THERMODYNAMICS

2019 Edition

PROF DR. HJ. ZAINAL ALIMUDDIN BIN ZAINAL ALAUDDIN

DR. ZIA UD DIN
DR. TEOH YEW HENG
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
INTRODUCTION

This book have been arranged to deliver basic knowledge in thermodynamics that is one of the
basic courses in the undergraduate program. Firstly, we will discuss the introduction of the basic
thermodynamic concepts. These basic concepts are very important for understanding
thermodynamics.

The notes are divided into three modules. Module one will discuss thermodynamics basic
concepts, first law of thermodynamics and fluid properties. Then, module two will discuss on
thermodynamics processes, second law of thermodynamics, entropy and exergy.

Module three will discuss in detail the thermodynamics cycles involve in various applications
such as steam power plants, gas turbines, internal combustion engines and refrigeration.

Last but not least, I hope that this book will achieve its objective to help students understand the
basics of thermodynamics.

Zainal Alimuddin bin Zainal Alauddin

School of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Sains Malaysia

2
MODULE 1

Chapter Title
_______________________________________________

Introduction

Contents

Introduction to Module 1

1 Preface
1.1. Definition
1.2. Types of energy

2 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

2.1. Fluid Properties
2.2. Thermodynamics System
2.3. Thermodynamics State
2.4. Thermodynamic Process
2.5. Thermodynamics Cycles
2.6. Temperature
2.7. Work & Heat
2.8. Unit

3 First Law of Thermodynamics

3.1. Non-flow Equation

3.2. Corollaries of First Law
3.3. Steady Flow Equation
3.4. Continuity Equation

4 Fluid Properties

4.1. Phases of Pure Substance

4.2. Water Phase Change at Constant Pressure
4.3. T-v diagram
4.4. P-v diagram
4.5. Type of Fluid
4.5.1. Ideal Gas
4.4.1.1 Specific Heat
4.4.1.2 Joule Law
4.5.2. Van de Waals Gas
4.5.3. Steam
4.5.3.1 Steam Table
4.5.3.2 Wet Steam

3
 4.5.3.3 Superheated Steam
4.5.3.4 Interpolation

Tutorial 1

MODULE 2
Introduction to module 2

5 Thermodynamic Process

5.1. Reversible Non- Flow Process

5.1.1. Constant Volume Process

5.1.2. Constant Pressure Process
5.1.3. Constant Temperature Process (isothermal)
5.1.4. Adiabatic Process
5.1.5. Polytrophic Process

5.2. Reversible Process

5.2.1. Boiler
5.2.2. Condenser
5.2.3. Nozzle
5.2.4. Diffuser
5.2.5. Turbine & Compressor
5.2.6. Throttling

Tutorial 2
Test 1

6 Second Law of Thermodynamic

6.1. Heat Engine & Heat Pump

6.2. Second Law of Thermodynamic
6.2.1 Temperature Scale
6.3. Entropy
6.3.1 Clausius Inequality
6.3.2 Prove of entropy as a property
6.3.3 Concept of entropy
6.3.4 Principle of increasing entropy

6.4. T-s diagram

6.5. Relationship of entropy with other properties

6.5.1. Entropy of wet steam

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 6.5.2. Entropy of ideal gas

6.6 Reversible flow process

6.6.1. Constant Volume Process
6.6.2. Constant Pressure Process
6.6.3. Isothermal Process
6.6.4. Adiabatic Process
6.6.5. Polytrophic Process

6.7 Entropy and irreversibility

6.7.1. Isentropic efficiency

6.8 Exergy
6.8.1 Exergy from a heat source
6.8.2 Exergy of a closed system
6.8.3 Exergy of an opened system
6.8.4 Exergy change
6.8.5 Principle of decreasing exergy
6.8.6 Second law efficiency

Tutorial 3
Test 2

MODULE 3

Introduction to Module 3

7 Thermodynamic cycles

7.1. Carnot cycle

7.2. Air standard cycle

7.2.1. External heat transferred cycle

7.2.1.1 Stirling cycle

7.2.1.2 Ericsson cycle
7.2.1.3 Brayton/Joule cycle (closed)

7.2.2. Internal heat transfer cycle

7.2.2.1 Brayton cycle (opened cycle)

7.2.2.2 Reciprocating engine cycle
7.2.2.3 Air standard Otto cycle
7.2.2.4 Air standard diesel cycle
7.2.2.5 Mix cycle (dual combustion cycle)

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 7.3. Mean Effective Pressure

Tutorial 4

7.4. Vapour cycle

7.4.1. Rankine cycle

7.4.1.1 Modified Rankine cycle

7.4.1.2 Increase of boiler pressure
7.4.1.3 Superheated cycle
7.4.1.4 Reheat cycle

7.4.2. Vapour Compression Cycle

Tutorial 5
Test 3

MAIN REFERENCE

Applied Thermodynamics - Eastop & McConkey.

Thermodynamics-Cengel and Boles

6
 MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION

Module 1 will discuss on the basic concepts of thermodynamics that is concepts and
thermodynamic principles. They are four chapters in Module 1 where the first chapter will
explain the thermodynamics terms, various forms of energy and its application

The second chapter will discuss on the basic concepts of thermodynamics and the
thermodynamics fluid properties, system, state, cycle, heat and work.

Then chapter 3 will discuss on the First Law of Thermodynamics. The phases of fluid properties
will be explained clearly with the help of P-v and T-v diagrams. The concept of enthalpy will be
introduced. Types of fluids used are vapour and air. Thermodynamics fluid properties for both
types of fluids are explained clearly with examples.

7
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES

• To define Thermodynamics
• To list the energy sources.
• To list the thermodynamic applications in engineering.

Thermodynamics is a term taken from Greek words, “therme” meaning heat and “dynamic”
meaning force. These words give “Thermodynamics” in English. These words mean “heat force”
or more accurately mean energy from heat.

Thermodynamics is defined as the study on the effect of heat and work when the fluid expanded,
compressed, heated or cooled.

Thermodynamics is the relationship between the different types of energy, work and heat
transfer. Thermodynamics is used in all processes where the temperature and heat play important
roles. Examples: internal combustion engine, air-conditioning system, steam plant, gas turbine
plant, compressor, turbine and lots more.

During the industrial revolution in the 19th century, energy needs increased tremendously and
energy source used was not enough to support it. Three effects from thermodynamics study to
solve the problems are:

(a) Use present energy sources and improve the efficiency.

(b) Conserve energy
(c) Find new energy sources.

1.1 MAIN WORLD ENERGY RESOURCES

Table below shows the main world energy source and its percentage of utilization

Table 1.1 Main World Energy Resources

Fossil Energy Year % of Utilization Changes
Coal 200 – 1000 30% -
Oil 20 – 40 35% +
Gas 20 – 40 20% +
Not Fossil Energy
Nuclear 50 – 100 5% +
Hydro - 7.0% O

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1.2 OTHER ENERGY SOURCES

There are few alternatives for energy sources commonly known as renewable energy that will
never deplete over long periods. It is not used all over the world yet because of certain reasons
except for hydro energy source which is classified as a renewable energy source.

Table 1.2 Alternative Energy Source

Energy Comment
Biomass 15MJ/kg, waste from the agricultural activities.
Solar 1.4 kW/m2 sunshine – difficult to distribute the solar energy.
Wave Expensive and difficult -20 kW/m
Geothermal 0.5W/m- heat from the centre of earth.
Wind 200 W/m- main problem is how to keep this energy.
Fusion Deuterium from sea
-problem in building the fusion reactor.

1.3 ENERGY USED IN THIS WORLD

Figure below shows the energy utilization in this world. It is estimated that about 80% from the
energy used in this world are from fossil energy sources. Renewable energy source plays a small
role in energy utilization in this world.

Hydro Nuclear
7% 5% Biomass
5%
Gas
19%

Oil
35%

Coal
29%

Figure 1.1 Contribution of various energy sources for the world energy utilization.

Figure 1.2 shows that 85% from world energy sources are used by the developed countries
although in Figure 1.3 shows that only 22% of world populations are from the developed
countries.

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 Developing
countries
15%

Developed
countries
85%

Figure 1.2 Distribution of global energy at 6862 Mtoe.

Developed
Developing countries
countries 22%
78%

Figure 1.3 World population

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Table 1.3 shows list of energy sources that have potential to supply energy in the 21st century.

Table 1.3 Energy sources and their potential (present world energy used is 2 x 1013 W,
expected to increase to 1014 W)

Source Maximum Comment

Output
Renewable

Photovoltaics 10 15 W -large area of utilization :

-7-10 % conversion efficiency
-Need large storage system

Biomass 9 x1012 W - harvesting and logistics

Wind power 1 x 1015 W

-Need a robust storage system
-Social problems

Wave power uncertain - suitable for coastal population

(< 6 x 1012 W) - expensive and heavy

Hydro uncertain - limited to specific location

(<1012 W)

Tidal < 7 x 1012 W - limited to location with tidal wave

Geothermal < 3 x 1013 W - limited to specific location

High Density Source

Nuclear 1015 W for 10 - waste disposal and health problem

years

Fossil fuels 109 W -intensive use

-air pollution

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1.4 INDUSTRIES INVOLVED IN THERMODYNAMICS

There are lots of engineering fields that involve knowledge of thermodynamics. Below are some
related fields:

1. Automotive Engines.
2. Steam power plant for nuclear and fossil.
3. Gas turbine power plants.
4. Propulsion system for airplanes and rockets.
5. Cooling, heating, air-conditioning and ventilation systems.
6. Cryogenic systems, gas separation and liquefaction.
7. Combustion systems.
8. Compressors, pumps.
9. Turbines.
10. Alternative energy systems
a. Biomass power plants.
b. Fuel cells.
c. Electrical heat devices.
d. Solar used in heating and cooling.
e. Air turbine.
11. Biomedical used
a. Respiration system.
b. Artificial organ.

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CHAPTER 2 – BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS.

OBJECTIVES

• To list the fluid properties.

• To identify and define the basic concepts of thermodynamics.
• To differentiate types of thermodynamic systems.
• To differentiate methods of heat and work transfer.
• To differentiate types of thermodynamic processes.
• To derive units from the basic units.

Engineering plants consist of gas turbines, steam turbines, internal combustion engines, air-
conditioning plants, compressors and others. The main objective for these plants is to convert the
energy from one form to another. It also involves the behavior of fluid (vapor, gas or liquid)
when it is compressed or expanded and cooled or heated. These plants involve thermodynamic
principle or knowledge because it relates between fluid properties and energy that will effect
changes in the state of the fluid.

Below, we will discuss several basic concepts of thermodynamics that must be known first.

2.1. THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEM

A thermodynamic system is defined as an area within a space where behavior of a quantity of

fluid is studied whether it is compressed, expanded, cooled or heated. A system is divided by a
boundary which can be categorized into two, that is:

(a) Physical boundary.

(b) Virtual boundary (imaginary)

Boundary is a line that allows energy (work and heat) to cross it. There are 3 types of systems:

(a) Closed system

During a thermodynamic process fluid will remain in the system. Only work and heat are
allowed to cross the boundary. An example is when gas expands in the cylinder behind a piston
as shown in Figure 2.1.

Cylinder
System
Work
Surrounding
Piston

Boundary
Heat
Figure 2.1 Closed System

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 (b) Open System
During a thermodynamic process, fluid, heat and work can cross the boundary. Example of an
open system is a boiler shown in Figure 2.2.

Steam Exit

Virtual Boundary Physical Boundary

Water In
Heat

Figure 2.2 Open System

(c) Isolated System

Fluid, heat or work CANNOT cross the boundary. Example of isolated system is a flask or
thermos or thermos flask.

2.2. PROPERTIES OF THERMODYNAMIC FLUID

Fluid properties that are already known are:-

(a) Pressure (P) Pascal (N/m) or bar

(b) Density () kg/m3
Usually specific volume (v) m3/kg is more commonly used instead of density.
o
(c) Temperature (T) C or K

There are also several other types of fluid properties:-

(d) Specific Internal energy (u) kJ/kg

(e) Specific Enthalpy (h) kJ/kg
(f) Specific Entropy (s) kJ/kg K

Properties can be divided into intensive and extensive properties. Extensive property depends
on size of a system whilst an intensive property is independent on size. Mass, volume and energy
are extensive properties. Pressure and temperature are intensive properties. Specific energy is
intensive property.

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The fluid can be either single component or multi component; example water as a single
component fluid or a mixture of water and oil as a dual component fluid. It can also be either
single phase or dual phase; water as a single phase and a tank consisting of water and steam.

These properties will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

2.3. THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF A SYSTEM

Thermodynamic state or condition of a system is defined based on at least any two

thermodynamic fluid properties.

The state of a system can be determined if we know at LEAST TWO of the thermodynamic
fluid properties for example: pressure and temperature; pressure and specific volume; enthalpy
and entropy or any other two combinations. For an open system, besides thermodynamic state
there is also MECHANICAL STATE that is defined by mechanical properties such as:

(a) Velocity

(b) Position

Thermodynamic deals with states in equilibrium or equilibrium states. Equilibrium means

independent of space and time. It also means in a balance condition. When things change in
space and time, it is called non equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium means that there is no
temperature change. Mechanical equilibrium means that there is no change in pressure. Phase
equilibrium means that there is no change in mass although the phase has changed. Chemical
equilibrium means that there is no change in the chemical composition with time. Equilibrium
state means that the change in the state occurs very slowly to allow the properties to balance. If
the change occurs rapidly then the state is non equilibrium. Equilibrium state is ideal and does
not occur in real life. To overcome this the term used is quasi equilibrium to mean almost
equilibrium.

2.4. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

Thermodynamic process is defined as a SEQUENCE OF CHANGING THERMODYNAMIC STATES

between an initial state to the final state. Process in a closed system is called NON FLOW PROCESS
and the process in an open system is called FLOW PROCESS.

