top as the main energy input medium. Similarly there is an example of one being
run with the feedstock as Biomass. Photo-chemical is being represented by a
United Kingdom facility while one basing entirely on solar energy is from Israel.
This project uses the wind power and solar generated electricity to split water by
electrolysis to generate hydrogen. This project has been installed at National
Wind Technology center and jointly developed by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory and Xcel Energy. Electronic converters developed by NREL have been
linked with the turbines and solar panels to identify the point where peak power
is achieved. Hence the maximum achievable energy is then used to perform
electrolysis of water to split it into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is then stored
in compressed form to be used on demand either in an Internal combustion
engine or used in any fuel cell application.
Two types of wind turbines have been used in this project. One is a 100kW
turbine developed by Northern Power Systems while the other is a smaller 10 kW
from Bergey, shown in Fig 3.10. Both are provided with choice to change speed
that is dependent on the blowing wind. Resultantly the electricity produced is also
varying in a nature according to the wind speed with fluctuating magnitude and
frequency. The output from Bergey turbine is converted to DC and then fed to the
[52]
electrolysis panel for producing hydrogen. The associated solar panel of 10 kW
generates a current range of 55-235V, which is considered to be on the higher
end for the electrolyser. Hence specially designed power electronics converters
based on “maximum power point tracking” is used to perform the DC-DC
conversion. Power output of the 100kW turbine is fed to another 33kW alkaline
electrolyser for generating hydrogen. [37]
[53]
3.10.1.2 Efficiency Measurements:
It has also been discovered that electrolysis carried out in Proton Exchange
Membrane are more efficient as compared to the conventional alkaline
electrolysers. The former was rated at 56% system efficiency while the latter had
42%. It may be highlighted that the delivery of hydrogen as calculated was found
to be 20% less that specified by the producer. The system efficiency is expected to
reach 50% with full delivery rate.
A more detailed account has been carried out in [45] that enumerate details of
number of projects world-wide involved in hydrogen production.
3.11 Discussion
[54]
resources and hence the evident option available are the Renewable sources of
energy.
The end of the fossil fuel era leads to a transport infrastructure where vehicle
fleets run on fuel that is derived from a range of renewable sources including
biomass based bio-oil, electric powered as well as hybrid FC vehicles. Fuel cell
powered vehicles are considered as one of the most demanding in technical
terms. It may be difficult yet it is also one of the most suitable in the wake of the
Climate-change scenario, because of its capacity to reduce the dependence and
expenditure of fossil fuels, reduce the carbon content in the atmosphere and
mitigate environmental pollution.
Hydrogen itself is not a resource for energy and serves to act as a transporting
medium. In order to accrue the maximum advantage of this new fuel, it must be
drawn from sources other than those based on hydrocarbons. Thus renewable
sources are best suited for a sustainable hydrogen economy. Even today the
hydrogen generated worldwide is estimated at more than 5x107 tonnes annually.
However hydrogen is currently generated mainly from hydrocarbons that include
methane, coal, natural gas, petroleum or nuclear-powered processes. In contrast
the alternate sources of energy are most preferred because of their range of
availability, wide-accessibility, abundance and its capacity to remain sustainable.
Nevertheless the greatest hurdle in generating Renewable hydrogen is not only
the technology development but also the cost of producing hydrogen to match
that derived from the fossil fuels.
The available hydrogen production processes and methods number quite a few,
however it has been demonstrated in the preceding paras that almost all of them
require special materials, technologies and reactants to enable large scale
production output of hydrogen. Electrolysis is currently the only mature
technology, besides combustion of fossil fuels that can be entrusted and
developed for any future Hydrogen supply chain. Hydrogen production from
renewable resources is the preferred method because of its relative abundance,
wide availability and reliably sustained provision. Besides all the benefits, one of
[55]
the most significant challenges to the hydrogen economy is the need to generate
hydrogen at rates that are compatible with that of petrol, CNG and diesel in the
current scenario.
[56]
Fig 3.12 Application of Hydrogen Technologies in the Future
3.12 Conclusion
A range of renewable energy resources are available that can be used to provide
the input energy for hydrogen generation from an equally good number of
technologically mature processes. These range from photolysis to electrolysis and
from thermo-chemical to bio-chemical. Of all the methods the splitting of water
through an electrolyser is the one that is free of any technological complications.
It is also one of the only methods from which mass quantities of hydrogen can be
produced without any apprehension of harmful derivatives that are normally
associated with other hydrocarbon based fuels. The biomass derivative methods
of hydrogen production are still in the developing stage, yet they are attractive as
they provide the opportunity of putting organic waste to use and producing
hydrogen from various routes. The transformation of syn gas to a fuel that can be
used in transport is one of the most economical path for the generation of
hydrogen. Thermo-chemical, photo-chemical and electrolysis constitute the paths
for solar generation of hydrogen.
[57]
of water molecule from photo-electrochemical and photo-biological processes.
Green algae and similar organisms such as cyano-bacteria that contain
Hydrogenase can also perform a highly efficient conversion from water to
hydrogen through sun light, without any participation of hydrocarbon based fuels.
The technologies are still in a developing mode and extensive research efforts are
required for their economic, commercial and technical implementation.
Demonstration projects as listed above need to be evaluated for extended
duration and conditions for their practical applications.
[58]
CHAPTER 4
4 Renewable Resources of Pakistan-Assessing the H2 Potential
4.1 Introduction
Energy situation of Pakistan over the last two decades can be very conveniently
termed as grim. This is plainly attributed to the population growth rate which is a
straight line with a constant rising slope that eventually translates into an equally
parallel rise in energy demand. Also with the advent of cheap Chinese technology
and a comparative affluence although not comparable with the GDP, the energy
demand slope is relatively steeper seen in Fig 4.1 and Fig 4.2.
[59]
Fig 4.2 Energy consumption[49]
The energy problem has been further compounded by the fact that no major
Energy project has been commissioned over the last two decades. Pakistan has
tremendous potential for power generation from Renewable resources, however
lack of political will combined with vested interests of the successive governments
[60]
and above all poor foresightedness has plunged the country into annals of
darkness.
Like all other organizations, the Alternate Energy Development Board tasked with
the promotion and implementation of Renewable technologies, has failed
disappointingly to meet its self-set targets. Initial target of generating 10% power
requirement by 2015 [50] is far from meeting the reality by the due date. Despite
the bleak prospects the potential has been termed as excellent subject to
consistent policy and sincerity towards the country. This thesis primarily focuses
on solar and wind resource of Pakistan.
[61]
The study carried out here is significant in this simple yet very important content
which would go a long way in determining the priority of areas:
Resource rich and accessible areas
Resource rich Populated areas but low in priority due to lack of space for
Solar/Wind power stations
Resource rich but inaccessible areas
Accessible areas with low renewable potential
Areas with low Resource potential as well as inaccessibility
Accessibility is one of the major issues in Hydrogen economy. Transportation and
distribution of hydrogen in either gaseous or liquefied form, forms one of the
daunting tasks of the future energy system. This subject is discussed in detail in
chapter 5.
Pakistan’s geographical location lies 300 north of the equator which receives
maximum solar incident radiation. Data for solar radiation has been obtained
from NASA and presented both in the form of colour coded maps as well as in
tabulated form. NASA website indicates the data as a record of ten years over the
period 1983-1993 [52]. Month wise maps are given below:
[62]
[63]
Solar potential has been tabulated in Microsoft Excel Files region wise as per
Appendix A. Data indicate that 31% of the land has more than 6 kWh/m2/day of
solar radiation while the average annual minimum stands at 5.2 kWh/m2/day.
Solar radiation is available on average of 7-8 hours annually.
[64]
More than half of Pakistan’s 72496 kilometer surface has very good solar
insolation, and thinly populated as well. The area has water availability in
abundance (River Indus, see map at Fig 4.3), combined with high solar radiation
and relatively less cloudiness, the available area for solar generation of hydrogen
exceeds approximately 150,000 sq. km. Approximations indicate that about 2
percent of this area can hold more than hundred Solar Thermal plants of 200 MW
each. Cumulative generation approaches to around 20 GW, with considerable
projections for further expansion [53].
Lutfi and Veziroglu [54] have proposed and analyzed a solar-hydrogen system for
Pakistan; however the present study completely translates the solar potential
available anywhere in Pakistan into hydrogen, with the help of NASA’s 10 year
solar data [52]. Insulation Data is presented as “Monthly Averaged Clear Sky
[65]
Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day)”. Data has been
obtained from Atmospheric Science Data Centre of NASA Surface meteorology
and Solar Energy. The data is averaged on a 10 year record and tabulated
according to Latitude/Longitude. Areas have also been identified along with the
Insulation values.