Consider compression process from state (1) at pressure, P = 6 bar to state (2) at pressure, P = 8
bar. The change of pressure is 2 bar. If the pressure change, dp is small during the process, the
change between state (1) and state (2) is given as:

dp = P2- P1

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The compression process can be illustrated on a Pressure vs specific volume (P-v) diagram
shown in Figure 2.3.

8bar P2

P1
6 bar

v
Fig 2.3 Compression Process

REVERSIBLE PROCESS is an ideal process. When a fluid passes through a reversible process, the
fluid and its boundary can return to their initial state. Reversible process criteria are:

i) No friction.
ii) The instantaneous change in pressure and temperature between fluid and its surrounding
during the process must be very small to maintain thermal equilibrium

The actual process is “IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS” and is drawn as a dotted line as shown in Figure
2.4.

P
P2

P1

v
Fig 2.4 Irreversible Compression Process

Real process is an irreversible process. But we can assume that it is almost reversible or that the
fluid in the process is assumed reversible but the surrounding cannot return to its initial state. We
call this as “INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE PROCESS”.

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2.5 THERMODYNAMICS CYCLE

Thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of processes (at least 2) originating from an initial
state and ends at the same state. When fluid passes through a series of processes and finally
return to its initial state, we can say that it has gone through a “thermodynamics cycle”..
P 1

2
4

Fig 2.5 Thermodynamic Cycle

2.6 TEMPERATURE

Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if the temperatures of the two systems are the same.
Two systems are said to have the same temperature if there is no change when the two systems
touched. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states that if two bodies in thermal
equilibrium with the third body, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. If
there are two bodies, each one has the same temperature with the third body; all the three bodies
will have the same temperature. The third body acts like a thermometer.

2.7 WORK AND HEAT

Work (W) is energy that exists at the boundary when a system changes its state caused by
movement of part of the boundary due to the action of a force. Work can be said to flow or
transfer across the boundary. Work is a form of energy transfer caused by the movement of the
force at the boundary. Positive or negative work follows a convention shown in Figure 2.6. Work
(done) W = Force x distance = Nm

W (+) W (-)

Expansion process. Compression process.

Work done by the system Work done on the system
to its surrounding. by its surrounding.

Fig 2.6 Work done

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Heat (Q) is energy that exists at the boundary when a system changes its state due to temperature
difference between the system and its surrounding. Heat is a form of energy transfer involving
temperature difference. Similar to work, heat is said to flow or transfer across the boundary.
Positive or negative heat transfer follows a convention shown in Figure 2.7.

Q (-)

System System

Q (+)
Fig 2.7 Heat transfer

Heat and work are not properties of a system but they are forms of energy that exist at the
boundary when the state changed. Although heat and work cannot be used to explain the state of
a system, it is used to explain the process involved in a system when the state changed. During
the change of state from state (1) to state (2), heat and work are integration of small quantities.

Q = Q ; W = W

2.8. UNIT

Basic Unit

Distance (meter, m)
Mass (kilogram, kg)
Time (second, s)
Temperature (Kelvin, K) = oC + 273

Secondary Unit

Velocity = distance/time (m/s)

Acceleration (a) = velocity/time (m/s2)
Volume (V) = distance3 (m3)
Density () =mass/volume (kg/m3)
Specific Volume (v) = volume/mass (m3/kg)
Force (F) = mass x acceleration = kg x m/s3 = (N)
Work (W) = force x distance (Nm) (kg m2/s2)
Kinetic Energy (1/2 mv2) = kg m2/s2 (Joule, J)
Potential Energy (mgh) (J)
Work (W) (J)
Heat (Q) (J)

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Power = Energy/time = J/s (Watt, W)
Pressure = Force/area = N/m2 (Pascal, Pa)
(1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa)
Internal Energy (J)
Enthalpy (J)
Entropy (J)
Specific work done (J/kg)
Specific heat transferred (J/kg)
Specific internal energy (J/kg)
Specific enthalpy (J/kg)
Specific entropy (J/kg K)

In thermodynamics all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. Every term in the

equations must have the same unit. Ensure that during solving a question, the formulae and
equations are dimensionally homogeneous. A non-dimensionally homogeneous formula is wrong
but a dimensionally homogeneous formula is not necessarily right.

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CHAPTER 3 – FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

OBJECTIVE

• To define the First Law of Thermodynamics

• To prove that “internal energy” is a thermodynamic property.
• To analyze the First Law equations for non flow and steady flow equations

Concept of energy is based on the Principle of Conservation of Energy. First Law is a statement
of a general principle that involves heat energy and mechanical energy (work).

Let say a cycle with two processes in a closed system below:

Q GAS W

Figure 3.1

When heat source is supplied to a system, gas will expand and the piston will move to do work
on the surrounding. When the heat is removed, gas will contract and work is done by the
surrounding on the system. Now, the system is back to its initial state. However, its intrinsic
energy has not changed that is the net mechanical energy is not supplied by any other energy
except by net heat energy. So, First Law of Thermodynamic statement is as below:

When a system goes through a thermodynamic cycle, NET HEAT TRANSFER to the system
from the surrounding is the same as NET WORK DONE by the system on its surrounding.

Q = W (summation in a cycle)

∮ 𝛿𝑄 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊 (integration in a cycle)

∮ 𝛿𝑄 − ∮ 𝛿𝑊 = 0

∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊) = 0

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 Example 3.1

A steam plant generates power of 1000kW as shown in the diagram below. Based on First Law
of Thermodynamic, calculate mass flow rate in this plant.

q= 2800kJ/kg
BOUNDARY

W=1000kW
Boiler
Turbine
m
Feed Pump Condenser

q=2100kJ/kg

W=5kW
Figure 3.2

Steam plant generates 1,000 kW

Net heat transferred in the cycle Q = 2800 - 2100 = 700 kJ/kg

Net work done in the cycle W = 1000 - 5 = 995 kJ/s

From First Law Q = W

•
700 (kJ/kg) x m (kg/s) = 995 (kJ/s)

•
So, m = 995/700 = 1.421 kg/s

Mass flow rate needed is 1.421 kg/s.

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3.1 “Internal energy” is a thermodynamic property based on First Law of
Thermodynamics.

Let’s look at two cycles AC and BC.

P
2

A
B
C

1
v

Figure 3.3

For process A & B, system changes from state (1) to state (2).

For a cyclic
∮ 𝛿𝑄 − ∮ 𝛿𝑊 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊) = 0

For AC cycle
∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐴𝐶 = 0 = ∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐴 − ∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐶

For BC cycle
∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐵𝐶 = 0 = ∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐵 − ∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐶

From First Law

∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐴𝐶 = ∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐵𝐶

So
∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐴 = ∫(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐵

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Value of  (Q - W)A or (Q - W)B are the same and not based on the process or the path of
the process. So, (Q - W)A or (Q - W)B are equal to a value that is a property of the system
which is called INTERNAL ENERGY (U)

In differential form,

dU= (Q - W)

Internal energy is defined as the sum of the microscopic forms of energy that is related to the
molecular structure and the molecular activity. It is also viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules and forces between the molecules in a fluid.

Unit for U = kJ

Integrating Q - W = (U2 - U1)

For one kg fluid q - w = (u2 - u1)

Specific internal energy u = kJ/kg

Specific heat transfer q = kJ/kg

Specific work done w = kJ/kg

This equation is called non-flow energy equation. Any heat quantity that is supplied to a closed
system is equal to the sum of “internal energy” and work done by the system.

3.2 COROLLARY OF THE FIRST LAW

From the First Law of Thermodynamics that is based on the conservation of energy and also net
heat equals net work in a cycle, there are several corollaries that can be extracted to explain more
of the First Law of thermodynamics. Here are the corollaries of the first law of thermodynamics:

Corollary I
There exist a property of a closed system where change in its value is the same as the difference
between heat supplied and work done for a non-flow process, du = q - w.

Corollary II
'Internal Energy' for an isolated system does not change.

From q = du + w

For a small system q = 0 and w = 0

So, du = 0

23
Corollary III
The change of internal energy in a thermodynamic cycle is zero.

∮(𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊)𝐴𝐶 = 0 = ∮ 𝑑𝑈

Corollary IV
Perpetual motion machine is impossible.

Since ∮ 𝛿𝑄 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊

If ∮ 𝛿𝑄 = 0, 𝑠𝑜 ∮ 𝛿𝑊 = 0

Equation q= du + w involves change of internal energy and does not have absolute value for
a system at any condition.

Till now the equation is true for both reversible and irreversible processes.

3.3 STEADY FLOW EQUATION

Consider an open system device as follows that involve steady flow of fluid.

EXIT FLOW
2

Z2

INLET FLOW
1

Z1

Figure 3.6

When 1 kg fluid that has ‘internal energy’ u flow with velocity C and located z from the datum,
that fluid has total energy total per kg.

u + C2/2 + zg

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C2/2 = specific kinetic energy

zg = specific potential energy

For 1 kg of fluid to cross a boundary either entering or exiting, it needs energy.

dl

A P

Figure 3.6
Energy needed for a fluid element to cross a boundary:

= Force x distance

= P1 A1 x l

= P1 x (volume of fluid element)

Energy needed for 1 kg fluid:

= P1 v1

Energy needed to remove 1 kg fluid across a boundary:

= P2 v2

For a steady flow condition, energy at entrance is same as the energy at exit:

u1 + C12/2 + Z1g + P1v1 + q = u2 + C22/2 + Z2g + P2v2 + w

w = mechanical work

Pv = flow work

Combination between internal energy (u) and flow work (Pv) is called ENTHALPY (h). Since u,
p and v are thermodynamic fluid properties. So, enthalpy is also a thermodynamic fluid property.

h = u +Pv or H=U+PV

25
 H = mh (kJ)

Specific enthalpy h = kJ/kg

q - w = (h2 - h1) + 1/2 (C22 - C12) + g (z2 - z1)

q-w = dh + ∆KE +∆PE

Specific heat transfer – specific work done = change in specific enthalpy +

change specific kinetic energy + change in specific potential energy.

This is STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION.

Energy that involves mass flow into an open system or exit from an open system is not internal
energy but enthalpy.

3.4 FLUID CONTINUITY EQUATION

𝐶1 𝐴1 𝐶2 𝐴2
𝑚̇ = =
𝑣1 𝑣2

Example 3.2
Consider a turbine shown in Figure 3.8. The turbine power output is 14000kW. Inlet and exit
conditions are shown in the figure. Determine:
(a) Q h2 = 360 kJ/kg
(b) Diameter of pipe entrance C2 = = 150 m/s

m =17 kg/s
h1 = 1200kJ/kg
C1 = 60 m/s 14000kW
v1 = 0.5 m3/kg

Figure 3.8

26
Solution

(a) h1 + C12/2 + q = h2 + C22/2 + w

C12/2 = 602/2 = 1800 J/kg = 1.8 kJ/kg

C22/2 = 1502/2 = 11.25 kJ/kg

w = 14000/17 = 823.5 kJ/kg

.: q = -7.02 kJ/kg

Q = 119.3 kW (heat removed)

(b) 𝑚̇ = CA/v

.: A1 = 𝑚̇ v1/C1

= (17 x 0.5)/60 = 0.142 m2

.: d = (0.142 x 4)/ = 0.425 m

Example 3.3

Figure 3.9 shows a nozzle. For condition at inlet flow and exit flow as shown in the figure,
determine:

(a) Velocity at exit flow, C2

(b) Mass flow rate, m
(c) Area at exit flow, A2

h1 = 3025 kJ/kg
C1 = 60 m/s v2 = 0.5m3/kg
A1 = 0.1 m2 h2 = 2790 kJ/kg
v1 = = 0.19 m3/kg

Q =0

Figure 3.9
Solution
(a) q - w= (h2- h1) + 1/2 (C22 - C12) + g(z2 - z1)

q= 0, w = 0 & z1 = z2

27
.: 1/2 (C22 - C12) = (h1 – h2)

.: C2= 688 m/s

(b) m = C1A1/v1 = (60x0.1)/0.19 = 31.6 kg/s

(c) A = m v2/C2– = (31.6x0.5)/688 = 0.0229 m2

Example 3.4
Figure 3.10 shows a turbine. Determine power produced for condition at inlet flow and exit flow
as shown on the figure.

P1 = 13.8 bar
v1 = 0.143 m3/kg W
u1 = 2590 kJ/kg
C1 = 30m/s
m = 0.38 kg/s

P2 = 0.35 bar
v2 = 4.37 m3/kg
q = 0.25 kJ/s u2 = 2360 kJ/kg
C2 = 90 m/s

Figure 3.10
Solution

q-w = (h2-h1) + 1/2 (C22-C12) + g (z2–-z1)

w = q - (h2-h1) - 1/2 (C22-C12)

= q - [(u + pv)2 - (u + pv)1] - 1/2 (C22-C12)

q = 0.25 kJ/s /0.38 = 0.658 kJ/kg

(u + pv)1 =h1= 2590 + (13.8 x 0.143) = 2787.34 kJ/kg

(u + pv)2 =h2= 2360 + (0.35 x 4.37) = 2513 kJ/kg

C22/2 = 4.05 kJ/kg

C12/2 = 0.45 kJ/kg

.: w = 0.38(-0.658 + (2787.34 - 2513) + (0.45 - 4.05))

W = 103.1 kW

28
CHAPTER 4 FLUID PROPERTIES

OBJECTIVES

• To list the fluid properties.

• To sketch P-v and T-v phase diagrams.
• To identify the fluid phases on the phase diagrams.
• To be able to use the steam table.
• To be able to interpolate properties using the steam table.
• To differentiate between wet steam and superheating steam.

For single phase pure substance, two properties are enough to define the state of a system.

4.1. Phases of Pure Substance

(i) Solid
(ii) Liquid
(iii) Vapor
(iv) Gas

Sensible Heat – Heat transfer to a substance when the temperature changed.

Latent Heat – Heat needed to change the phase of a substance at constant temperature.