Table 4.1
Max and Min values for Insolation
Min average insolation 5.2275 kWh/m2/day
Max average insolation 7.0016 kWh/m2/day
Table 4.2
Insolation Percentage Area
>6.0 kWh/m2/day 30.69
5-6 kWh/m2/day 69.31
The solar hydrogen generation prospects are very encouraging keeping in view
round-the-year availability of solar insulation. Hydrogen generation potential has
been discussed later in this chapter.
[66]
4.2.3 Wind Potential
Pakistan Metrological Department has spearheaded the Wind mapping in
Pakistan. Data for wind presented here has been obtained from satellite at a
height of 50 meters from earth’s surface and indicates good potential for wind
generation. Speeds of 5-7 m/s have been observed in Sindh and Baluchistan
provinces mainly along the coast line. Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa has also some
promising valleys with good power potential. Studies carried out have
demonstrated up to 20,000 MW [51] of wind power that can be tapped in an
economical way. The assessment exercise has been carried out with the support
of Ministry of Science and Technology. The regions of concern included coast
lines, North Pakistan and the provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan.
Internationally it is accepted that if any site has a capacity factor of 25% and
above, then that site is considered to be suitable for the installation of
economically viable commercial wind power farms. The above sites and their
surrounding areas therefore can be classified as suitable sites for installing wind
farms. The identified wind corridor in Sind covers an area of 9700 Sq. kMs. Gross
wind power potential of this area is 43,000MW but keeping in view the area
utilization constraints, etc., the exploitable electric power generation potential of
this area is estimated to be about more than 11,000 MW. [51]
Monthly wind potential is shown in the succeeding pages in the form of colour
coded maps, from January to December, and is based on 10 year data obtained
from NASA metrology for more diversified input. Tabulated data gives a further
refined picture of resource availability. Monthly and spatial data is significant not
only for identification of potential generation sites but also for the IJPGS
(Integrated Just-in-time power generation System) proposed in this thesis.
[67]
Appendix B presents the Wind Data in tabulated form in Longitude/Latitude as
well as locations [52].
USAID and NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) have also made certain
efforts in observation and recording of Metrological Data as shown in Fig 4.4.
[68]
[69]
[70]
Wind potential in Pakistan is termed as moderate [51]. Wind power potential is
being assessed in terms of class categories. Hence regions have been classified
according to the wind availability and are a common practice to allocate Class
according to the power potential of the region. The internationally recognized
wind classifications are represented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Classification of wind potential
Today the regions being used for large scale wind power production employing
bigger turbines are categorized mainly as Class 5 or higher. As research in wind
turbines progresses to include lower speed for power generation, wind regions
classified as class 4 are also being contemplated. As large wind turbines
considered unsuitable for Class 1 and class 2 regions hence small wind machines
are being developed for such areas where importance of energy is more
significant.
The data is presented as “Averaged Wind Speed At 50 m Above the Surface of the
Earth for Terrain Similar to Airports in m/s”. Mapping carried out by the author,
with the help of NASA data reveals the wind class distribution and potential
availability (in MW) as per Table 4.4 below:
[71]
Table 4.4 Wind Resource and Capacity
Wind Resource Wind Class Wind Power Wind Speed % Area Total capacity MW
W/m2 m/s
1. Excellent 5 500-600 7.3-7.7 1.98 87752.5
2. Good 4 400-500 6.8-7.3 6.93 60812
3. Fair 3 300-400 6.1-6.8 9.9 86875
4. Marginal 2 200-300 5.4-6.1 25.74 225874
(theoretical calculation)
[73]
Almost 9% of Pakistan’s land area has Class 3 or better wind resource
Average power per capita was taken as 48.4 watts based on population of
157,935,000 and total electricity consumption of 67,060,000 MWh/yr [59].
[74]
(4.1)
And
(4.2)
Solar PV system is considered to estimate power output and resulting
Hydrogen generation. Power technologies Energy Data book published by
NREL of the US Department of Energy provides an estimation of the land
requirements for photovoltaic systems of a given size after subtracting the
portion of PV that may be placed on rooftops of buildings. Thus 1000 KW of
photo-voltaics is estimated to require 6.4 acres [60]. This calculation assumes a
generating capacity of 1000 KW, where each KW requires an average of 0.004
acres per KW. For metric units 6.4 acres are equivalent of 0.0259 sq.km
resulting in following short equation:
(4.3)
Land area required for generating power for the population calculated in (4.2)
results for each district. Area of the district gives complete PV generation
capacity from its land by equation (4.3) above.
It is further assumed that max of 5 sun hours availability would be a safe
estimation to prevent any exaggerated figures
As explained earlier in chapter 2, the amount of energy required to create
hydrogen from water using electrolysis is 52.3 kWh/kg. However in terms of
electrical output 39.41 kWh are obtained from each kg of hydrogen, thus there
is considerable loss connected with this electrolytic conversion and electrical
output.
To summarize we arrive at the following assumptions for basing future
calculations:
[75]
Max of 5 sun hours daily
Energy input – 52.3kWh/kg of hydrogen
Electrical output – 39.41 kWh/kg of hydrogen
Land area – 6.4 acres per 1000kW.
Comparing the per capita energy requirement with the population as well as the
land area, we estimate the area of land required for generating equivalent
electricity from hydrogen through photovoltaic systems. Area required as a
percentage of total land, for each province is reproduced below as Table 4.7:
Table 4.7 Area required for PV generation out of total area
REGION TOTAL AREA REQUIRED AREA SQ
SQ KM KM
PUNJAB 2.05x105 2.21x103
SINDH 1.35x105 9.15x102
BALOCHISTAN 3.47x105 1.98x102
NWFP 2.72x104 9.55x101
KASMIR 1.32x104 8.94x101
N.A 6.99x104 2.91x101
7.98x105 3.54x103
PERCENTAGE 0.443561489
Thus 0.45% of total of total land can fulfill the electric power requirement of the
entire country. Excel sheets attached as appendix “C” translates into 3542 sq km.
The theoretical generation capacity amounts to 1.16x1011 kWh from complete
land area.
[76]
produced hydrogen. Solar hydrogen output, based on 52.3 kWh for producing 1
kg of hydrogen, for each province, in kilo tones is given in Table 4.8. Power output
from resultant hydrogen @ 39.41 kWh/kg gives the kWh potential.
Table 4.8 Solar Hydrogen potential & Equivalent Power output
PROVINCE/REGION KILOTONNES OF SOLAR kWh potential
HYDROGEN
1. BALOCHISTAN 1281 5.05E+10
2. KASHMIR 49 1.93E+09
3. NORTHERN 258 1.01E+10
AREAS
100 3.96E+09
4. NWFP & FATA
5. PUNJAB 758 2.98E+10
6. SINDH 500 1.96E+10
TOTAL 2746 1.16E+11
These values can be used to assess the weekly/monthly or yearly potential for
each area/location. The areas rich in solar resource are identified from the values
attached (Appendix A). District wise, solar PV generation is compared with the
requirement in Table 4.7. This indicates that 0.117% of the total area that can
fulfill the entire electrical energy needs (excluding the distribution/transmission
losses etc). This is represented graphically in Fig 4.5. The multi-colored stack on
the left indicates the cumulative potential of all provinces/regions based on
electrolytic hydrogen from respective province/region. It is evident that if
transportation and delivery is not considered at this point, the smallest region i.e.
Kashmir can fulfill the complete electricity demand.
In terms of land use for solar generation of hydrogen 0.45% of the total land area
if dedicated for solar hydrogen is sufficient for fulfilling the electrical energy
requirements.
[77]
PROVINCE WISE SOLAR HYDROGEN
GENERATION
1.20E+11 N.A
1.00E+11 KASHMIR
8.00E+10
NWFP
6.00E+10
BALOCH
4.00E+10
SINDH
2.00E+10
0.00E+00 PUNJAB
CAPACITY KWH REQUIRE KWH
Wind power potential in Pakistan is moderate; however it is also one of the most
promising renewable resources for power generation. Local researchers have
recommended wind as a long term measure for envisaged road map to hydrogen
economy. The current experience with wind technologies indicate that hydrogen
may provide a much needed solution for managing intermittent nature of wind
energy.
Estimated wind power is given in Table 4.9:
Table 4.9 Wind power estimation
REGION CAPACITY kWh REQUIRE kWh
PUNJAB 2.99x1010 8.55x107
SINDH 1.96x1010 3.53x107
BALOCH 5.05x1010 7.62x106
NWFP 3.96x1009 3.68x106
KASHMIR 1.93x1009 3.45x106
N.A 1.02x1010 1.12x106
1.16x1011 1.36x108
Utilization % 1.17x10-1
[78]
The 2.354x105 MW assessed potential from Fair to excellent wind resources
mentioned at Table 4.4 translate into 45,017 tonnes of hydrogen, based on 52.3
kWh/kg of electrical input [61]. This when converted into electricity results into an
yearly availability of 6.475X1011 kWh (Appendix D). (Assuming 39.41 kWh from
one kg of hydrogen).The calculations are summarized in Table 4.10:
It has been estimated that a cumulative of 2800 kilo tonnes of hydrogen can be
generated from Solar and wind powered electrolysis which theoretically can fulfill
the entire energy needs.
4.4 Conclusion
Pakistan is blessed with immense resources in Renewable energy. Solar energy is
not only available all year round but is also widely available all over Pakistan. The
insolation values amply demonstrate the feasibility of use of solar powered
appliances in all sectors of the economy irrespective of their geographical
location. Similarly wind potential termed as fair- to- moderate is an encouraging
fact keeping in view the worldwide growth in Wind energy @ 31.7% in 2009 [62].
Also organizations that are well established, funded and staffed have been in
place for more than a decade to promote and encourage while demonstrating the
feasibility of Renewable energy projects.
[79]
Policy measures and national regulations need to be formulated to realistically
aim and achieve the self-set goals. Sincere government efforts are essentially
required not only to steer in the right direction but also to monitor, supervise and
shoulder the responsibility, if at all fossil fuel bills are to be minimized and to help
alleviate damage caused by environmental degradation.
[80]
CHAPTER 5
5 Energy Infrastructure-Evolution, Evaluation & Development
5.1 Introduction
Annual Energy year book (2009) of Pakistan [59] gives a very clear picture of the
energy infrastructure that has evolved over the years. Thus as Compressed
natural gas forms the major portion of the energy pie; it is evident that the same
is not only available in considerable quantities but also leads to the conclusion
that the associated infrastructure would be well established and adequately
researched. The essential parts of any Energy supply chain would encompass the
production, its delivery to refueling stations, storage for varying durations and
delivery to the end user.
Apart from the supply chain certain other components such as safety codes and
standards, public acceptance and awareness along with any health issues are
some of the other factors that are to be evaluated before any infrastructure is set
in place. While discussion on all the issues are beyond the scope of this study;
however the major underscore in current study is the distribution and delivery of
Hydrogen. Glancing on two main energy indicators, we can clearly see the major
energy supply resource, as given below:
[81]
Primary energy supplies by source (Table 5.1)
[82]
He compared the wind and sunlight with the convenience of coal and petrol. He
envisioned rows of metallic windmills that would generate electricity and the
surplus would be used for electrolytic decomposition of oxygen and hydrogen [7].
Today’s researchers find them in the same footsteps, though some of the details
of Haldane may be outdated, yet the proposed Renewable-Hydrogen production
and distribution/delivery seems to be the solution in the long term energy
scenario. Haldane’s concept of storing excess wind and solar energy remains the
cornerstone of the far yet realizable Hydrogen economy. Interest in Hydrogen
system has been rising and fading since its first concept in early 1920s. The 1960s
and 70s saw the surfacing of hydrogen energy related studies, with main
emphasis on long-term and large scale nuclear and renewable energy system.
Present interest in hydrogen has been led by political as well as industrial focus.
United states DOE has spearheaded the studies and covered a wide range of
topics that include hydrogen generation, storing options, distribution networks
and delivery systems.
The evolution of an infrastructure for an entirely different type of fuel is not only
complicated but also interesting. Starting from generation up till its delivery, the
large number of Hydrogen Supply chain components point to an array of potential
stake holders. Accordingly the economic and political dimensions are also multi-
lateral. The famous chicken and egg problem is almost always associated with the
evolution of hydrogen infrastructures, particularly in relation to the automobiles.
Thus hydrogen powered vehicles would only be produced once hydrogen stations
are established, and hydrogen stations would only be set up once a sufficient
number of vehicles are on the road/market.
Transition to a fully functional hydrogen energy system is dotted with a range of
interconnected and multi-faceted issues, it is hence imperative that considering
the risks associated and apprehensions of the stake holder, existing energy
support network must be incorporated in any future hydrogen infrastructure.
The development of a new energy system requires sustained government and
political support for successful implementation, mainly because of planning as a
policy matter as well as part of efforts to reduce the climate-change triggered
environmental degradation. Policy aspects affecting the hydrogen infrastructure
have been identified by Melaina [64].
[85]
the logistical issues pertaining to the delivery of feed stocks from the resources to
the plant and the modes of transport required for the actual fuel itself. Moreover
it aims to integrate the power output of the fuel cells into the national system
[65].
[86]
to reduce greenhouse gases and this can be addressed in two ways. Firstly
batteries of such vehicles can be charged from the grid electricity with the
assumption that it is generated from non-fossil resources (Hydel/others) while the
second option is the use of hydrogen gas in fuel cell fitted cars.
The hydrogen powered fuel-cell cars provide equal travel range in comparison
with the electric cars; however the lack of hydrogen distribution infrastructure is
the major impediment when fuel (hydrogen gas) availability is concerned. Grid
electricity is widely distributed as compared to Hydrogen filling stations.
A number of studies have discussed the distribution of hydrogen fuel. Yang and
Ogden [66] have compared the conventional delivery systems for supplying
hydrogen i.e. trucks, liquefied hydrogen carriers, and gas pipelines. It was
concluded that for low volumes of gas, distribution in gas trucks is the most
economical. If consumption is high then gas pipelines are the most efficient
modes of transport without any distance issues. Liquid distribution in trucks is
only feasible if distances are large and consumption rate is moderate at the site of
delivery.
Minz et al [67] also concluded similar results. Pigneri [68] worked on another
option, which included the provision of electricity for electrolyser at the refueling
station and drew a comparison with compressed trucks and gas pipelines. He
found that by using grid electricity in the distribution system, cost benefits were
achieved; as pipeline that had to be built would not come into use until a degree
of penetration (at least 25%) is achieved.
[87]
5.4 Framework for Renewable Hydrogen infrastructure
i. fT1-for pipeline
ii. fT2-for truck
iii. fT3-for trailer
[88]
A portion of the hydrogen product may be used in Fuel-cell applications directly
as Hydrogen gas (or liquefied form) and transported to Energy consumption
centers. The remaining is converted to Electricity and connected to Main Grid for
distribution [Fig 5.5].
Where
Rsn=Product of area of grid available for solar energy and average solar radiation
for the region.
Rwn= Product of area of grid available for wind energy and average wind density
for the region.
Rbn=Product of area of grid available for biomass and average extraction for the
region.
n=number of grids
[89]
Cost of hydrogen transportation to various cities depends not only upon distance,
but also a factor that is peculiar to each mode, defined by fT.
H f p Rsn f s Rwn f w Rbn f b D( ab) f T f
f = Terrain factor depending upon the ground conditions i.e. plain area, desert,
mountainous area etc.
This study presents hydrogen supply chain network that is based on “Renewable
Energy Database” at the back end. Solar and wind resource availability has been
assessed in detail in chapter 4.
H d Ereq Pg
[90]
Fig 5.5 Framework for Renewable Hydrogen Infrastructure
[91]
This also requires identification of geographically dense areas in terms of
population as well as the industrialized areas. Excess hydrogen (Hx) from each grid
can be transported to the next grid or point of demand.
Hf
Hx
Hd
Various elements of the framework are illustrated in Fig 5.5. Hydrogen production
from each grid, “Ho” of complete area under-study is fed into the Master Data
Analyzer (MDA). MDA in turn forms the decision support tool for the IJPGS
(Integrated Just-in-time Power Generation System).
The system decides the proportionate distribution of hydrogen and, that for
conversion to electricity. Electrical output is fed to the main grid and onward to
power distribution companies (indicated as IESCO, GESCO, FESCO etc). Liquefied
or compressed hydrogen is transported via trucks, trailer or pipelines depending
upon the distance, quantity and population density of the target users, as
[92]
discussed in Para 3 above. Increase in cost of transportation with distance and
mode is illustrated in the magnifier (Fig 5.5). Excess hydrogen from each grid is
notified to MDA and directed to the grid with deficiency. Feedback cycle of IJPGS
is shown in Fig 5.6.