(i) Latent Heat of Fusion (Solid - Liquid)

(ii) Latent Heat of Vaporization (Liquid - Steam)

4.2 Water Phase Change at Constant Pressure

Consider an ice cube at low temperature enclosed in a cylinder behind a piston at 1 bar (1 atm)
and heated continuously at constant pressure.

Water phase-change from ice to steam when heated. Figure 4.1 shows phase-change for water.

29
 1 2
Ice expands when heated from
Q12 Ice
condition 1 to condition2.
(Sensible heat)

2
3
Q23 Ice starts to change to water at
(Latent heat of constant temperature, 0oC. The
fusion) heat supplied is called latent
heat of fusion.

4 3
Water contracts when heated from
Q34 0oC to 4oC. This is something unique
(Sensible heat) property for water. Water has
maximum density at 4 oC

4 5
Q45
Water expands when heated from
(Sensible heat)
temperature 4oC until 100oC.

5 6
Water starts to change phase to
Q56 steam at constant temperature of
(Latent heat of 100 oC. The heat supplied is called
vaporization) latent heat of vaporization.

Rajah 4.1 Water phase-change

Water phase-change processes are shown in Figure 4.2.

30
 T 7
6
5

4oC
4 3
2

v
Figure 4.2

Water will contract from point 3 to point 4. This property is called anomaly property of water.
Water has maximum density at 4oC. The anomaly property of water is a phenomenon that
prevents water in the lake from fully frozen during winter season and allows life to continue in
the lake.

4.3 T-v Diagram for Water

Critical Temp, Critical Pressure, 221 bar

647.3 K
Superheated Steam
Liquid & vapor Isobar lines
(wet steam (constant pressure)
saturated steam ) T

Saturation Triple point

Temp 5 6 Prt= 0.6113 kN/m2
(Ts)

Solid and vapor

vf v
vg
Figure 4.3
31
 1. Liquid at point (5) starts to vaporize. It is saturated liquid and its volume symbol is vf.

2. Liquid at point (6) that has been fully converted to steam is called saturated vapor or dry
saturated and the symbol is vg.

3. Triple point Prt, is a pressure where solid, liquid and steam exist at the same time.

4. Saturation temperature is temperature where vaporization occurs. (Ts)

5. Sub cooled liquid is a liquid below the temperature Ts.

6. Superheated steam is steam at temperature above than Ts.

7. Degree of superheat, T = superheated temperature – saturation temperature.

4.4. P-v Diagram for a substance

Gas

Critical Pressure
Solid
+ Compressed
Liquid
liquid
Sat. Lines
Solid Liquid and vapor

Saturation
Pressure (Ps) Superheated vapor

Triple line Isothermal

Triple line pressure lines
0.6113kPa
Solid and vapor Trt
273.16 K

vf v
vg

Figure 4.4

32
 1) Saturation Pressure (Ps) is a pressure where evaporation occurs.

2) Compressible liquid (Sub cooled liquid) is a liquid situated on the left side of saturated
liquid line. Isothermal liquid line is a vertical line showing that volume does not change
with the change of pressure. This is because liquid cannot be compressed (
incompressibility of liquid)

3) In the liquid + steam (wet steam) region, saturation temperature Ts and saturation
pressure are two properties that are not independent. So, besides pressure and
temperature, another fluid property is needed to define the fluid state.

4) Steam at temperature more than critical temperature, (Tc) is gas.

4. 5. Type of Fluid

In the engineering plant, fluid used can be divided into two types:
(a) Ideal gas

(b) Vapor (Water: wet steam or superheated steam, Refrigerant)

4.5.1. Ideal Gas

Fluid properties: Pressure P, temperature T and volume V are related as follows:

(a) Boyle Law P  1/V (at constant temperature)

(b) Charles Law V  T (at constant pressure)

Combination of these two laws we will get CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION OR IDEAL

GAS EQUATION

PV = CT (C = constant)

For m kg PV = mRT

For one (1kg) Pv = RT

R is gas constant in unit kJ/kg K

Every gas constant has a different value of R, for air; R is 0.287kJ/kg K.

One mole is a quantity of substance having 6.02 x 1023 molecules.

Kilo mole (k mol) = 1000 mole = 6.02 x 1026 molecules.

33
Molecule weight M is weight of 6.02 x 1026 molecules for a certain gas.

6.02 x 1026 molecules O2 = 32 kg

So, 1 kmol O2 = 32 kg

Molecular Weight O2 (Mo2) = 32 kg/kmol

K mol

Mass m = nM (n = number of kmol and M = weight of molecule mass)

So, PV = nMRT

MR = PV/nT = R

Based on Avogadro Hypothesis 1 kmol gas fills a constant volume of 22.41 m3 at 1 bar and 0oC

R = (1 x 105) (22.41) = 8.314 kJ/kmol K

1 x 273.15

R is universal gas constant and its value is constant for any gas.

4.5.1.1. Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is defined as heat/kg needed by a substance to increase one degree of
temperature.

Specific Heat capacity (c) = q (heat/kg)/dT (temperature) kJ/kgK

Value (c) for gas is infinite but there are two commonly used values.

cv = specific heat capacity at constant volume

cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure.

Heat transferred for a reversible non flow process at constant volume is:

q = cvdT

q = cv (T2-T1)

Heat transferred for a reversible non flow process at constant pressure is:

q = cpdT
q = cp (T2-T1)

34
4.5.1.2. Joule Law (properties relationship for air)

Consider 1 kg gas heated at constant volume.

Figure 4.5

The non flow energy equation of the First Law is

q = du + w

w = 0 (no work done)

q = du

But q = cv dT

So, du = cv dT

Then, we will get u = cv T + K and for ideal gas, K = 0.

So, the relationship can be illustrated on Figure 4.6 with one straight line from the origin.

Figure 4.6
35
Consider 1kg gas heated at constant pressure with the piston moving freely.

Figure 4.7

Gas in the cylinder is heated and piston can move easily. Pressure in the cylinder is constant.

q = du + w

q= du + Pdv

q = (u2-u1) + P(v2-v1)

But du = cv dT and Pv1 = RT1 & Pv2 = RT2

q = cv(T2-T1) + R(T2-T1)

q = (cv + R) (T2-T1)

But q = cp dT for constant pressure process.

So, cv + R = cp and cp - cv = R

From the defination of enthalpy h = u + Pv.

In differential form, dh = du + d(Pv)

Or dh = du + R dT

Divide with dT, we will obtain dh/dT = du/dT + R

dh/dT = cv + R = cp

So dh = cp dT

This relation is illustrated on Figure 4.8

36
 h

Figure 4.8
For air that can be assumed as ideal gas:

cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg K
cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K

cp/cv = specific heat ratio= gamma symbol or k

Ideal gas does not actually exist. It is an approximation to real gases at low densities. At low
pressure and high temperature the density reduces and the gas behaves like ideal gas. Ideal gas
can also be defined as the value of compressibility factor being equal to unity. Compressibility
factor is the ratio of actual specific volume to the ideal specific volume. As the value deviates
from unity the more the gas deviates from the ideal gas behavior.

4.5.2 Van der Waal’s gas

Ideal gases can only be used within a certain limited range of pressures and temperatures.
Another equation of state that allows a higher range of applicability is the Van der Waals
equation state. It is an equation of state that attempts to model real gases.

 a
 P + 2 (v − b) = RT
 v 

a
is the effect of intermolecular forcesand b accounts for the volume occupied by the gas molecules
v2

27R 2T 2 cr RTcr
a= and b =
64Pcr 8Pcr

37
4.5.3 Steam

Two phase fluid properties like steam cannot be determined by certain laws or equations. The
properties are determined empirically and tabulated. For steam the properties are listed in the
STEAM TABLE.

Superheated water vapor or steam can only be treated as ideal gas for pressure less than 10kPa at
any temperature. However, at higher pressures the superheated steam cannot be considered as
ideal gas.

4.5.3.1 Steam Table

Saturation pressure is in range from 0.00611 bar till 220.9 bar while saturation temperature
ranges from 0oC till 374.14oC (647.14 K)

Subscript (f) is used for saturated liquid (vf, uf, hf, sf).

Subscript (g) is used for dry saturated vapor (vg, ug, hg, sg).

Subscript (fg) is used for value of dry saturated steam minus saturated liquid (hfg = hg - hf) this is
the latent heat needed for change from saturated liquid to saturated steam. Values of properties
for compressed liquid are given for different temperatures and pressures. Specific volume for
compressed liquid (sub cooled) is saturated liquid (vf) for the temperature concern. This is
because for incompressible liquid its specific volume does not change.

4.5.3.2 Wet Steam

Total Volume = Volume of liquid + Volume of steam

mv = mf vf + mg vg

m = total mass
mf = mass of saturated liquid
mg = mass of dry saturated steam

m= mg+mf

38
 m  m 
v =  f  v f +  g  v g
 m  m 
 m - mg   mg 
v =   v f +   v g
 m   m 
 m  m 
v = 1 − g  v f +  g  v g
 m   m 
 mg 
  is the Dryness Fraction (steam quality) and the symbol is (x)
 m 

0<x<1 or 0<x<100%

So v = (1 - x )vf +x vg

v = vf - x vf + x vg

v= vf + x (vg - vf)

Normally, vf is very much smaller than vg

So, v = x vg for low pressure (less than 20 bar)

For enthalpy and internal energy at any pressure

h = hf + x(hg-hf) = hf + x hfg

u = uf + x (ug - uf) = uf + x ufg

Example 4.1

1. Calculate value of v,h and u for wet steam at 20 bar and x = 0.9

v = vf + x (vg-vf) = 0.001177 + 0.9 (0.09963-0.001177) = 0.08978 m3/kg

or v = x (vg-vf) = 0.9 (0.09963-0.001177) = 0.0886077 m3/kg

or v = x vg = 0.9 (0.09963) = 0.089667 m3/kg

From the above solutions, values of specific volume are almost equal

So, v = x vg is used for low pressure. Value of vg is bigger than value of vf. But, at high pressure,
value of vg is almost same as vf.

h = hf + x hfg = 908.79 + 0.9 (1890.7) = 2610.42 kJ/kg

39
 u = uf + x (ug -uf) = 906.44 + 0.9 (2600.3- 906.44) = 2430.9 kJ/kg

Example 4.2

Calculate value of x, v, u for steam at 7 bar and h = 2600 kJ/kg.

At 7 bar (0.7MPa), hf = 679.22 kJ/kg, hg= 2763 kJ/kg, hfg = 2066.3 kJ/kg,

Since h < hg, therefore the state of the steam is wet steam or saturated steam

x = (h- hf)/hfg
So, x = 0.92

v = x vg = 0.92(0.2729) = 0.251 m3/kg

u = uf + x (ug - uf) = 696.44 + 0.92 (2572.5 - 696.44) = 2422.4 kJ/kg

4.5.3.3 Superheated Steam

Saturation temperature and saturation pressure for wet steam are dependent (not independent).
But for superheated steam, temperature and pressure are independent.

Example 4.3

Steam at pressure of 100 bar have specific volume of 0.02242 m3/kg. Calculate temperature,
enthalpy and internal energy.

Saturate able: Pressure P = 100 bar (10 MPa) ,vg = 0.018026 m3/kg.
At pressure of 100 bar v is 0.02242 m3/kg.
Since v > vg, therefore the region of steam is superheated

100 bar
350oC

311.06oC

v
vg = 0.01802 v= 0.02242

40
From superheated steam table, at pressure of 100 bar and specific volume 0.02242m3/kg, the
temperature is 350oC.
However, saturated temperature at pressure 100 bar is 311.06oC, degree of superheat is:

T = 350 - 311. = 39oC

From superheated steam table:

h = 2923.4 kJ/kg

u = 2699.2 kJ/kg

4.5.3.4 Interpolation

Thermodynamics fluid properties in the table are just for certain values. For value that is not
included in the table, interpolation technique is used.

Example 4.4

Calculate steam specific volume at pressure of 8.8 bar.

From table of wet steam, specific volume vg at pressure of 8.0 bar (0.8MPa) = 0.2404m3/kg

Specific volume vg at pressure 9.0 bar = 0.2150 m3/kg

vg (8.8) - vg(8.0) = 8.8 - 8.0

vg (9.0) - vg(8.0) 9.0 - 8.0

vg (8.8) - 0.2404 = 8.8 - 8.0

0.2150 - 0.2404 9.0 - 8.0

vg (8.8) = 0.22008 m3/kg

By using the same method we can obtain value for enthalpy and internal energy.

hg (8.8) = 2772.94 kJ/kg

ug (8.8) = 2579.76 kJ/kg

Example 4.5

Calculate value of v for steam at pressure of 5.5 bar and temperature 280oC.

Saturated temperature at pressure 5 bar (0.5MPa) = 151.86oC.

41
Since the T > Tsat, therefore the steam is superheated steam. Interpolation is done based on the
value of thermodynamic fluid properties from the superheated steam table

v (280oC) - v (250oC) = 280 - 250

v (300oC) - v (250oC) 300 - 250

v (280oC) - 0.4744 = 280 - 250

0.5226 - 0.4744 300 - 250

v (280oC) = 0.50332 m3/kg

42
 TUTORIAL 1
THERMODYNAMC PROPERTIES AND FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Complete the table below for water properties.

Pressure (kPa) Temperature (oC) Steam region Specific Volume

(m3/kg)
A 5000 120
B 1500 Dry saturated
C 100 1.5
D 400 300
E 80 Saturated steam
F 250 0.05013

2. A tank has 3 kg of saturated steam at pressure of 500kN/m2. Tank volume is 1 m3. Calculate the
steam temperature. Calculate volume and mass of water in it.

3. What is the mass of air in the room of size 6m x 10m x 4m if pressure is 100kPa and temperature
25oC?

4. A tank has a volume of 0.5m3 and 10kg of ideal gas that has molecule weight 24. The temperature
is 25oC. What is the pressure?