In this suggested distribution system (Fig 5.8), energy consumption centers form
the (proposed) focal point for distribution of hydrogen. Import and export of
hydrogen from these “focal points” depends on excess hydrogen product
available in the adjoining grids. The scenario can be compared with a vessel with
multiple pressure sensitive valves in its perimeter. Thus if any excess hydrogen is
available in any of the adjacent grids, flow of hydrogen takes place towards that
grid. Flow is optimized at this stage as depicted by O2 in Fig 5.7.This can be
referred to as an Intelligent Just-in-time power generation (IJPGS) system.
However the intelligence has to be derived from the Master Data Analyzer (as
illustrated in Fig 5.6), which is again dependant on the “Resource Data Bank” that
has live feedback, schematically shown in Fig 5.6. Block diagram (Fig 5.8) indicates
the grids as the boundaries (although not a real life assumption) that are
connected with a flow path from grid-to-grid. Pathways are controlled and
[94]
b. Mode of transportation-Pipeline, truck or tube-trailer (depending
upon the distance).
5.4.5 RESULTS
Various pathways have been identified in different regions to initiate and
accelerate the deployment of Hydrogen Economy. Accordingly infrastructural
requirements are being worked out for ease and user-friendly supply of fuel. This
study demonstrates the integration of renewable resources in the production of
hydrogen, the management of resources through an intelligent system termed as
the Master Data Analyzer and then identifies the optimization areas. A
comprehensive database of Solar/Wind and other Renewable resources
(Biomass/Hydel/Waste etc.) is foremost for the implementation of any transition
to a fully sustainable and Renewable-based Energy System. Just-in-Time System
also has to have a live feed back of the fluctuating demand and supply scenarios
of the region under study. The application of Solar/Wind data to a specific
grid/region presents satisfactory results. The same can be extrapolated for
application to a regional or national level, and trials are required to be carried out
to assess the feasibility of the proposed systems. Delivery systems are also under
development, pipelines are considered to be the most economical way of
transporting Hydrogen over long distances in a full-fledged Hydrogen Economy.
Similarly for Low-pressure Distribution i.e. within the cities, patterns as exhibited
in Fig 5.8 are to be followed depending upon the population/user density as well
as the distances. Extensive simulations and real-life situations would lead to a
practicable method that can address the “Energy question”.
5.5 DISCUSSION
As the world crosses over the “Oil Peak” and enters the post-fossil era,
research work and studies are increasingly focusing on alternative means of
energy sources. While various options are available such as Nuclear, Hydro, Tidal,
Geothermal and Renewable to name a few, the single biggest challenge remains
“Sustainability”. Climate change, environmental degradation and effects on
Ecological footprints are some of the phenomena affecting the human health,
well-being and livability. Thus any study must preclude the fossil fuels in any
future Energy Systems. A number of studies have been carried out on the
evolution of the Hydrogen Supply Chain, nevertheless most, if not all, initiate with
fossilized feed stocks of Hydrocarbons. Keeping in view the effects indicated very
briefly, the study has been made which layouts the framework for development
of Hydrogen Economy.
Wind conversion technologies are not only widely researched but are also
one of the technologies most rapidly penetrating in the world energy systems
[69]. Pakistan’s wind potential is moderate however the generation capacity can
play an effective role in the power structure of Pakistan. Pakistan’s Solar
resources are excellent and the harnessing technology is also well developed, as
discussed in chapter 4. Hydrogen just like electricity is an energy vector [is a form
of energy], and can be used as fuel in internal combustion (IC) engines or
converted into electricity on demand or fed into fuel-cell applications. Proposed
framework indicates that Hydrogen can be produced all over the country, which
can either be fed to the National Grid through the Power Distribution companies
or transported as liquefied/gaseous Hydrogen in Tankers/trailers (Fig 5.5). The
mathematical model evaluates the amount of Hydrogen production capacity
available in each grid, which can either be consumed or exported depending upon
the local requirement, as elaborated in Fig 5.8. The IJPGS controls the entire
Energy system through the Master Data Analyzer as part of the feedback loop
exhibited at Fig 5.6.
[96]
CHAPTER 6
6 Infrastructure Analysis
6.1 General
The word “infrastructure” in an Energy Supply chain denotes the connecting
elements between the Energy resources where energy/fuel production takes
place and the places where it is used i.e. the end consumers. Infrastructure
includes all types of transport starting from wheeled carriages, shipping
containers, rail networks along with means for storing, distribution and the
dispensing facilities.
There are as many solutions proposed to the barriers as there are researchers in
the evolution of hydrogen economy. However disparity of views is seen amongst
the comity of authors on the actual evaluation of the entire transitory problem.
We now address some of the most significant issues pertaining to Hydrogen
economy evolution that would allow an analysis of the infrastructural problems
especially in context of our area of study i.e. Pakistan. Infrastructure analysis is
carried under following broad categories:
The main drawback of this approach is that it fails to address some of the main
issues for which hydrogen is to be used as a fuel i.e. the environmental benefits
and the use of oil/gas generated electricity for powering the stand alone
generators. Distributed generation employs small reformers/electrolysers that do
not support carbon capture and storage, hence environmental benefits are lost.
Secondly the presumptions that vehicle fleets would be the early initiators have
been proven otherwise by Sperling [70], in case of new fuels.
Moreover, private fuel cell vehicles would not enter the market thereby keeping
the chicken and egg problem unsolved. It has been found by Van Benthem [71]
that vehicle owners are reluctant to change over to a new fuel, if it is not available
at almost 25% of the existing dispensers. Further accessibility to inexpensive FCs
remains a precondition, and small reformers with stand-alone generators are
likely to make these generators costlier because of the extra cost of the
reformers. Distributed generation scenario has other lackings when the complete
system is examined.
[98]
the domestic and industrial sectors must also be integrated from the very
beginning. Neglecting the use of hydrogen in these sectors would strongly impede
the introduction and development of FCs in the stationary applications. Moreover
if at all an infrastructure is build, it is very pertinent to consider the market forces
i.e. the choice of a fuel as well as a supplier. Every consumer exercises his right to
choose the type of fuel. These aspects are altogether being ignored, once only the
transport sector is being considered for the transition stage. Hence a significant
part of the energy market would restrict to develop.
[99]
6.2.3 Futuristic vision
Evolution is generally a slow process and takes place gradually as milestones are
achieved. Thus decentralized production is associated with short term planning.
Hence options for generation, storage and delivery under consideration must
keep in view the optimized utility. For instance the storage option as discussed is
just a case in point which requires addressal in long term scenarios as well. Such
approaches not only enhance the costs of transition but also holdup the product
development initiatives. Resultantly the short term solutions are cost intensive
owing to low efficiencies of smaller production units. Moreover the storage
aspect is diminished because the supply calculations are based on peak demand.
The problem is mostly overlooked by proposing the linkage of fuelling stations as
demand rises leading to an extensive pipe network with further rise in demand.
This would entail more investment. Also since stationary applications are
overlooked in decentralized production focusing mainly on the transport sector,
this would imply integration of small reformers which could later be connected
with the main gas grid. Cost of such fuel cell systems would escalate along with
those of on-board reformers. Manufacturing units would then compromise on the
quality of such products which are to be replaced in the near term, when switch
over to hydrogen is completed.
Transition to a hydrogen economy has several options; however the most viable
option that addresses all technological, economic and practical issues is yet to be
pronounced. In order to realize hydrogen-powered society, the foremost thing is
the path of transition which must encompass a long term and centralized
assessment in a wholesome manner.
The preceding writing has effectively highlighted the need for developing an
integrated approach for generation and transport of hydrogen through
indigenous renewable resources. In the succeeding sections the back bone of
Pakistan’s energy supply chain i.e. Natural gas pipeline network is discussed and a
biomass-based hydrogen supply chain is developed with the help of a
mathematical model. Subsequently a novel approach for transporting hydrogen,
with the help of existing pipe-line infrastructure as well as in the form of methane
and methanol is presented.
[100]
6.3 Natural gas infrastructure in Pakistan
6.3.1 General
Major gas fields of Pakistan are indicated in Fig 6.1. The figure indicates the
largest single field at Sui in Baluchistan with estimated reserves of 340 MMCFD
justifying the development of the Gas network that originates from Sui and other
33 sources (indicated in Fig 6.1) are dove-tailed into the main Transmission
system for distribution all over the region.
SNGPL as the name suggests responsible for provision of natural gas to 3.4 million
consumers of Northern Pakistan to include Punjab and Khyber Pakhtoon khwa.
[101]
SNGPL’s system supplies natural gas from Sui, Baluchistan all the way to
Peshawar, KPK covering a distance of 7,347 Kms in the form of Main & Loop lines,
and joining 1,624 towns and villages of the two provinces. Distribution system
comprises of 67,449 kms of pipe line. Transmission system comprises of 6-36”
diameter pipes transporting natural gas over a distance of 6260 Kms. The system
also includes compressor stations which increase the pressure to 1235 psig to
meet the demands of the industrial, commercial and domestic consumers [75].
The Gas Control Centre at Faisalabad is the main artery of the transmission
system. The whole network is controlled with the help of a 'state of the art'
SCADA system which provides data monitoring facility apart from remote control
operation during emergencies. Transmission network of SNGPL is shown in Fig
6.2. The figure is indicative of the well-established and well-penetrating network
in terms of its extensiveness and accessibility to small towns and villages.
[102]
Fig 6.2 Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Ltd Transmission Network [75]
[103]
6.3.3 Sui Southern Gas Company Ltd (SSGCL)
SSGCL is responsible for transmission of natural gas from Sui and its distribution
to 29 districts of Sindh and Baluchistan. Transmission network is spread over
3,062 Km while distribution pipelines have an overall length of 27,542 Kms.
Salients including the major gas fields in this region are also shown in Fig 6.3.
[104]
6.4 Layout of Natural Gas Infrastructure
SNGPL has organized its infrastructure as per procedure in vogue worldwide i.e.:
a. Transmission Infrastructure
b. Distribution Infrastructure
This network receives the gas from various gas fields (Fig.6.2) and transmits it
upcountry through pipelines. Gas received in the network system from various
gas fields is as per Table 6.2
[105]
Table 6.2 Gas Received province-wise
Province Total MMCF Avg/day
Balochistan 143,216 392.37
Punjab 50,887 139.42
Khyber PakhtoonKhwa 123,676 338.84
Sindh 355,206 973.17
Transmission system has been further sub-divided into segments and can be
categorized according to the length of the segment, pipeline diameter as well as
flow rate through the segment. Details are enumerated in Table 6.4
Analysis of the segment flows indicated in Table 6.4 shows max flow at Bhong-
AC4, however Mardan-Mingora section is the lowest flowing segment. Technical
characteristics are indicated in Table 6.5
[106]
Table 6.4 Transmission System – Segment wise Capacity & Utilization
[107]
6.4.1 Compressors
Property C 16 C 33
Efficiency % >75% isentropic >80% isentropic
Maximum Speed rpm 23,800 16,500
3
Maximum Flow m /min 50 269
Maximum Head kJ/kg 215 257
Maximum Casing Pressure kPa 24,130 18,620
Maximum Torque Nm 3920 7457
[108]
Table 6.7 Distribution Network
CAPACITY (MMCFD)
Sr. No. REGION
TOTAL CONTRACTED AVAILABLE
1 Bahawalpur 321 243 78
2 Multan 649 487 162
3 Faisalabad 597 433 164
4 Lahore 967 927 40
5 Gujranwala 364 301 63
6 Islamabad 408 245 163
7 Peshawar 277 191 86
8 Abbottabad 156 141 15
TOTAL 3739 2968 771
Table 6.1 to Table 6.7 gives a brief overview of the Natural gas infrastructure
within the scope of this study. The next section discusses and evaluates the
possibility of hydrogen production from biomass resources followed by
development of options for its transportation. Cropping pattern of Pakistan is
shown in Fig 6.13. Legend of the figure indicates wheat as the pre-dominant crop
cultivated throughout the country, in either Rabi or Kharif season. Chemical
characteristics and cost elements of biomass is discussed in succeeding sections.
Model developed here is based on wheat straw resources available all over the
region for the production of hydrogen.
6.5.1 Introduction
Energy supply chains and modes of transport are very much interconnected with
one another. Although efficiencies have greatly increased over the last century,
however the energy demand is continuously rising because of the continuous
climb in population figures in sync with the demand. It may also be noted that the
energy supply chain is heavily reliant on the modes used for the transport of feed
stocks as well as the finished products (i.e. energy carriers such as hydrogen
and/or fuels).
[109]
Renewable sources being widely dispersed require greater dependence on the
transportation modes with significant effects on delivery infrastructure in urban
and rural regions.
In all these cases, the cost of hydrogen are primarily based on two factors i.e. the
cost of the input raw materials and the mode/facility of production. Transport is a
major factor contributing to the cost of hydrogen fuel. Problems of establishing
production facility are also part of designing the network and associated logistical
analysis.
The decision for placement of a plant can be addressed in a variety of ways. The
cost of transportation between the production facility and the end user is one of
the significant input data to the placement model. In the present work, the
process of transporting H2 fuel through various modes is studied along with the
placement as the same are closely linked with the consumer centres.
[110]
Four constituent parts of the model can be identified as:
6.5.3 Assumptions
[111]
[112]
Table 6.9 Data provision to the model
Biomass Resource Biomass harvested from area ‘r’ (tons/yr)
Pt Price of H2 at energy consumption center ‘t’ ($/kg)
Requirement/dayt Daily requirement at energy consumption centre ‘t’(kg/day)
αq Factor to scale the different technologies
H H2 obtained from unit biomass residue (kg/ton)
B_lossm Factor to account for the loss of biomass input during delivery and
stowage.
t_lossm Factor to account for the loss of H2 from the terminal of mode ‘m’
D_lossm Factor to account for the loss of H2 from the distribution system in
mode ‘m’
drs Biomass resource area ‘r’ & production facility ‘s’ distances in km
dst Production facility ‘s’ and energy consumption centre ‘t’ distances
in kms
[113]
Table 6.11 Intermediate variables (cost in $/yr)
RCrs Biomass resource from area ‘r’ to production facility’s’
PCs Production cost at facility ‘s’
m
TC s Cost at terminal for facility ‘s’ by delivery mode ‘m’
m
DC st Cost of transportation from production plant’s’ to energy consumption
centre ‘t’ by mode ‘m’
ICt1t2 Transport cost through pipeline between two consumption centres t1
and t2
LCmt Transport cost for local distribution within the city through ‘m’ mode
RCmt Cost of refueling at energy consumption centres ‘t’ recieving hydrogen
through mode ‘m’
Xt Annual sale of H2 in energy consumption centre ‘t’
Maximize
Yearly cost = ∑ ( )+
∑ ( )+∑ ( )+
∑ ( )+
∑ ( )+
∑ ( )+
∑ ( ) (6.2)
[114]
produced at each node and delivered there from is assumed to be constant. CF
indicates a proportion of the production capacity that is utilized.
Cost of biomass resource includes the harvesting, storing and stacking per unit
weight i.e. tons
RCrs (Rrs,drs) = (cost of harvestr + cost of stowager + cost of transport rs(drs).Rrs) (6.3)
Production cost:
It includes the cost of installing the production facility as well as the cost of
operation and other overheads. CRF stands for capital recovery factor is the
amount of interest that may be paid on yearly basis depending on the cost of
installation of production facility.
At the site of production another cost added to the H2 fuel is its preparation for
onward delivery which is referred here as the terminal cost ( ). This cost
basically represents the costs of establishing and operating the terminal
machinery.
( ) ∑ ( ) ( ) +
∑ (6.5)
The cost of delivering H2 can be broken down into the costs incurred for delivery
by pipe line and secondly the costs for transportation by truck mode.
DCm=gas,liquid( )= ( )
Transporting through network of pipes includes the cost of running the machinery
and those involved in maintain it. Compressors used in pipe line networks are
included in the cost already calculated for the terminals.
Each delivery mode has some additional charges incurred to replenish the fueling
stations
RCmt(SCmt) = ∑ ( ) ( ) +
∑ (6.9)
6.5.5 Constraints:
For real life modeling of the scenario, certain constraints need to be applied to
the objective function. If there are no limitations in the form of constraints, the
modeling scenario would aim to generate and sale unlimited amounts of H2,
which would ultimately lead to unlimited profits.
Constraint on yield
The crop harvested for input to any production facility ‘s’ from any agricultural
field ‘r’ has to be within the harvest yield.
∑ ≤ 365.CF.Cs (6.11)
H accounts for the amount of hydrogen that is obtained from a given quantity of
Biomass resource.
The terminals at the production facility must be able to handle the generation
capacity of the facility
∑ = Cs (6.12)
[116]
Similarly the capability of a terminal at ‘m’ should be larger as compared to
output of the hydrogen production capacity at that mode.
∑ ≤ t_lossm.Tms (6.13)
∑ ≤ (6.14)
Correspondingly, the gas network within the local energy consumption centre
must be able to handle the amount of hydrogen coming in the area ‘t’ through
the pipe supplying the area
∑ ∑ ∑ ≤ (6.15)
Xt≤ ∑ (6.16)
The sale of H2 at any energy centre ’t’ cannot be greater than the requirement of
H2 at the same energy consumption centre.