5. Figure 1 shows two tanks filled with air. When the valve opened, both tanks temperature is at
20oC. What is volume of tank B and pressure for both tanks?

Tank Tank
A B

Valve
1m3 5kg
25oC 35oC
500kPa 200kPa

6. In a cycle what is the case when the net work is zero?

7. On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When
he returns in the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than the neighboring rooms?
Assume all the doors and windows are kept closed.

8. In an electrical hair dryer, power input is 800W. The temperature of the hot air is 40oC a velocity
of 10 m/s, inlet velocity is negligible. Change in potential energy is also neglected. The ambient
condition is 30oC. Determine the mass flow rate of the air. Assume no heat loss.

43
9. A pressure cooker with volume 4 liter operates at 175kPa absolute pressure. It contains 2 liters of
water. It is heated for 1 hour. What is the highest rate of heat supply to avoid all the water from
evaporating?

10. In a boiler water is boiled at 150oC by using an electrical heater with a rate of heat transfer of
74kW. Determine the rate of steam generated.

11. An electric kettle consumes 250 volts and 4 amp electricity supply. One liter of water is required
to be boiled. Assume the temperature of water initially is 20oC. Efficiency of the kettle is 85%.
Determine
a. The time taken to boil the water.
b. The time taken for 0.5 liter of the water to evaporate into steam.

44
 MODULE 2

INTRODUCTION

Basic concepts and basic principle have already been explained in module 1. Students have to
know each of the basic concepts before we move to module 2. Students can repeat module 1
whilst studying this module to strengthen the knowledge on thermodynamics concepts. Module 2
will explain various thermodynamics processes. After understanding chapter 5, the second law
of thermodynamic will be introduced in Chapter 6. It is another important basic concept of
thermodynamics.

45
CHAPTER 5 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

OBJECTIVES

• To list all thermodynamic processes.

• To solve problem for each process.
• To differentiate solving methods for steam and air.
• To use the steam table efficiently.

Thermodynamics processes can be divided into two main parts:

a) Non-flow Process for closed system.

b) Flow Process for opened system.

Besides that, thermodynamics process can also be categorized into:

i) Reversible Process
ii) Irreversible Process

Concepts of reversible and irreversible processes have already been explained in chapter 2.
These concepts will be explained again in chapter 6.

Work can be defined by area under the process line for a certain process that is drawn on the P-v
diagram.

w=∫pdv

46
5.1. NON-FLOW PROCESSES

Non-flow processes can be divided into 5 types:

(i) Constant volume process (isomeric process)

(ii) Constant pressure process (isobaric process)

(iii) Constant temperature process (isothermal process).

(iv) Adiabatic process.

(v) Polytropic process.

Each of the process above will be analyzed based on wet steam and ideal gas.

5.1.1. Constant Volume Process (Isomeric)

Stationary Piston

q (heat)

Figure 5.1
From the First Law, q = (u2 - u1) + w

However the piston does not moved, so there is no work done, w = 0.

Then, q = (u2 - u1)

Constant specific volume process or isomeric process can be represented by a vertical line on the
P-v diagram where v does not changed and there is no area under the curve or a vertical straight
line because there is no work done.

47
 P
1

v1=v2 v
Example 5.1

Fluid in a rigid container with constant volume 0.14 m3 is subjected to a constant pressure of 10
bar at temperature 250oC. If the container is cooled to decrease the pressure to 3.5 bar, calculate
final temperature and heat transferred (kJ) if:
a) fluid is steam
b) fluid is air

Solution
a) For steam
At 10 bar, Ts = 179.9oC. However the steam temperature is 250oC more than saturation
temperature, so the state of steam is superheated steam. From the superheated steam table, at 10
bar and temperature of 250oC, v1 = 0.2327 m3/kg.

From saturated steam table, at 3.5 bar, vg = 0.5243 m3/kg. But value of vg at 3.5 bar is more than
v1. So, the final steam condition is wet steam.
P

10 bar 1

Isothermal lines
250oC

3.5 b 2 Isothermal
lines
ar
Ts=179.9oC

vg = 0.5243
v
Figure 5.2 v = 0.2327

48
For constant specific volume, v1 = v2

v2 = x vg = 0.2327

So, x = 0.2327/0.5243 = 0.44

From superheated steam table at 10 bar and 250oC,

u1 = 2709.9 kJ/kg

From saturated steam table, at 3.5 bar

u2 = uf +x (ug-uf)

u2 = 584 kJ/kg + 0.44 (2549-584)

u2 = 1429 kJ/kg

Heat transfer q = (u2 -u1)

q = 1429-2709.9 = -1263kJ/kg

(negative sign mean that heat is removed in the process or cooling process)

or

Q=mq

Steam mass is defined from V = mv

m = V/v = 0.14 / 0.2327= 0.6154 kg

So,

Q = 0.6154 x -1263 = -777kJ

The final temperature is a saturation temperature at 3.5 bar that is 138.9 oC because the state of
the steam after the process is in the wet steam region.

49
 P

b) For ideal gas 10 bar 1

240oC

2
v

Figure 5.3
To determine the mass of air from characteristic equation, Pv = RT,
value R = 0.287kJ/kgK, cv = 0.718kJ/kgK, cp= 1.005kJ/kgK

PV = mRT

m = P1V1/RT1 = (10 x 105 x 0.14)/ (287 x 513) = 0.95 kg

but V1 = V2, T2 = P2 V2/mR

T2 = (3.5 x 105 x 0.14)/(0.95 x 287)

T2 = 179.7K (-93.28 oC)

Heat transfer q = cv (T2-T1)

Q = mcv (T2-T1)

Q = 0.95 x 0.718 x (179.7 - 513)

Q = -227.34 kJ

50
5.1.2. Constant Pressure Process (Isobaric)

Piston can moved to ensure

pressure in the cylinder
remains constant.

Figure 5.4

From the First Law,

q - w = (u2- u1)

q = (u2- u1) + w

q = (u2- u1) + p (v2-v1)

From the defination of enthalpy, h = u + pv,

q = (h2- h1)

1 2

P1=P2

51
Example 5.2

0.05 kg fluid is heated at constant pressure of 3 bar until the volume become 0.059 m3. Calculate
heat transfer and work done.

i) If fluid is steam and it begin as dry saturated steam.

ii) If fluid is an air with initial temperature is 130oC.

Solution
v1 =vg (at 3 bar and dry saturated steam) =0.6058 m3/kg

v2 = V2/m = 0.059/0.05 = 1.180 m3/kg

However, v2 > v1, so final steam condition is superheated steam.

1 2
3 bar

v
vg = 0.6058 v= 1.180
Figure 5.5

From wet steam table at 3 bar of saturated steam

h1= hg=2725.3 kJ/kg

h2 could be known from superheated steam table by using interpolation method with specific
volume

52
h2- 3275 = 1.180-1.031
3486-3275 1.187-1.031

h2 = 3476.9 kJ/kg

So, heat transfer

Q = m (h2-h1)

Q = 0.05(3476.9 - 2725.3)

Q = 37.6 kJ

Work done

W= m P (v2-v1) {area under the process line}

W = 0.05(3 x 105) x (1.180 - 0.6058)

W = 8.61 kJ

ii)
P

3 bar 2
1

130oC
v
v2 =1.180m3/kg

Figure 5.6

Using characteristic equation, Pv = RT or PV =mRT

T2 = P2V2 /mR = (3x 105 x 0.059)/(0.05 x 287)

53
T2 = 1233.4 K = 960.4oC

Heat transfer,

Q = m cp (T2-T1)

Q = 0.05 x 1.005 x (960.4 - 130)

Q = 41.7 kJ

Work done,

W = mP (v2-v1)

From Pv = RT

W= mR (T2-T1)

W = 0.05 x 287 (960.4-130)

W = 11.9 kJ

5.1.3. Constant Temperature Process (Isothermal)

In an expansion process, heat is removed and the temperature decreases. To maintain the same
temperature heat must be supplied. The same is true for isothermal compression process where
heat is removed to maintain the temperature.

Isothermal compression process or isothermal heat rejection process

Isothermal expansion process or isothermal heat addition process.

From First Law,

q = du + w

For ideal gas or air only: du = cv (T2-T1)

Since, T2 = T1, so du = 0

Then, q=w

Work done w = P dv

54
Characteristic equations for ideal gas or air only, replace P with RT/v.

Then, w = (RT/v) dv

w = RT 1/v dv

w = RT ln (v2/v1) = RT ln ( P1/P2)

Example 5.3

In an expansion process, steam expands from 7 bar to 3.0 bar. Initial state of steam has dryness
fraction of 0.9. The process occurs at constant temperature of 165oC. Heat supply is 400kJ/kg.
Calculate the change internal energy and work done.

Solution

1
7 bar

3 bar 2

Isothermal
lines
165oC

v
Figure 5.7
From saturated steam table at 7 bar

u1 = uf + x ( ug - uf)

u1 = 696.4 + 0.9(25.72.5-696.4)

u1 = 2382.9 kJ/kg

55
Since, in the expansion process, pressure will decrease. So, from the diagram it clearly shows
that the final steam condition is superheated steam.

From superheated steam table and using interpolation:

u2 – 2570.8 = 165 - 150

2650.7- 2570.8 200 - 150

u2 = 2594.8 kJ/kg

So, change in internal energy is:

du = u2- u1

du = 209.9 kJ/kg

Work done

w = q - (u2-u1)

w = 400-209.9

w = 190.1 kJ/kg

Example 5.4

Ideal gas is compressed isothermally from 1.01 bar until it is 4.2 bar at constant temperature 20
o
C. Calculate work done and heat transfer for the process.

2
4.2

1.01 1
Isothermal
lines
20oC

v
Figure 5.8

56
q-w =du

du=0

w = RT ln (P1/P2) {only for ideal gas and air only}

w = 0.287 (293) ln (1.01/4.2)

w = -124kJ/kg

Work done by the surrounding on the system, work input is 124kJ/kg.

For isothermal process,

(For ideal gas and air only)

q =w

So heat transferred

q = -124kJ/kg

This shows that the heat is removed.

5.1.4. Adiabatic Process

Adiabatic process is a process where there is no heat transfer either by the system or from the
system during the process. Heat is prevented from crossing the system border. This means that
the system is insulated from the surrounding.

For non-flow equation:

q = du +w

For adiabatic process, there is no heat transfer, q = 0. So,

w = -du = (u1-u2)

57
Specially for air, Pv = constant

 = cp/cv = 1.4

Work done w = -cvdT = cv (T1-T2)

w = R / (-1){T1-T2}

w = R (T1-T2)
(-1)

w = P1v1-P2v2
(-1)

Besides that, adiabatic processes for air are based on:

Pv= constant

P1v1 = P2v2

From characteristic equation, Pv = RT

P1 (RT1/P1) = P2(RT2/P2)

(P1/P2)1- = (T2/T1)

(P2/P1))-1/ = (T2/T1)

Equation above is a relationship between pressure ratio and temperature ratio.

Example 5.5

One kilogram of steam at 100 bar and temperature 360oC expand in an insulated cylinder until
the pressure is 35 bar and the steam is dry saturated. Determine the work done.

58
 P
1
100 bar

2
35 bar

v
Figure 5.9
From the First Law: q-w = du

Adiabatic process: q = 0, so w = -du = - (u2 - u1)

From superheated table, value for internal energy at pressure 100bar:

u1 = 2725.84 kJ/kg

From wet steam table:

u2 = ug at 35 bar, so, u2 = 2603.7 kJ/kg

Then, work done

w = - (u2 - u1)

w = - (2603.7 - 2725.84) = 122.14 kJ/kg

Work done is positive.

Example 5.6

Air is at 1.02 bar and temperature at 22oC. Air is compressed adiabatically by a piston to the
pressure of 6.8 bar. Calculate the final temperature, final specific volume and work done.

59
 P
2
6.8

1
1.02
Isothermal lines 22oC

v
Rajah 5.10

From the equation,

(P2/P1)) (-1)/ = (T2/T1)

T2 = 295 (6.8/1.02) (1.4-1)/1.4

Final temperature,

T2= 507.5 K

From the equation,

Pv = constant

P1v1 = P2v2

v2 = (P1/P2) x v1

v1=RT1/P1

Final specific volume,

v2 = 0.00388 m3/kg

Work done,

w = -cv (T2-T1)

60
w = -0.718 (507.5-295)

w = -152.8 kJ/kg

5.1.5. Polytropic Process

Polytropic process is based on law Pvn = constant (where n = constant). Both steam and ideal gas
use this law for the non-flow process:

Pvn = k

P = k/vn

Work done = area under the Pv process line

w = Pdv

w = k/vn dv

w = k v-n dv

w = k [v -n+1/-n+1]

w = k [(v2-n+1 - v1 -n+1)/-n+1]

But k = P1v1n = P2v2n

So, w = P2v2n.v2 -n+1 - P1 v1n. v1 -n+1

-n + 1

w = P2v2 - P1 v1
-n + 1

w = P1v1 - P2 v2
n-1

This formula is true only if n > 1, But if n = 1, then the formula is not acceptable.

For n = 1 Pv = k

So, work done: w =  P dv = k/v dv

w = k  v -1 dv

w = k ln[ v2/v1]

61
But k = P1v1 = P2v2,

So, w = P1v1 ln [v2/v1] = P2v2ln [v2/v1]

For ideal gas or air

w = R (T1- T2)
n-1 for n>1

And for n = 1, polytropic process actually is isothermal process

w = RT ln (v2/v1) = q

For n >1 q = du +w

q = du + R (T1- T2)
n-1

q = -cv(T1-T2) + R (T1- T2)

n-1

But  = cp/cv, then cv = cp/ = (R+cv)/

Finally, cv = R / (-1)

So, q = - R (T1-T2) + R (T1-T2)

-1 n-1

q = R (T1-T2) {-(n-1) - 1)
n-1 -1

q = R (T1-T2) {-n}
n-1 {-1}

q = w (-n)
(-1)

Example 5.7

Steam is expanded in a closed system from 7 bar to 0.34 bar based on polytropic law with n=1.1.
Initial steam condition has dryness fraction of 0.95. Calculate value of work done and heat
transfer.