∑ ∑ ∑
(6.18)
[117]
In the energy consumption centre, the presence of a local pipeline within area ‘t’
is defined by the binary variable ‘Ibvt1t2’
∑ ∑ ∑
∑ ∑
(6.19)
The capacities of all areas, production facility as well as transport modes are non-
zero entities.
6.5.6 Database
Throughout the course of this work, it was found that statistical base is either
non-existent or minimally addressed in most of the government departments. In
order to present a real life model as developed above – accurate data is required
for presentable results and conclusions.
Thus the complete exercise remained academic in the absence of real life data.
Instead data available from the internet for statistically advanced countries was
used to present the viability of an otherwise practical model. For the purpose of
this study the energy requirement was calculated on the basis of per capita
energy requirement @ 48.4 KW [59]. The same has been used for assessment
earlier as well in Chapter 4.
[119]
During the course of literature survey, following reports were analyzed for use of
relevant data:
Cost of biomass residue has been reported in various biomass studies with
different connotations. For the purpose of this study these costs have been
replicated from a study by Jenkins et al [82] titled, “Equipment Performance,
Costs, and Constraints in the Commercial Harvesting of Rice Straw for Industrial
Applications”. The study takes into account various methods for harvesting and
includes all fuel costs involved in this process. Summary is given in table below:
[120]
28 different case studies have been exhibited in Table 6.13 and the same can be
enhanced for detailed evaluation.
For the purpose of evaluation the energy demand was selected corresponding to
that of Faisalabad. The city was selected owing to the extraordinary agricultural
output and consequent anticipated biomass availability in the area and its
surroundings. Faisalabad's major crops include maize, rice, sugarcane, millet,
wheat, barley, gram and fodder. Moreover improved varieties of seeds, fertilizers
and pesticides have greatly increased per-acre yield. Annual demand of hydrogen
is set at 4031072 kg/day, equivalent to 4.031 kilo tonnes that have been
generated keeping in view the energy consumption per capita and population of
the area. The data was fed into MATLAB for generating solutions. However since a
lot of data is based on assumptions, hence only results for 10% demand of
Hydrogen are presented here to demonstrate the applicability of this model.
Results are presented in Table 6.14 to Table 6.16.
Table 6.15 provides the costs incurred at the terminal for various modes of
Hydrogen transportation i.e. pipeline, liquid H2 carriers and compressed gas
trucks. It is evident from the figures that pipeline costs have not been indicated
because of the low demand volume and consequent low production. Similarly
costs for liquefied hydrogen terminal have also not been shown for feed-stock
availability of less than 75%.
[121]
Table 6.15
Costs incurred at Terminal of various categories
Hydrogen demand 10% 10% 10% 10%
Biomass feed aval 75% 50% 25% 5%
Compressed H2
Volume handled(kg/day) 235,756 120,681 25,195
Initial investment($) 119,341,511 73,479,894 23,501,858
Overhead & maint /annum 14,420,761 8,827,365 2,829,901
Liquefied H2
Volume handled(kg/day) 362,369
Initial investment($) 428,860,311
Overhead & maint /annum 17,225,470
H2 pipeline
Volume handled(kg/day)
Initial investment($)
Overhead & maint /annum
The following table indicates the costs for distribution of hydrogen in the energy
consumption centres via the Gas/Liquid Hydrogen carriers and through the
hydrogen pipeline. Corresponding to Table 6.15, this table also indicates a
proposition for distribution of hydrogen through compressed hydrogen carriers at
lower availability of feed stock. At 75% availability liquid trucks are employed
while pipe-line may be non-existent owing to the lack of hydrogen demand.
Table 6.16
[122]
6.5.8 Discussion
Other costs assumed for this study derived from literature survey are given at
Appendix E. The model has been developed for optimizing the production of
hydrogen from Biomass resources. The unit cost of hydrogen for 10% demand
comes to $3.95-5.14/kg. This is comparable to the hydrogen costs presently
achievable from steam methane reforming process of natural gas. [37] has
documented delivered cost of hydrogen from SMR ranging from $ 4.5-5/kg of
hydrogen. Cost comparison of various hydrogen generation technologies is given
in Fig 6.4. However the full extent of its benefits can be assessed when it is fully
integrated with an accurate Database of Biomass feed stocks and a Geographical
Information System. Moreover as already highlighted statistics form a backbone
of any model whose conclusions are based on data. A model is only as realistic as
the statistical base provided to it. This model provides a detailed insight into the
hydrogen supply chain based on biomass and assesses the cost incurred in
production, transportation and distribution of hydrogen in the energy
consumption centers.
1. Production/Generation
2. Transportation
The scope of this study has been the generation of hydrogen through renewable
resources that have been assessed from Wind, solar and biomass in the preceding
chapters. The transportation of hydrogen through the following modes:
a. Compressed H2 trucks.
b. Liquefied H2 trailers.
c. Dedicated H2 pipelines.
have been evaluated in various studies. Fig 6.5 indicates the hydrogen flow
corresponding to various distances in kilometers. The table is a guideline for
transportation of hydrogen as a gas and liquid. Since dedicated hydrogen
pipelines are neither available nor the same can be built in the near future, hence
the initiation of hydrogen economy would entail transport of hydrogen as liquid
or gaseous form in trucks/trailers, excluding the option of pipe-line network.
[124]
Fig 6.5 Hydrogen delivery options Vs Hydrogen flow and distances [66]
[125]
assisted and Biomass based renewable hydrogen model is given in Fig 6.6. GIS has
to identify following important information for this system:
1) Biomass Resource
a) Area of agricultural fields with geographical coordinates.
b) Type of crops.
c) Topographical information.
d) Output from the fields as per the coordinates in terms of
longitude/latitude.
2) Infrastructural information
a) Road networks – distance from fields to nearest road head.
b) Pipeline networks – gas transmission and distribution networks.
3) Geographical data
a) Terrain
b) Wind data
c) Solar data
d) Urban/rural categorization.
e) Land use – forest/river/sea/protected areas.
4) Energy requirement
a) Indigenous sources of energy
b) Population density
c) Cost of fuel
It is pertinent to mention here that the suggested GIS-based system (Fig 6.6) is
only a decision making tool, with several databases and live update of feedback. It
provides information on placement of biomass based H2 production plants, basing
on the availability of accurate information provided in the form of biomass feed-
stocks and infrastructural networks of roads and pipelines.
[126]
Fig 6.6 GIS assisted Biomass based Renewable Hydrogen System
6.6 Gas pipeline Network
In this section the possibility of transporting hydrogen in existing natural gas
infrastructures is first evaluated in the form of mixtures.
[127]
High pressure lines are characterized by larger diameter and stronger piping with
compression stations after regular distance intervals. Low pressure or distribution
networks are identified by pressure reduction stations and relatively smaller
diameter piping network. The pipeline network has a twofold function. It serves
to supply energy to the consumer in the required quantity. At the same time the
pipeline also holds storage for the fuel gas in a considerable quantity depending
upon the dimensional capacity of pipeline and the demand-supply gap. When
supply surpasses the consumer demand, the excess gas is held “packed” in the
pipeline, and hence named as “line pack”.
This in turn facilitates and provides cushions to the highly indefinite demand
patterns. Line pack also allows the demand to change independently of the input
into the system. However in order to increase line pack capacity, higher pressures
are anticipated. Demand side pattern determines the flow rate of gas through the
pipeline, thus satisfactory meeting of demand implies higher flow rates. Flow rate
of a gas is expressed as [83]:
√ (6.20)
Where
Q flow rate
C constant
D pipe diameter
e pipe efficiency
f Darcy-weisbach friction factor
G gas specific gravity
L pipeline length
Pb pressure base
P1 inlet pressure
P2 outlet pressure
Ta average temperature
Tb temperature base
Za compressibility factor
[128]
This flow of gas is expressed in normal metre3/hour denoted as Nm3/h. This factor
represents mass flow instead of volumetric flow. Flow is dependant on the
roughness of the conduit as well as a factor named as Reynold’s number given by:
(6.21)
Definitions
The higher heating value (HHV; also known as the gross calorific value or gross
energy) of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released by a specified quantity
(initially at 25 °C) once it is combusted and the products have returned to a
temperature of 25 °C.
The lower heating value (also known as net calorific value, net CV, or LHV) of a
fuel is defined as the amount of heat released by combusting a specified quantity
(initially at 25 °C or another reference state) and returning the temperature of the
combustion products to 150 °C.