62
 P

1
7 bar

0.34 bar
2

v
Figure 5.11

From wet steam table,

v1 = x vg

v1 = 0.95 (0.2729)

v1 = 0.2592 m3/kg

From polytropic law,

P1v11.1 = P2 v2 1.1

(v2/v1) 1.1= P1/P2

v2 = v1. (P1/P2)1/1.1

v2 = 0.2592 (7/0.34)1/1.1

v2 = 4.054 m3/kg

At 0.34 bar vg = 4.7346 m3/kg. Since the value of v2 is less than vg, hence the state of the steam
at point 2 is saturated steam (wet steam).

To calculate dryness fraction for final condition:

63
v2 = x2 vg2

Then,

x2 = v2 /vg2

x2 = 4.054 /4.7346

x2 = 0.856

Work done,

w = P1v1 - P2v2
n-1

w = 7x 105 (0.2592) - 0.34 x 105 (4.054)

0.1

w = 436 kJ/kg

Heat transfer,

q= du + w

u1 = uf + x (ug - uf)

u1 = 696 + 0.95 (2573 - 696)

u1 = 2479.2 kJ/kg

And

u2 = 302+0.856 (2472 - 302)

u2 = 2189.9 kJ/kg

So,

q = (u2-u1) + 436

q= (2189.9-2479.2) + 436

q= 146.8 kJ/kg

64
Example 5.8

Air is expanded from 7 bar to 0.34 bar based on polytropic law with n=1.1. Calculate value of
work done and heat transfer. Initial temperature is 100oC. Calculate value of work done and heat
transfer if n=1.

w= R(T1-T2)/(n-1)

T2/T1= (P2/P1) (n-1)/n

T2= 283.3 K = 10.3oC

w = 257.4 kJ/kg
q = w(-n)/(-1)

q = 193.08 kJ/kg

For n=1

w= RT1ln(v2/v1) = RT1ln(P1/P2) (P1v1 = P2v2)

w = q = 323.8 kJ/kg

5.2. FLOW PROCESS

In the flow process, formula used is the SFEE (steady flow energy equation):

q -w = (h2-h1) + 0.5(C22-C12) + g (z2-z1)

C is fluid velocity and z is fluid location.

q - w = (h2-h1) +∆K.E +∆P.E

∆K.E = change in kinetic energy.

∆P.E = change in potential energy.

Components involve in the flow process are boiler, condenser, nozzle, diffuser, turbine,
rotordynamic compressor, throttle etc. These components are used in the steam power plant, gas
turbine power plant, nuclear power plant, refrigeration system, aerospace engine and lots more.
Several assumptions will be taken to make this component analysis easier.

65
5.2.1. Boiler
2 Steam Exit

Water Enter

Heat entered

Figure 5.12
In a boiler, there is no moving part. So, there is no work done. Thus,

w=0

Change in kinetic energy is negligible if compared with heat transferred. So,

∆K.E ≈ 0

Change in potential energy is also negligible if compared to heat transferred.

∆P.E ≈ 0

From steady flow energy equation, the heat transferred:

q = (h2 - h1)

Heat transferred value is positive because heat is supplied to the boiler.

5.2.2. Condenser
Steam Enter

Cooling water
out
Cooling water
in

Water Exit

Figure 5.13

66
Similar to a boiler, a condenser also does not have any moving parts. So, there is no work done
in the condenser. Changes in kinetic energy and potential energy being small compared to heat
transferred can also be neglected. So, the steady flow equation is:

q = (h2 - h1)

This value is negative because heat is removed from the condenser to the surroundings.

5.2.3. Nozzle

1 2

Figure 5.14
In the nozzle there is also no moving part. So, there is no work done. Thus,w = 0
Another important assumption is that the process occurring in a nozzle is an adiabatic process.
Thus, q = 0
Let’s say that the change in the potential energy is small and that the change in kinetic energy is
NOT NEGLIGIBLE.

So, from steady energy flow equation: 0.5 (C22 - C12) = h1- h2

5.2.4. Diffuser

1 2

Figure 5.15
Diffuser is the same as a nozzle, where there are no work done and heat transferred. So, we will
get the same equation as the nozzle. The difference between diffuser and nozzle is the direction
of flow.

From the steady flow equation 0.5 (C22 - C12) = h1- h2

67
5.2.5. Turbine

Turbine

Figure 5.16

Process in the turbine is assumed as an adiabatic process where q = 0

Changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are small compared with work done and can be
neglected. So now, the steady energy flow equation is:

w = h1- h2

Work done is positive because work is produced from the turbine.

For gas the work done in a turbine w = -cp(T2-T1), T1>T2 because a turbine is an expansion
device that causes the temperature and pressure to reduce.

5.2.6 Rotordynamic Compressor

Compressor

Figure 5.17

Assumption that has been made for the turbine is also assumed for the compressor. So,

w = h1- h2

Work done is negative because work needed to be supplied to the compressor using a motor or
an engine.

68
For gas the work done by the compressor is w = -cp (T2-T1), T1<T2 , because a compressor is a
device that increases the pressure and temperature.

5.2.7 Throttling

Figure 5.18
In a throttle, there are no moving part thus there is no work done. The process involved is
adiabatic. Changes in kinetic and potential energies are small and can be neglected.
Then,

h2 = h1

The process in a throttle is a constant enthalpy process also known as isenthalpic process.

Questions:

1. In a cycle what is the case when the net work is zero?

2. On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning.
When he returns in the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than the neighboring
rooms? Why? Assume all the doors and windows are kept closed.

3. Consider 2 identical rooms, one with a refrigerator and the other without one. If all the
doors and windows are closed, will the room that contains the refrigerator be cooler or
warmer than the other room? Why?

69
 TUTORIAL 2-
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND THERMODYNAMICS PROCESS

1. One kilogram of air in a rigid vessel is at pressure of 4.8 bar and temperature 150 oC. The vessel is
heated until a temperature of 200oC. Calculate final air pressure and supply heat during the process.
(5.37 bar, 35.9 kJ/kg)

2. A rigid tank with volume of 1m3 has steam at 20 bar and 400oC. That tank is cooled until steam is dry
saturated. Calculate steam mass in the tank, steam final pressure and heat transfer in the process.
(6.62 kg, 13.01 bar, -2355 kJ/kg)

3. Steam at pressure of 7 bar and dry fraction is 0.9 is expanded at constant pressure until the
temperature is 200oC. Calculate work done and heat supplied per kg steam in the process.
(38.2 kJ/kg, 288.7 kJ/kg)

4. Ideal gas at 0.05m3 and pressure of 6.3 bar is subjected to an isothermal process until it reaches
pressure of 1.05 bar. Calculate heat transfer. The mass of the gas is 1 kg.
(56.4 kJ)

5. Saturated dry steam at pressure of 7 bar expands in the cylinder behind a piston until its pressure
reaches 0.1 bar. If the heat supplied during the process to make sure the temperature remains constant,
calculate changes in internal energy of steam.
(37.2 kJ/kg)

6. One kilogram of air is compressed isothermally from 1 bar and temperature 30oC to the pressure at 5
bar. Calculate work done on the air and heat supplied.
(-140kJ/kg, -140 kJ/kg)

7. One kilogram of air at pressure of 1 bar and temperature 15 oC is compressed adiabatically until the
pressure becomes 4 bar. Calculate final temperature and work done on the air.
(155oC, 100.5 kJ/kg)

8. One kilogram of steam in the cylinder is expanded behind a piston based on the polytropic law of
pv = constant, from 7 bar to 1 bar. If the steam is dry saturated, calculate final temperature, work
done by the steam and heat flow to or from the cylinder wall.
(144oC, 371.7 kJ/kg, 373.9 kJ/kg)

9. One kilogram of air at pressure of 1.02 bar and temperature 20oC is compressed based on the law of
pv 1.3 = constant, until pressure is 5.5 bar. Calculate work done on the air and heat transfer.

(133.5 kJ/kg, -33.38 kJ/kg)

10. A pressure cooker has a volume of 6 liter and operating pressure of 75kPa gage. Initially it contains 1
kg of water. Heat is supplied to the pressure cooker at a rate of 500W for 30 minutes after the
pressure is reached. Determine: the temperature which takes place and the amount of water left in the
pressure cooker at the end of the process.
(116.06°C, 0.5943kg)

11. Steam flows in an adiabatic turbine. Inlet conditions of the steam are 10MPa, 450oC and 80m/s. The
exit conditions are 10kPa, 0.92 dryness fraction and 50m/s. The steam flow rate is 12kg/s. Determine
the change in kinetic energy, the power output and the turbine inlet area.
(23.4kW, 10.195MW, 4.467 x10-3 m2)

70
CHAPTER 6: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND REVERSIBLIBILITY

OBJECTIVE

• To define Second Law of Thermodynamics.

• To explain the corollaries of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
• To define entropy and prove that it is one of the fluid properties
• To explain thermodynamic processes based on T-s diagram.
• To define exergy and perform exergy analysis

Can a ship be driven by an engine using the sea as the source of energy or heat? From the First
Law  q =  w it is still true base on the law of conservation of energy. But we know that it is
impossible to use the sea as the source of heat. It is the second law that defies the case.

The second law interprets that the gross or total heat supplied must be larger than the net work
done and part of the heat is rejected by the system to the environment. There is a preferred
direction of energy conversion.

6.1. Heat engine and heat pump

Heat engine is a system or device that generates net work from heat supplied in a complete cycle.

The second law interprets that the source of heat and the sink are important because part of the
heat is rejected.

Source Th Hot reservoir

qh

E wnet

qc

Sink Tc Cold reservoir

From the First Law (net heat = net work)

qh – qc = wnet

qh > w

71
Efficiency is defined as the performance of a system and is generally given by

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

For a thermodynamic cycle the efficiency:

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜂= =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟

𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝜂= =
𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑞ℎ
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞ℎ − 𝑞𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝜂= = =1−
𝑞ℎ 𝑞ℎ 𝑞ℎ

Heat pump/refrigerator is a device that operates opposite to a heat engine. It transfers heat from a
low temperature reservoir to a high temperature reservoir with the help of external work.

Hot reservoir

qh

wnet

qc

Cold reservoir

For a heat engine, efficiency is a value that represents its performance. But for heat pump the
value that represents the performance is called the coefficient of performance COP.

𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑞ℎ 1
𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = =
𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝜂

Refrigerator and heat pump are the same but the difference is “what we want”. For a refrigerator
“what we want” is qs which is amount of heat removed to make the system (or the area within the
space) cool.

𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑞𝑐
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡

72
6.2. Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics

1. Clausius Statement

It is impossible for a heat pump without external work, transfers heat from a low temperature
reservoir to a high temperature reservoir.

Th

qh
Th>Tc

qc

Tc

It is impossible to harness heat from the vast ocean at a low temperature and supply a high
temperature heat.

2. Kelvin Planck Statement

It is impossible for a device that based on a heat engine cycle to received heat from a reservoir
and produced a similar amount as work.

E w

The above diagram shows a heat engine with 100% efficiency. Hence according to Kevin
Planck’s Second Law of Thermodynamics, any device that has an efficiency of 100% is
impossible and defies the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Corollary I

It is impossible for a heat engine that works between two reservoirs have higher efficiency than
efficiency of a reversible engine that works between the same reservoirs. Reversible engine is an
engine that operates in a cycle that has reversible processes whilst an irreversible heat engine
operates in a cycle that has at least one irreversible process.

73
Corollary II

All heat engines operating between two same reservoirs will have the same efficiency. Or two
heat engines both reject heat at the same low temperature but the one that receives heat supply at
a higher temperature will have higher efficiency.

6.2.1 Temperature Scale

For constant low temperature sink Tc, the efficiency will increase when the high temperature
source Th increases. Vice versa when high temperature source Th is constant the efficiency
increases when low temperature sink Tc decreases.

Then, we can write  in terms of Th and Tc

 = f (Th, Tc)

Till now, we have already used temperature without knowing the details of it. Temperature as we
know can be measured using the following devices:

i) Mercury thermometer that based on changes in mercury volume.

ii) Gas thermometer that based on changes in pressure.

iii) Thermocouple that based on electromotive force.

iv) Resistance thermometer based on changes in electrical resistance.

From:  = f (Th, Tc)

𝑞𝑐
𝜂 =1− = 𝑓(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑞ℎ
Then
𝑞𝑐
= 𝑓(𝑇ℎ, 𝑇𝑐 )
𝑞ℎ

For a reversible cycle only Lord Kelvin has made a suggestion for the function f below:

𝑞𝑐 𝑇𝑐
=
𝑞ℎ 𝑇ℎ

From the above equation, we can determine the unknown temperature based on quantity of heat
or thermodynamics law and not based on volume, pressure, electrical resistance or electromotive

74
force. The equation above defines the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. This
temperature scale used a temperature at constant point that is called “triple point of water” as
273.16 K.

E w

q*
T = 273.16K
If we have a reversible engine that operates between T and 273.16 K, it will be:
𝑞
𝑇 = 273.16
𝑞∗

But for constant volume gas temperature we know that:

𝑃
𝑇 = 273.16
𝑃∗

If we compare both equations, then we will find that they are the same. Then, we can say that
temperature scale based on gas temperature is suitable with thermodynamics scale that is based
on reversible engine.

From equation:
𝑞𝑐 𝑇𝑐
=
𝑞ℎ 𝑇ℎ

𝑇𝑐
𝜂 =1−
𝑇ℎ

The above efficiency is only TRUE for a REVERSIBLE CYCLE.

For thermodynamic temperature scale, there is absolute zero temperature. This absolute zero
temperature cannot be reached because if it does then the efficiency will 100% and defies the
Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Normal ice temperature = 273 K

Boiled water temperature = 373 K

75
6.3. Entropy

If ‘internal energy’ is a property from the First Law, then entropy is a property from the Second
Law.

6.31 Clausius Inequality

Before discuss the concept of entropy, we need to understand another concept that is important in
thermodynamics which is CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY.

When a closed system is operates on a cycle, the quantity is:

 (q / T)  0

For reversible cycle:

 (q / T) = 0
For irreversible cycle:
 (q / T)  0
Consider this apparatus:

qT
q

E T w
TT
w

wE

Closed system at temperature T is supplied by q and produce work done w. Temperature, T can
be changed when the condition of the system changes. Heat energy source is from a reservoir at
temperature TT. The reversible heat engine receives heat, qT from the reservoir and supplies q
to the closed system. The heat engine does work of wE.

For heat engine:

wE = qT - q

For a closed system: w = q - du

76
Net Work:

wt = wE + w = qT - du

However a reversible engine

T/TT = q/qT

Then, wt = (TT/T).q - du

Now, consider the closed system and the heat engine undergoing several cycles. Net work can be
known by substituting the above equation.

q
 w = T  T −  du
t T

For a thermodynamic cycle  du = 0 (First Law).

q
Therefore  w
t = TT 
T

q
Or wt = TT 
T

Combination of he closed system with the heat engine is as follows:

qT

E wt

This defies the Second Law of thermodynamics according to Kevin Plank.

Hence wt cannot be a work output and cannot have a positive value.

𝛿𝑞
𝑇𝑇 ∮ ≤0
𝑇

Since TT is a positive value

𝛿𝑞
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∮ ≤0
𝑇

77
 q
For a reversible cycle T =0

6.32 Prove that entropy is a property

Consider this: A and B are reversible processes from (1) to (2) and C is a reversible process from
(2) to (1).

Consider two cycles of AC and BC.

P
2
A
B
C

v
For process A & B, system changed from condition (1) to condition (2).

For AC cycle:

 (q/T)AC = (q/T)A+ ( q/T)C

For BC cycle:
 (q/T)BC = (q/T)B+ ( q/T)C

For a reversible cycle according to Clausius inequality:

 (q/T)=0

78
So, (q/T)A = (q/T)B

Value of (q/T)A or (q/T)B are the same and not based on process path. So, (q/T)A or
(q/T)B are equal to a value which is a system property that is named as ENTROPY (symbol
s[kJ/kg K]).

(q/T)= s2-s1

Or ds = q/T

This is true for a reversible process

For an insulated system or an adiabatic process q = 0, the change in entropy ds= 0 for a
reversible process. So, adiabatic process is also known as ISENTROPIC PROCESS where the
value of entropy does not changed. Again this is only true for a reversible process.

6.33 Entropy Concepts

Entropy can be defined as DEGREE OF DISORDER or DEGREE OF IRREVERSIBILITY.

Several notes can be extracted from the understanding of entropy:

• Entropy for solid material is lower than the entropy for gas.
Molecules in solid are arranged in certain order and vibrate about their axes. However,
gas molecules are not arranged and always move and collide with each other.
• For a process that involves work done, entropy will not increase if there is no friction.
This is because work is a structured or organized form of energy.
• For a process that involves heat transfer, entropy always increases.
This is because heat is seen as an unstructured or unorganized form of energy.
• Entropy of pure material at absolute temperature is zero- THIRD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS.
This is because, molecules at absolute temperature do not move and they are arranged
orderly.
• Entropy of the earth always increases.
Every condition and molecule on the earth changes with uncertainty. All systems that are
uncertain will increase the entropy.
Below is a view of Entropy in our daily life:

HIGH ENTROPY LOW ENTROPY

(High Degree of Disorder) (Low Degree of Disorder)
A library where books are not arranged A library where the books are arranged in
nicely. proper order

Student who does not have good studying Student who has good studying techniques:
techniques: Know how to manage time effectively.
Do not know how to manage time. Nice and arranged notes.
Unarranged notes. High studying skills.

79
 Always ‘last minute’ work.

Ineffective lecturer without proper notes Good lecturer.

and teaching aids and techniques. Prepare notes for lecture.
Good presentation skill during lecture.
Used effective teaching aids and
technique

Soldiers in mutiny. Soldiers that always obey the leader.

Not united, difference opinions. United, same opinions.

Country
Club

Quarrel, abuse, fight, envy, hatred, increase No quarrel, smile, patient, thank god, relax.
blood pressure.

6.34 Principle of Increasing Entropy

Consider 2 processes that make up a cycle as shown in the figure below. Process 1 to 2 is either
reversible or irreversible. Process 2 to 1 is reversible process.

P
2

From Clausius Equations, v

𝛿𝑞
∮ <0
𝑇

𝛿𝑞 𝛿𝑞
∫ + ∫( ) < 0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝛿𝑞
∫ + (𝑠1 − 𝑠2 ) < 0
𝑇

80
 𝛿𝑞
∫ > (𝑠1 − 𝑠2 )
𝑇

𝛿𝑞
∫ + 𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛 = (𝑠1 − 𝑠2 )
𝑇

sgen > 0 (always positive or zero for reversible process)

If the first process is a reversible process:

𝛿𝑞
∫ = (𝑠1 − 𝑠2 )
𝑇

And if the first process is an irreversible process:

𝛿𝑞
∫ > (𝑠1 − 𝑠2 )
𝑇

The above equation reminds us that changed in entropy for an irreversible process is always
bigger than change is entropy for a reversible process. Entropy is therefore generated or
produced during any irreversible process. This entropy that is generated is called Entropy
Generation Sgen. Therefore for any closed system the total entropy change is given as below,

Ssys = (q/T) + s gen

Sgen is not a property but its value is based on process or path of the process.

For an adiabatic process, heat transfer is zero. Therefore the equation for changed in entropy of a
closed system will be:

Ssys = sgen

For a reversible process Ssys = 0

And for an irreversible process Ssys > 0

This equation shows that entropy of a system always increases or in limiting condition equals
zero for a reversible process. Entropy for a system cannot decrease. This is the principle of
increasing entropy.

Hence we can conclude that Energy cannot be created nor destroyed but ENTROPY can be
created but not destroyed.

81
6.4. T-s Diagram

From the definition of entropy

ds = q/T
or
q = T ds

q = T (s2- s1)

This equation is similar to the constant pressure process where work done is:

w = p dv

w= p (v2- v1)

If work done for a process is give as the area under the process path of a P-v diagram,

P 2

1
Work Done

v
using the T-s diagram the area under the process path is heat transfer.

T 2

1
Heat Transfer

82
6.5. Relationship between entropy with other properties

From a reversible process,

ds = (q /T)R

q = T ds

Reversible heat transfer can be determined but for actual process that is irreversible process, the
value of entropy cannot be determined from measurement of q and T in the experiment. Because
s is a thermodynamic property, it can be expressed based on other thermodynamics properties
that can be determine from experiment:

For a closed system:

q = w+ du (First Law)

For a reversible process:

Tds = Pdv + du 6.4.1

Tds = Pdv + (vdP - vdP) + du

Tds = (Pdv + vdP) + du - vdP

Tds = d (Pv) + du - vdP

Since h=Pv+u
Tds = dh - vdP 6.4.2

Both equations of 6.4.1 and 6.4.2 are called Entropy Equations or Gibbs Equation. These
equations only involve thermodynamic properties. Hence it can be used for all processes both
reversible or irreversible process and either ideal gas or steam.

Similar to the internal energy and enthalpy, entropy does not have absolute value but it is defined
based on changes between two thermodynamics states.

For example at state(1), change in entropy is (s1-so) and at state (2) (s2-so). Then, change in
entropy between states (1) and (2) is:

(s2 - so) - (s1 - so) = (s2- s1)

For steam the entropy are listed in the thermodynamic property table where the datum is taken at
the triple point of water.

83
6.5.1. Entropy of wet steam

T Constant Pressure
Line

s
sf sat. liquid sg sat. steam

Entropy value in the wet steam region can be determined as follow;

s = sf + x ( sg-sf)

where x is the dryness fraction

For superheated steam, entropy is determined from the superheated steam table at certain
pressure and temperature.

6.5.2. Entropy of an ideal gas

From the entropy equation

T ds = Pdv + du

But du = cv dT

Divide the equation by T ds = P/T dv + cv dT/T

From characteristic equation Pv = RT

ds = R dv/v + cv dT/T

Integrating, s2-s1 = R ln(v2/v1) + cv ln(T2/T1) 6.5.1

or s2-s1 = cp ln(v2/v1) + cv ln(P2/P1) 6.5.2

or s2-s1 = cp ln(T2/T1) - R ln(P2/P1) 6.5.3

84
Equations 6.5.1, 6.5.2 and 6.5.3 are equations or formulae that relate the entropy with other
thermodynamic fluid properties of. These formulae are true only for ideal gas and cannot be used
for steam.

6.6. Non Flow Process

Following are non flow processes that involve entropy. Chapter 3 has already discussed the
thermodynamic processes. With entropy, heat transfer can be determined easily. Before this, we
only used P-v diagram to explain thermodynamic processes. Now, T-s diagram can also be used
to explain the thermodynamic processes. T-s diagram is much more clearly represented for
isothermal and adiabatic processes. Following are summary of thermodynamic processes.

85
6.6.1. Constant Volume Process (work done = 0)

Steam Ideal Gas

P 2 P
2

1
1
v v
q = (u2-u1) q = cv (T2-T1)
T Constant volume
lines
T P2 2

P1
1

s s
s1 s2
s2 - s1 = cv ln (T2/T1)

86
6.6.2. Constant Pressure Process

Steam Ideal Gas

P P
2
1 2
1

v v
q= (u2-u1)+w
q = cp (T2-T1)
q = (h2-h1)
w = P(v2-v1)= R (T2-T1)
w = P (v2-v1)

T Constant pressure
lines
2
T
1
P1
2
1
s1 s
s2
s s2 - s1 = cp ln (T2/T1)

87
6.6.3. Isothermal Process

Steam Ideal Gas

P P

1 2
1
2

v v
q = (u2-u1) + w
q=w
q= RT ln (P1/P2) = RT ln (v2/v1)

T
T
1 2
P1
1 2

s s
s1 s2
q = T (s2-s1)
w = T (s2-s1) - (u2-u1) q = T (s2-s1)

88
6.6.4. Adiabatic Process (Isentropic Process) (Heat transferred q=0)

Steam Ideal Gas

P P
1
1

2 2
v v
q=0
q=0
w = (u1-u2)
w=cv(T1-T2)
= (P1v1 - P2v2) / (-1)
= R(T1-T2)/ (-1)

1
T 1 T
P1

2
2
s
s1 = s 2 s
q=0
w = (u1-u2) w = cv (T1-T2)

89
6.6.5. Polytropic Process (Pvn = constant)

Steam Ideal Gas

P P
1
1

2
2
v v
q = (u2-u1) + w
w = (P1v1-P2v2) / (n-1) for n>1 q = w (-n) / (-1) for n>1

w= P1v1ln (v2/v1) for n=1 or q=w for n= 1

w= P1v1ln(P1/P2)
w= (P1v1 - P2v2) / (n-1) for n>1
or w = R(T1-T2)/(n-1)

w= P1v1 ln(v2/v1) for n=1

or w= P1v1 ln (P1/P2)
T or w= RT1 ln(v2/v1)

1 P1

2 P1
s
v1
1
T
v2
P2

2
s
s2

s2 - s1 = R ln (v2/v1) +cv ln (T2/T1)

s2 - s1 = cp ln (T2/T1) - R ln (P2/P1)

90
6.7. Entropy and Irreversibility

For a reversible process,  q/T = 0.

But for an irreversible process,  q/T < 0

So, ds ≥ (q/T) rev

1. This shows that in any irreversible process, final entropy is larger than final entropy for a
reversible process.

For isentropic process (adiabatic) ds=0. Or (s2=s1)

But for irreversible process, ds > q/T

Or s2-s1 > q/T

For q=0

Then, s’2 > s1 or s’2 > s2

Adiabatic compresssion and expansion processes are illustrated on the T-s diagram:

4’
1 T
T 4
Irreversible process

Reversible
process

2’

2 3

s s
Compression Process
Expansion Process

2. For an irreversible process, the heat transfer is not given by the area under the process line on
a T-s diagram. Work done is also not given by area under the line on a P-v diagram.

91
3. If a reversible process and an irreversible process are on the same path, then the heat transfer
is not the same.

For reversible adiabatic process: q=0

For irreversible process: s2- s1 > q/T but s1= s2

Then, q/T < 0

So, q<0

T 1

Reversible process Irreversible process

2
s

4. Changes in entropy are caused by:

(a) Heat Transfer
(b) Irreversibility (in any irreversible process, entropy must increase).

5. Entropy is a measure of the degree of irreversibility.

1 1
T Irreversible process T Irreversible process

2’
2’

2 2

s s
Diagram on the right hand side shows the degree of irreversibility that is higher because the
change of entropy is larger compared to the diagram on the left hand side.

92
6. Non-flow process can be assumed as internally reversible process.

6.7.1 Isentropic Efficiency (irreversible process)

For expansion process, isentropic efficiency is:

Actual Work Done wa

ie = =
Isentropic Work Done wi

For compression process:

wi
ic =
wa

Example

A centrifugal air compressor undergoes an adiabatic steady flow process has an isentropic
efficiency of 80%. Pressure increases from 1 bar to 6 bar. Initial temperature is 27oC. Determine
the work done and the final air temperature.