Some relevant physical properties such as HHV (higher heating value), density and
specific gravity are summarized in Table 6.17:
Table 6.17 Comparison of physical properties
Gas HHV Density Specific gravity
3 3
MJ/Nm Kg/m relative to air
Hydrogen 13 0.084 0.07
Natural gas 40 0.65 0.55
Keeping in view equation 6.20 and the above value of HHV indicates that if the
same energy demand is to be satisfied, the volume of H2 to be transported is
[129]
thrice that of natural gas. However the density of natural gas is approximately
nine times that of hydrogen (9 x 0.084), hence if the hydrogen flow rate is kept
three times, the pressure drop for Natural gas and hydrogen would be the same.
It may be added here that pressure drop is one of the most significant parameter
in design of piping infrastructure.
Variables affected by flow rate include ‘Z’ and ‘f’. Investigations made in this
regard indicate that for an unchanged pipe-line and pressure drop, energy flow by
hydrogen is 98% with lean natural gas, while in comparison with rich natural gas,
it is 80%. Relative energy flows from 0-100% mixture by volume with natural gas
is shown in Fig 6.7:
105
Relative Energy flow Vs 100% NG
100
95
90
85 LEAN GAS
RICH GAS
80
75
70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Hydrogen Addition % vol
[130]
If Vstorage,n=storage volume at normal temperature and pressure (273oK and
1bar)
&Vgeom =volume of pipeline then
[ ] (6.22)
Principle of line pack is shown in Fig 6.8. The space between the upper and lower
pressure profiles indicate the available line pack.
[131]
this in view, the energy content of hydrogen is approximately a quarter when
brought in comparison with Natural gas. This may hamper the security of supply
in short term. Fig 6.9 shows these values at various mixtures ranging from 0-100%
hydrogen (for lean natural gas). It is very evident from these graphs that transport
of hydrogen in the existing infrastructure is not feasible. The concept of line pack
as storage of H2 is also not suitable in this context.
5
Linepack (HHV -1E 07 J)
3
500000 Nm3/h
2
1000000 Nm3/h
1
1350000 Nm3/h
0 1500000 Nm3/h
-1
100
0
5
25
90
10
15
20
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
95
-2
Hydrogen Addition % vol
Apart from the physical/chemical properties of hydrogen that affect the pipeline
network, certain other issues are also among the considerate with hydrogen
infrastructure; these include leakages and pipe damage.
6.6.3.1H2 Leakage
Hydrogen first in the “periodic table” by virtue of being the smallest element is
more likely to escape easily as compared to natural gas. Basing on their diffusion
coefficients hydrogen can diffuse up to four times faster than natural gas. Hence
components of any pipeline network are to be designed to prevent leakage from
valves, seals, gaskets thereby raising safety hazards.
Hydrogen leakage though high in volumetric terms, are lower in energetic losses.
Also as discussed earlier the amount of hydrogen leakage depends largely on
[132]
pipeline material. Cast iron and fibrous cement pipelines have a greater leakage
risk. Currently Polyethylene pipelines are in use in most of the distribution
networks. Leakage/diffusion of hydrogen is five times higher than natural gas;
however it is negligibly small owing to its energetic content. Research has shown
that the annual loss of hydrogen by leakage is approximately 0.0005-0.001% of
the total volume transported [85].
Further, the compressors installed along the transmission line are another point
in consideration. Compressors can be either reciprocating or centrifugal.
Reciprocating machines can be of piston type or diaphragm configuration and are
being used in hydrogen pipeline networks around the world. Air liquide, the
pioneer in hydrogen technologies is using volumetric compressors, however on
the other hand the natural gas networks are provisioned with centrifugal
machines [75]. Thus if hydrogen is to be transported in high pressure transmission
network, the volume of hydrogen to be transported in high pressure transmission
network, the volume of hydrogen to be transported has to be thrice that of
natural gas as already discussed. This results in an increase of compression
capability as much as twice that of the current capacity. From the previous
discussion it is clear that rotational velocities would have to be increased
manifold to match the rate of mass flow. Increased velocities are limited by the
material strengths of the compressors, hence it may be concluded that the
compressors installed in the existing infrastructure is insufficient to handle
hydrogen in the same quantum as of natural gas. It may also be mentioned here
that the same is not true for distribution infrastructure since compression stations
are not employed therein [86].
[133]
6.6.3.2Hydrogen embrittlement
[134]
Energy flow in Distribution network
120
Relative Energy flow as compared to 100% NG
115
110
105
100
Lean NG
95 Rich NG
90
85
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Hydrogen Added % vol
√ √
(6.24)
[135]
Table 6.18
Type Wobbe index range
Lean NG 41-47
Rich NG 48-58
For common NG burners, the Wobbe number for rich NG lies between 48-58
MJ/Nm3 while that for a lean NG is in the range 41-47. It is evident from Fig 6.11
that for lean NG value burners, hydrogen injection can be upto 98% by volume,
while for Rich NG it can be within 45% vol. Thus for user ease, it is preferable to
include the complete range i.e. 41-58%, so that the low/high calorific value can be
used with equal convenience. To address the issues of flame detection, burner
heads and sealings, multi-functional devices that can run on entire range of H2/NG
mixtures is suggested [91][92].
60
55
Wobbe index MJ/Nm3
50
LEAN GAS
45
RICH GAS
40
35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Hydrogen Addition % vol
From Fig 6.11 it is clear that for low calorific value, the wobbe index is lowest at
72% vol mixture while for high calorific gas, the worst performance range is 75-
85%.
[136]
6.6.5 Transition to 100% hydrogen transport in NG pipelines.
Historically, shift from one form of fuel i.e. city/town gas to natural gas was
almost immediate. However with the present day volume of gas in transit as well
as the number of customers all over the world or any region has multiplied many
times, notwithstanding the network which has inter twined so vastly over the
years, the foreseeable transition is a much daunting task. This transition would
require three fold compatibility:
Distribution network
High pressure grid
End users’ appliances
[137]
Fig 6.12 Illustration of H2 transport via NG pipelines in Distribution (low-pressure) grid [93].
The use of natural gas infrastructure for hydrogen transport has been evaluated
in detail in Section 6.6. It has been found that hydrogen can be transported as a
mixture with natural gas only in the low-pressure network i.e. Distribution
network. Transmission network requires higher quantities of hydrogen at larger
pressures over considerable distances. The extent of transport may range up to
several hundred kilometers. Moreover only up to 17% hydrogen by volume can be
mixed in natural gas without carrying out any major modification in the
infrastructural network.
[138]
for hydrogen fuel. Alternative means are still required for transporting hydrogen
in Transmission networks.
Nelson et al [94] narrated the public’s opinion regarding the success of the new
energy system, in the words “low failure rates for hydrogen systems”. Hydrogen
economy thus requires a supply chain system that is able to satisfy the consumer
demand in its entirety.
This thesis studies the options available that aid in integration of renewable
sources in the hydrogen economy. In this regard renewable hydrogen can be used
in the form of methane/methanol for direct use as fuel or to regenerate hydrogen
after transportation to the city gate, for use in fuel cell applications with end-
consumers. Salient of the system are discussed in succeeding Paras:
[139]
“hydr-icity” exhibiting H2 and electricity, which would be a trading commodity in
the proposed hydrogen economy.
[140]
Appendix F is an exhaustive record regarding the availability of biomass feed
stocks in the four provinces in the form of yield per hectare for a variety of
agricultural crops. Biomass energy data book compiled by Oak Ridge National
laboratory of the US Department of energy describes in detail the assessed fuel
value of biomass residues [96]. Chemical characteristics of selected feed stocks is
exhibited in Table 6.19
Considerable feed stocks in the form of crop residue are available for provision of
carbon as a reactant in the methanation process. Alternately carbon can also be
obtained from natural gas fields which is presently being dumped into the
atmosphere in the form of flue gases. Industrial emissions also can be directed to
supply carbon as well as waste heat.
6.7.1.2Methane formation
The production of synthetic methane may be termed as a reversal of the
reforming process for methane carried out with steam. The reaction is almost a
century old and given by:
[141]
CO+ 3H2↔CH4+H2O (A)
The above mentioned reactions require heat and take place in the presence of a
catalytic agent. Reaction A is an industrial process for producing synthetic fuel
while reaction B is commonly used for removal of air exhaled by the astronauts in
space shuttles/aircrafts. This reaction is particularly supported as CO2 is available
in gas fields as well as in the form of residual gases in industrial zones. Moreover
the usage of emission gases would also aid in curbing “climate change” and
environmental degradation.