6 bar
2a

T 2i
1 bar

For adiabatic process, Pv = constant:

T2i /T1 = (P2/P1) -1/

So, T2i = 500.6 K

93
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energy (q-
w = h2-h1 + ∆KE +∆PE)

Hence, wi = (h1-h2i) = cp (T1- T2i)

wi = 1.005 (300 - 500.6) = -201.6 kJ/kg

From isentropic efficiency for compressor:

ic = (wi/wa)

wa = wi/ = -201.6/0.8

The actual work done wa = -252 kJ/kg

wa = cp(T1 - T2a)

Then, T2a = T1- wa/cp = 300 + 252/1.005

T2a = 550.75 K

or T2a = 278oC

6.8 EXERGY

First law of thermodynamics is a statement about conservation of energy dealing with quantity of
energy via a process converting energy from one form into another. The second law is a
statement about a process occurring in a certain direction and that energy has not only quantity
but also quality. A process therefore cannot take place until it satisfies both the 1st law and 2nd
laws of thermodynamics.

For any energy source we usually want to determine the amount of energy contained in the
source. What is actually important is to determine the work available or potential work or exergy
from that energy source.

Definition: Exergy is the maximum useful work that could be obtained from the system at a
given state in a specified environment. Exergy is basically the work potential or maximum
output via a reversible process such that the final state of the system is in equilibrium with the
environment (dead state).

The symbol of exergy is X.

X(dead state) = 0

Exergy is always greater than the actual work done X > Wa

94
Exergy X= work from a reversible process or reversible heat engine Wrev

Exergy destroyed given by the symbol I is the difference between the exergy and the actual net
work output.

I= X-Wirr

Exergy is a property of the system and the environment combination. The environment can alter
the exergy. Energy is always conserved it is neither created nor destroyed and entropy cannot be
destroyed but can be created. Exergy on the other hand cannot be created but can be destroyed.

Exergy represents the upper limit on the amount of work a device can deliver without violating
the laws of thermodynamics. The difference between the exergy and actual work represents the
room engineers have for improvement based on new technologies.

The atmosphere contains a tremendous amount of energy but no exergy.

6.8.1 Exergy from a heat source

Consider a hot temperature reservoir or a furnace at a temperature of 1000oC and ambient

temperature of 30oC with a heat transfer of 300kW. The exergy is obtained from the work output
via a reversible heat engine.

TL 303
 =1− =1− = 0.7619
TH 1273

X = W rev= Q = 0.7619 (300) = 228.57kW

228.57kW is the reversible net work and also the exergy. The remaining heat 71.43kW is
rejected to the ambient or dead state is unavailable for work. For an irreversible work, Wirrev say
100kW that is perhaps the actual work output, the irreversible rate or exergy destroyed is

I = X-Wirrev = 228.57-100 = 128.57kW

6.8.2 Exergy of a closed system

The following is the exergy of a closed system where the heat rejected from a closed system is
further utilized to produce work from a heat engine. The final heat is rejected to the environment
which is the dead sate given by subscript 0. T0, P0, v0, h0 and s0 refer to properties of the dead
state or the environment.

w

95
 P1
T1
q

wE
E

qT
To

For the work done on the environment by the system (pressure in the cylinder)

𝛿𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃0 )𝑑𝑣 + 𝑃0 𝑑𝑣

𝛿𝑤 = 𝛿𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑣 + 𝑃0 𝑑𝑣

𝛿𝑤𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝛿𝑤 − 𝑃0 𝑑𝑣

For the work done by the heat engine

To T q
wE = q = (1 − )q = q − o q = q − To ( )
T1 T1 T1

Since q is the heat rejected from the cylinder it is -q , therefore

wE = −q + T0 ds

Total work x = wrev +wE

= w - P0dv - q + T0ds
But w-q =-du

x= -du - P0dv +T0ds

= (u-uo) +Po(v-vo)-To(s-so)

Total exergy of a closed system X = m{(u-uo) +Po(v-vo)-To(s-so)}

And the total exergy of an open system = m{(h-ho)-To(s-so) + K.E +P.E}

96
Example

Compressed air in a rigid tank 200m3 is at 1MPa and 300K. What is the exergy of the
compressed air if the environment is 0.1MPa and 300K?

x= [-du - P0dv +T0ds ]

For an isothermal condition du = cv dT , dT = 0, therefore du=0

x= P0(v1-v0) – To (s1-s0)

P  P 
x = RT0  0 − 1 + RT0 ln 1 
 P1   P0 
 1   1 
x = 0.287(300) − 1 + (0.287)(300) ln 
 0.1   0 .1 
X = mx
PV (1MPa )(200)
m= = = 2323kg
RT 287(300)
X = 280.5MJ

6.8.3 Exergy of an opened system

The exergy of an opened system or steady flow system is given by

x= (u1-u0) + P0 (v1-v0) – T0 (s1-s0) + v2/2 + gz + (P1-P0) v

where
v2/2 = kinetic energy
gz = potential energy
(P1-P0)v = flow work

since h= u+pv, therefore

x= (h1-h0) – T0(s1-s0) + v2/2 + gz

6.8.4 Exergy Change

The exergy change of a system and environment as it undergoes a process from state 1 to state 2
is given by

∆X= X2-X1

97
Example

Steam is compressed in an opened system from 0.1MPa dry saturated to 1.0MPa and 400oC.
Environment is at 20oC and 0.1 MPa. Determine the specific exergy change.

For steady flow the kinetic and potential terms are neglected.
∆x= x2-x1 = (h1-h2)-T0(s1-s2)

6.8.5 Principle of decreasing exergy

For an isolated system q = 0, w = 0 and there is no fluid flow m=0

For energy balance Ei-Eo = 0

For entropy balance Si-So = Sgen ≥ 0
For exergy balance Xi-Xo = (Ei-Eo) –ToSgen
= -ToSgen
Therefore, Xi-Xo ≤ 0

6.8.6 Second law efficiency

The second law efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual irreversible work to exergy

𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑟
𝜂𝐼𝐼 =
𝑋

 w
Second law efficiency,  II = = = COP rev/COP
 rev wrev

 =w/q (first law efficiency)

rev= 1-(TL/TH) (reversible heat engine efficiency)

Exergy recovered Exergy destroyed

 II = = 1−
Exergy supplied Exergy supplied
Example
Steam enters a turbine at 3 MPa and 450oC at a mass flow rate of 8 kg/s. The exit is at 0.2 MPa
and 150oC. Heat loss from the turbine is 300kW and the environment is at 0.1MPa and 25oC.
Neglect the kinetic and the potential energy. Determine
i) actual power output
ii) exergy change in the process
iii) second law efficiency
iv) exergy destroyed
v) exergy of the steam (exergy at the inlet)

98
From the steam table, h1=3344.0 kJ/kg, s1 = 7.0834 kJ/kgK

h2= 2768.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.2795 kJ/kgK

i) The actual work, W= m(h1-h2) + Q

W = 8 (3344.0 – 2768.8) – 300

W= 4302 kW

ii) Exergy change of the process, ∆X between state1 and state 2 ,

∆X = m {(h1-h2) –T0 (s1-s2)}

∆X= 8 {(3344.0- 2768.8) – 298(7.0834-7.2795)}

W rev =∆X= 4660 kW

iii) The second law efficiency of the steam turbine

W W 4302
= = = = 0.923 = 92.3%
Wrev X 4660

iv) Exergy destroyed, I = Wrev-W = ∆X-W = 4660-4302 = 358 kW

v) Exergy at the inlet of the steam turbine X= m{(h1-h0)-T0 (s1-s0)}

h0=104.89 kJ/kg (taken from the steam table for value of hf at 25oC)

s0 =0.3674 kJ/kg (taken from the steam table for value of sf at 25oC)

X= 8{(3344-104.89)-298(7.0834-0.3674)
X= 9904 kW
The turbine is converting 4302/9904 = 43.4% of the available or exergy of the steam
into actual work.

99
 TUTORIAL 3- SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND ENTROPY

1. One kilogram steam at pressure of 20 bar and dryness fraction of 0.9 is heated at constant
pressure to temperature of 300oC. Determine the heat supplied and changes in entropy and
also show the process on a T-s diagram.
(415 kJ/kg, 0.8173 kJ /kgK)

2. Steam 0.05 kg at pressure of 10 bar and dryness fraction of 0.84 is heated in a rigid tank until
pressure of 20 bar. Determine changes in entropy and heat transfer. Show the process on a P-v
diagram
(0.0704 kJ/kg K, 36.85kJ)

3. One meter cubic of air is heated at constant pressure from temperature of 15oC to 300oC and
then cooled at constant volume process to its initial temperature. Initial pressure is 1.03 bar.
Determine the net heat transfer and changes in overall entropy. Show the process on the P-v
diagram
(101.5 kJ, 0.246 kJ/K)

4. One kilogram steam undergoes an isothermal process from pressure 20 bar and temperature at
250oC to a pressure of 30 bar. Determine heat transfer and state whether heat is supplied or
rejected. Show the process on a T-s diagram

(-135 kJ/kg)

5. 1 kg of air expands reversibly in the cylinder behind a piston at constant temperature of 260oC
until its volume doubles. Then, the piston moves in and the heat is rejected at constant
pressure until its volume returned to its initial condition. Determine net heat transfer and
changes in overall entropy. Sketch that process on a P-v diagram.
(-161.9 kJ/kg, -0497 kJ/kg K)

6. Steam expands reversibly behind a piston in the cylinder from pressure of 6 bar dry saturated
steam to pressure of 50kPa. Assume that the cylinder is insulated. Determine work done for
the expansion process per kg steam. Show the process on a T-s diagram
(323.8 kJ/kg)

7. One kilogram of fluid with pressure of 30 bar, temperature 300oC expands based on
polytropic process pv = constant until its pressure become 0.75 bar. Determine heat transfer
and work done:
a) when the fluid is air.
b) when the fluid is steam.
Sketch for each of the process above on T-s diagram.
(607kJ/kg, 607kJ/kg, 897.95 kJ/kg, 899kJ/kg)

100
8. One kilogram of air with pressure of 1.013 bar and temperature 17oC is compressed based on
law of pv1.3 = constant until its pressure becomes 5 bar. Determine changes in entropy and
sketch the process on the T-s diagram.
(-0.0885 kJ/kgK)

9. Steam with pressure of 15 bar is expanded in a throttle to a pressure of 1 bar and temperature
150oC. Determine dryness fraction at beginning of the process and changes in entropy. Sketch
the process on the T-s diagram.
(0.992, 1.202 kJ/kg K)

10.Turbine supplied with steam of 40 bar and temperature 400oC expands through steady flow
turbine to constant pressure of 0.2 bar and dryness fraction of 0.93. Neglect flow velocity at
entrance but steam exit the system with high velocity through a pipe with area of 0.14m2. If
mass flow rate is 3 kg/s and mechanical efficiency 90%, determine actual power output of the
turbine. Show that the process is an irreversible process and determine the changes in entropy.
Neglect heat loss from the turbine. Show the process on a T-s diagram
(2044.9 kW, 0.643 kJ/kgK)

11.Air is compressed with pressure ratio of 4:1 in a centrifugal compressor. Air temperature is
increased to factor of 1.65. Show that the process is irreversible process and determine
changes in entropy per kg air. Assumed that the process is adiabatic. Sketch the process on T-
s diagram.
(0.105 kJ/kgK)

12.In a gas turbine, gas enters the turbine at temperature of 550oC and 5 bar of pressure and exit
at pressure of 1 bar. This process is adiabatic process but the change in entropy is 0.174
kJ/kgK. Determine temperature of exit gas. Assumed that the gas is ideal gas and take value
of  1.333 and cp = 1.11 kJ/kg K. Sketch the process on T-s diagram.
(370oC)

13. Steam enters a turbine at pressure of 70 bar, temperature 500°C and leaves the turbine at
pressure of 2 bar in dry saturated steam condition. Neglect changes in kinetic energy and
potential energy and assumed that the process is adiabatic. Also, assumed that the ambient
temperature and pressure are 30°C and 1 bar respectively. Show the process on a T-s diagram.
Determine:
i. Isentropic efficiency (84.2%)
ii. Actual power output (703.6 kJ/kg)
iii. Exergy change in the process (803.46 kJ/kg)
iv. Second law efficiency (87.6%)
v. Exergy destroyed (99.86 kJ/kg)
vi. Exergy of the steam (exergy at the inlet) (1357.2 kJ/kg)
vii. Exergy conversion efficiency (51.8%)
viii. Exergy conversion efficiency if the exergy of steam is the enthalpy (20.6%)

101
 MODULE 3

INTRODUCTION

Module 3 discusses various thermodynamic cycles. Before we discuss about thermodynamic

cycle, students need to know the thermodynamic processes and sketch it on P-v and T-s
diagrams. Work done and heat transfer in each process can be determined using the related
formulae or tables either the fluid is steam or air.

This third module or chapter 7 uses all the thermodynamic basic concepts to practical
application. All power plants and internal combustion engines are based on thermodynamic
cycles to determine output power and heat supply needed. We will analyze each of the power
plants based on certain thermodynamics cycle.

102
CHAPTER 7: THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

OBJECTIVE

• To differentiate between air and steam cycles.

• To determine net work done and net heat transfer in a cycle.
• To determine cycle efficiency, work ratio and mean effective pressure.
• To sketch the air and steam cycles on P-v and T-s diagrams.
• To sketch the vapor compression cycle on a P-h diagram.
• To differentiate between efficiency and coefficient of performance.

Chart below shows types of thermodynamic cycles for air and vapor.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

AIR CYCLE
VAPOR CYCLE

External Heat Internal Heat

Transfer Cycle Transfer Cycle

STIRLING RANKINE
CYCLE CYCLE
(Steam plant) VAPOR
ERICSSON COMPRESSION
CYCLE CYCLE
(Refrigeration and
air-conditioner)
BRAYTON
CYCLE (Closed
Gas Turbine)

BRAYTON STANDARD AIR

CYCLE CYCLE
(Open Gas (Internal
Turbine) combustion engine)

MIXED CYCLE
OTTO DIESEL
(Double
(Petrol engine) (Diesel engine)
combustion)

103
Heat engine is a device that consists of a thermodynamic cycle producing a net work output from
external heat supply that is from a high temperature reservoir.