[142]
Based on Hashimoto [97] findings it is anticipated that both the reactors would
operate at 90 percent efficiency, which further enhances it to almost 99 percent.
Catalysts being developed by Hashimoto are compounds of Ni and Zi. For the
purpose of this study, several commercial electrolysers for large scale hydrogen
generation were analysed, and electrolyser of 5040 series manufactured by M/S
Hydrogen Technologies of Statoil was assumed for the purpose of this study with
a 19 array unit [28][98]. Salient characteristics are given in Table 6.20:
Theoretically 2.565 Nm3/s when reacted with CO2 gives 0.65 Nm3/s of methane.
Applying the conversion factor:
[143]
Fig 6.15 Flow diagram for methanol
Methanol is one of the few simple energy carriers, which can be used for storing
hydrogen as well as able to be employed directly as fuel. Practically methanol has
a proportion of 1:1100 in terms of cubic metres of volume, whereas hydrogen in
liquid form can be stored to a maximum of 800 cubic meters. This significant
feature recommends its use as on-board hydrogen systems in FC powered cars
[99]. A comparison of methanol production from biomass gasification and
hydrogenating CO2 from exhaust emissions of fossil fueled power producers has
been carried out based on studies by [100] and [101].
It has been concluded in this study that the biomass based methanol production
is the economically cost effective method. The process is represented as:
Table 6.22
Performance Xistics Ouellete Study Spect Study
Feedstock consumption (ktonne/yr) 10.11 14.38
Electrical consumption (MWh/tonne) 0.34 6.67
Methanol generation (ktonne/yr) 12.24 17.50
Percentage Efficiency 44.05 25.62
Table 6.23
Cost comparison Ouellete study Spect study
Capital investment ($) 1.45 E 107 3.203 E 107
Electricity price/unit 0.01 0.04
Methanol price/tonne 465 573
For instance, as discussed earlier, the lowest flow segment section of SNGPL
identified as Mardan-Mingora has a maximum flow of 16 MMCFD (Table 6.4).
Biomass resources in this region indicate wheat as a major crop in and around
Mingora. Recalling Chapter 4, section 4.3.1 wherein wind corridors in Mardan
have already been identified as major wind resource areas in Northern Indus
valley. Similarly solar potential for Mardan from Jan to Dec, given at Appendix A
at Latitude 34, Longitude 72 indicates a max of 8.94 kwh /m2 /day and an average
6.345 kwh/m2/day, which is considered a very suitable proposition for solar
power potential. Referring to Table 6.19, an electrolyser of 5040 series can
generate up to 2 MMCFD of methane. Simple theoretical calculation indicates a
requirement of 8 similar electrolysers to provide 16 MMCFD of the Mardan-
Mingora segment.
[145]
Thus Hydrogen can be efficiently produced from renewable resources in Mardan-
Mingora region and delivered to the energy consumption centres in the form of
methane/methanol. Similarly other regions/energy consumption centres can be
evaluated each with its own peculiar detail for the production and distribution of
hydrogen. It is once again reiterated that availability of accurate statistical data is
necessary for any integrated energy model that has to be developed by the future
energy planners to ensure sustainability in supply.
6.8 Conclusion
Infrastructure analysis carried out for the renewable hydrogen production has
revealed significant insights into the subject. Firstly, Pakistan is blessed with an
array of renewable resources that are widely available for tapping, both in terms
of quantity and quality. Solar and wind resource are extensively dispersed
however are primarily trappable only in remote locations, owing to urban
development, structural build-up and other land-use limitations. In this regard
alternate options for the distribution and delivery infrastructure are realistically
evaluated by conversion into hydrogen.
Hydrogen being a good storage medium for intermittent resources like wind and
solar is the most preferred energy vector for the medium to long term future
energy scenario.
In this regard Pakistan being an agriculturally dense country has a very sizable
amount of biomass available in the form of crop residue. Biomass has been
demonstrated to serve not only in the production of hydrogen as exhibited by the
model developed for Faisalabad, but also aids in its transportation. Hydrogen can
[146]
be transported in pipelines only upto 17% by volume, which is only suitable for
the initiation or the transition stage.
Tool developed to model biomass based hydrogen supply chain demonstrates the
applicability of hydrogen generation from crop residue resulting in an economic
and green path way that is able to deliver hydrogen at competitive rates. All
infrastructural options are to be evaluated in terms of economic benefits for a
complete assessment of the suggested tools. Infrastructure analysis carried out
for Mingora-Mardan section can be expanded to other regions as per the energy
demand/supply scenario and the availability of solar, wind and biomass
resources. It is however emphasized that the distribution and delivery network as
demonstrated (for above mentioned example) has to be integrated with a GIS
system that has updated databases of biomass resources as well as detailed
information on road and pipeline networks.
[147]
7 Summary of Conclusions & Recommendation
7.1 Summary
The dawn of the 21st century saw the “provision of clean and sustainable energy”
as one of the foremost and challenging task. This study does not base any of the
arguments as to how the hydrogen fuel would replace the fossil fuels however it
pre-supposes that eventually hydrogen economy would flourish in an overall
energy scenario of the world. While the hydrogen supply chain may be a
farfetched dream in comparison with today’s fossil fuels yet it is presumed that in
mid-to-far future hydrogen would be a feasible alternative.
[148]
Wind resource, although limited with just 9% of the area with good to
excellent wind availability, yet has tremendous potential for growth.
Hydrogen Economy may be a distant future reality; however as a first step
towards the Hydrogen pathways already identified elsewhere, it is
imperative that Sustainable generation of Hydrogen for Pakistan must be
appraised realistically. As imported fossil fuels form a major portion of
Pakistan's Energy mix, hence the foreseeable Hydrogen-based Energy
Infrastructure should preclude any of the existing fossil fuels. Focus in this
study has therefore been on indigenous and sustainable supply of
hydrogen, amounting to several thousand tonnes of hydrogen that can
generate appreciable amounts of electricity. It has been demonstrated that
the solar potential of “Jhelum Division” alone can fulfill the entire energy
needs of the country.
[149]
of MATLAB software that hydrogen can be produced from biomass at rates
competitive ($ 3.95-5.14/kg) with steam methane reforming (SMR) which is
presently the most economic method of hydrogen production.
[150]
compressors also do not favor introduction of hydrogen in the transmission
network.
7.2.8 Recommendations
The wide spread availability of a wide variety of renewable resources that are well
dispersed over an approximate area of 800,000 sq km require intelligent tapping
of this significant resource. Large amounts of solar energy may be available over
large pieces of land that are uninhabited, however on the other hand heavily
populated areas may not have solar tapping/collecting facility owing to
constructed structures. Thus energy suppliers may be available away from the
energy consumers resulting in a need for development of an intelligent energy
management system. In this regard, an Integrated Just-in-time Power Generation
System has been devised that has an energy Database at the back-end to manage
and channelize the surplus energy to energy consumption centres.
[152]
concrete problem. It must be realized that transportation of hydrogen is one of
the key challenges in a successful Hydrogen Supply Chain.
MINLP tool developed with Biomass as feedstock has demonstrated that
hydrogen supply chains can be modeled and executed with renewable resources
to achieve sustainability. Costs achieved are compatible with steam methane
reforming of natural gas. It is recommended that in order to plan a realistic
energy supply chain a comprehensive Geographical Information System is very
essential that is able to provide accurate infrastructural information on road
networks, feedstock locations and land use of the region. Moreover a broad
based Database of agricultural output with live feedback must be available for
accurate result oriented energy plans. It is also suggested that Multi-criteria
Decision Making (MCDM) techniques be employed keeping in view the local
availability of biomass feed stocks, infrastructure and other social, economic and
intangible factors. Hence an integrated supply chain is a combination of an
integrated system comprising of:
Modeling tool
GIS
Database
MCDM technique
While considering the energetic and physical aspects it is revealed that the
existing pipe line infrastructure is well suited for transporting mass quantities of
hydrogen over long distances without altering any major elements. The system
also serves as storage to cope up with the difference in demand and supply. The
17% by volume mixture with natural gas is also well compatible with the end use
appliances which do not require any major modification. Hydrogen storage as
methane/methanol generated from remote renewable resources and transported
in liquid tankers and NG pipelines also need to evaluated for economic
compatibility.
[153]
are required but also encouraging measures are also required for influx of
investment in the new infrastructure.
[154]
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8 LIST OF APPENDICES
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Appendix A
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Appendix B
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Appendix C-1
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Appendix C-2
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Appendix C-3
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Appendix C-4
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Appendix C-5
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Appendix C-6
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Appendix D
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Appendix E
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Appendix F
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Appendix G
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