Hot reservoir

qh

Heat
engine Net work done = net
cycle work output

qc

Cold reservoir

To produce power, fluid needs to go through a thermodynamic cycle. We will discuss each of the
cycle above and will analyze it to determine work done and heat transfer.

7.1. CARNOT CYCLE

Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle that produces the highest efficiency. The important characteristic
in Carnot cycle is that heat is supplied at constant high temperature and heat is rejected at
constant low temperature. Carnot cycle can be sketched on the T-s diagram. The processes form
a rectangular shape on the T-s diagram.

T Qh
4 1

2
3
Qc

s
A B

104
Thermodynamic processes in the Carnot cycle are listed below:

1 – 2 Isentropic/adiabatic Expansion (Q = 0)

2 – 3 Isothermal Heat Rejection (Q23 = Qc)

3 - 4 Isentropic/adiabatic Compression (Q = 0)

4 – 1 Isothermal Heat Supplied (Q41 = Qh)

Heat engine efficiency

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝜂=
𝑄ℎ

𝑄ℎ − |𝑄𝑐 |
𝜂=
𝑄ℎ

|𝑄𝑐 |
𝜂 =1−
𝑄ℎ

Above formula is a basic formula for all thermodynamic cycles.

Qh = area 41AB = T1. (SB - SA)

Qc = area 23AB = T2 (SB - SA)

From,
|𝑄𝑐 |
𝜂 =1−
𝑄ℎ
Therefore
𝑇2
𝜂 =1−
𝑇1

𝑇𝑐
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇ℎ

The above formula is only true for Carnot cycle and cannot be used for any other thermodynamic
cycles.

Highest efficiency that can be determined between two temperature reservoirs is the Carnot
efficiency. There is no other thermodynamic cycle that has higher efficiency than Carnot cycle
that operates between two temperature reservoirs.

105
Besides efficiency, WORK RATIO is another performance that differentiates one cycle with
another. It is defined as follows:

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

Work ratio is determined to differentiate performance of cycles even tough they have the same
efficiencies.

Carnot cycle can also be sketched on P-v diagram.

P
4
1

3 2

v
P-v diagram is not that important compared to the T-s diagram.

Example 1

A Carnot air cycle operates between hot reservoir of 800oC and cold reservoir at 15oC.
Determine Carnot cycle efficiency. If the maximum pressure is 210 bar and minimum pressure is
1 bar, determine work ratio.

𝑇𝑐 15 + 273
𝜂 =1− =1− = 1 − 0.268 = 0.732 = 73.2%
𝑇ℎ 800 + 273

Net work
Work ratio =
Total work
Total work = w 41 + w12 = q 41 + w12 = T1 (s1 -s 4 ) + cv(T1 -T2 )

106
 210 bar
T Qh
4 1 A

1 bar
3 2

Qc
s
A B
Net work ((T1-T2) (s1-s4) = (T1-T2){(sA-s4)-(sA-s1)}

= (T1-T2){R ln (P4/P2) – cp ln (T1/T2)}

=168 kJ/kg

Total work = w41 + w12 = T1(s1-s4) +cv (T1-T2)

= 563.6 kJ/kg

Work ratio = 0.212

Carnot cycle is not a practical cycle because the work ratio to small. It means that an engine
based on the Carnot cycle would be too large.

7.2. AIR STANDARD CYCLE

Air standard cycle can be divided into two types based on the mode of heat supply. In a plant or
engine, heat is supplied from outside through a heat exchanger or supplied through fuel
combustion process.

7.2.1. External Heat Transfer Cycle

In Stirling and Ericsson cycles, heat is supplied externally.

7.2.1.1. Stirling Cycle

Stirling cycle is a cycle that has the same efficiency as Carnot cycle. A Stirling cycle is a
practical cycle and has wide application. Stirling engines are quiet and have less vibration.

107
 T Qh
P
3 3 4
Qh

4
2
2
1
Qc 1 Qc
v
s

Thermodynamic processes in the Stirling cycle are as follow:

1 – 2 Isothermal heat rejected (Qc)

Q12 = m R T1ln(v1/v2) = W12

2 – 3 Constant Volume
Q23 = m cv (T3 - T2)

3 – 4 Isothermal supplied heat (Qh)

Q34 = mRT3 ln(v4/v3) = W34

4 – 1 Constant Volume
Q41 = m cv (T4 - T1) = Q23

𝑄ℎ − |𝑄41 | − 𝑄𝑐 + 𝑄23 𝑄ℎ − |𝑄𝑐 | |𝑄𝑐 |

𝜂𝑐 = = =1−
𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ

T1
 = 1−
T3

Network W 34 − W 12 T1
WorkRatio = = =1− = C
Totalwork W 34 T3

For Stirling cycle the efficiency is the same as the efficiency of a Carnot cycle. The work ratio
for Stirling cycle is the same as its efficiency. Work ratio for Stirling cycle is higher than work
ratio for Carnot cycle.

108
7.2.1.2 Ericsson Cycle

T Qh
P 3 4
2
3 Qh

2
1 4 1
Qc 2 Qc
3 v s

Thermodynamic processes in the Ericsson cycle are as follows:

1 - 2 Isothermal (heat rejected)

Qc = Q12 = mRT1 ln (P2/P1) = W12

2 - 3 Constant pressure
Q23 = m cp (T3 - T2)

3 - 4 Isothermal (heat supplied)

Qh = Q34 = mRT3 ln (P3/P4) = W34

4 - 1 Constant pressure
Q41 = mcp (T1 - T4)

𝑄ℎ − |𝑄41 | − 𝑄𝑐 + 𝑄23 𝑄ℎ − |𝑄𝑐 | |𝑄𝑐 |

𝜂𝑐 = = =1−
𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ

T1
 = 1− = c
T3

Network Qp − | Qs | T1
WorkRatio = = =1− = C
Totalwork W 34 T3

Similar to the Stirling cycle, efficiency of Ericsson cycle and work ratio are the same as the
Carnot cycle efficiency.

109
7.2.1.3 Closed Brayton/Joule Cycle (Closed Cycle Gas Turbine)

Gas turbine is based on the Brayton or Joule cycle. Brayton cycle can be analyzed using two
methods either heat supplied externally or heat supplied internally. Each of the processes in a
Brayton cycle is a flow process in an open system. Below is a schematic diagram of a gas turbine
plant for power generation.

Qh Heat exchanger (heat supply)

terbekal)

Gas turbine

Compressor

Qc Heat exchanger (heat rejected)

Types of heat supply will determine the types of Brayton cycle that is either closed Brayton cycle
or open Brayton cycle. For closed Brayton cycle, heat is supplied through a heat exchanger. In
this case, air is the fluid in the gas turbine plant.

Thermodynamic processes in a Brayton cycle are as follows:

1 – 2 Adiabatic compression Q = 0;
W12 = m cp (T1 - T2)

2 – 3 Constant pressure (heat supplied)

Qh = Q23 = m cp (T3 - T2)

3 – 4 Adiabatic expansion Q = 0
W34 = m cp (T3 - T4)

4 – 1 Constant pressure (heat rejected)

Qc = Q41 = m cp(T1 - T4)

110
 T

2
4

Efficiency
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 |𝑄𝑐 | 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )
𝜂𝑐 = = =1− =1− =1−
𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ 𝑄ℎ 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

Process (1 - 2) and (3 - 4) based on pv = constant

rp = pressure ratio = (P2/P1)

𝛾−1
1 1 𝛾
Efficiency 𝜂 = 1 − 𝛾−1 =1−( )
𝑟 𝑝
𝑟𝑝 𝛾

𝑊34 − 𝑊12 𝑇1 𝛾−1

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 1 − (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾
𝑊34 𝑇3

Example 7.1
Air in a gas turbine at 1.02 bar and 15oC is compressed adiabatically to 6.12 bar. Determine
efficiency and work ratio when the cycle maximum temperature is 800oC.

111
 T

6.12 bar

3
1.02bar
1073K

2
4

288 K
1

T2/T1 = (P2/P1) (-1)/ = T3/T4 = (61.2/1.02) (-1)/ = 1.67

T2 = 1.67 x T1 = 481 K

T4 = T3/1.67 = 643 K

Net Work = cp (T3 - T4) - cp (T2 - T1) = 238 kJ/kg

Efficiency = 1 - (1.02/6.12) (-1)/ = 40%

Heat supplied = qsupplied= cp (T3-T2) = 1.005 (1073-481) = 595kJ/kg

Heat rejected = qrejected = cp (T4-T1) = 1.005 (643-288) = 356.8kJ/kg

Efficiency = wnet/qsupplied = 238/595= 40%

Or Efficiency = 1- (qs/qp) = 1- (356.8/595) = 40%

Total Work = cp (T3 - T4) = 432 kJ/kg

Therefore

Work Ratio = Net Work / Total Work =238/432 = 0.55

The compression and the expansion processes are actually adiabatic irreversible process not
isentropic processes. The compressor and the turbine each have their isentropic efficiencies.

112
Example 7.2

Air in a closed cycle gas turbine at 1.02 bar and 15oC is compressed to 6.12 bar. Determine the
efficiency and work ratio when cycle maximum temperature is 800oC. Compressor isentropic
efficiency is 80% and turbine isentropic efficiency is 85%.

T 6.12 bar
3
1.02bar
1073K
2s
2i 4s
4i

288 K
1

T2i/T1 = (P2/P1) (-1)/ = T3/T4i = (61.2/1.02) (-1)/ = 1.67

T2i = 1.67 x T1 = 481 K

T4i = T3/1.67 = 643 K

wic = cp(T2i-T1) = cp(481-288) =194kJ/kg

ic = wic/wac

wac = 194/0.8 =242.5kJ/kg

wit = cp(T3-T4i) =cp(1073 – 643)=432.1kJ/kg

it = wat/wit

Wat = 432.1 x 0.85 =367.3 kJ/kg

Net work = wat-wac = 367.3-242.5 = 124.8kJ/kg

Wac = cp(T2s-T1)

242.5 = 1.005 (T2s-288)

T2s = 529.3 K

Heat Supplied = qsupplied = cp(T3-T2s) = 1.005 (1073-529.3) = 546.72kJ/kg

113
Efficiency = wnet / qsupplied = 124.8/546.72= 23%

Work Ratio = Net Work / Total Work =124.8/367.3 = 0.34

7.2.2. Internal Heat Transfer Cycle (Internal Combustion Cycle)

7.2.2.1 Open Brayton Cycle (Open Cycle Gas Turbine)

Fuel Combustor

Combustion product gas

Compressor Wnet=Wt-Wc

Wc Wt

Air Combustion gas exhaust

to the environment

T 3

1
s

In the above gas turbine plant, air is mixed with fuel and the mixture is burnt in a combustor to
produce high temperature and high pressure combustion gas. Combustion gases will exhaust to
the environment after passing through the gas turbine.

114
The above cycle is the same as the closed gas turbine cycle except for process (4-1). The value of
specific heat for air cp= 1.005 kJ/kg is used for compressor analysis and cp= 1.13 kJ/kg is used of
combustion and turbine analyses.

Actual processes through compressor and turbine are irreversible processes and are related with
isentropic efficiencies. Actual diagram for gas turbine cycle is as follows:

T 3
2a
2i
4a

4i

1
s
Points 2i and 4i are points after the isentropic processes whilst points 2a and 4a show the actual
conditions.

7.2.2.2 Reciprocating Engine Cycle

Gas turbine cycle is used to produce mechanical power in a gas turbine power plant. Usually
power produced is large but to produce small power, we used reciprocating engine (cylinder and
piston). Processes involved here are non flow processes.

These processes are assumed reversible processes. Actually, heat supplied is from fuel
combustion in the engine. To make it easier for cycle analysis in internal combustion engine,
heat is supplied externally. This cycle is called as Air Standard Cycle and has the following
criteria:

(i) Ideal cycle.

(ii) Use air as working fluid
(iii) Reversible processes.
(iii) Heat is supplied externally.

7.2.2.2.1 Otto Air Standard Cycle (2 Stroke)

This cycle is a basic cycle for petrol/gasoline engine. In an actual petrol engine, mixture of air
and petrol enter the combustion chamber and ignited using a spark plug. The combustion occurs
almost instantaneously where heat is supplied at constant volume.

115
 P 3

Supplied
heat

2
4 Heat rejected

1
v

Swept Volume
Clearance Volume

Thermodynamic processes in the Otto cycle are as follows:

1 – 2 Adiabatic/isentropic Compression Q12 = 0;

W12 = mcv (T1 - T2)

2 – 3 Constant Volume (heat supplied) W23 = 0

Qh = Q23 = m cv (T3 - T2);

3 – 4 Adiabatic/isentropic Expansion Q34 = 0;

W34 = m cv (T3 - T4)

4 – 1 Constant Volume (heat rejected) W41 = 0

Qc = Q41 = m cv (T1 - T4);

Cycle efficiency is:

|𝑄𝑐 | |𝑐𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )| |𝑇1 − 𝑇4 |

𝜂𝑐 = 1 − =1− =1−
𝑄ℎ 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

116
 |𝑇1 − 𝑇4 |
𝜂𝑐 = 1 −
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

For adiabatic/isentropic process, pv = constant

From characteristic equation, pv = RT

P = RT/v

So, (RT/v) v = constant

Then, Tv-1 = constant

T2 T3 v1
= = ( ) γ −1 = rv γ −1
T1 T4 v2

rv = compression ratio

T3 = T4 rv γ −1

T2 = T1rv γ −1

Compression ratio is defined as follows:

Sweptvolume + Clearance volume

rv =
Clearance volume

Then, Otto cycle efficiency can be written in the form of compression ratio as follows:

1
 = 1−
rv  − 1
Example 7.2

Determine standard Otto cycle efficiency for petrol engine. Cylinder diameter 50mm, stroke
75mm and clearance volume 21.3 cm3.

Swept volume = /4 (50 x 10-3)2 x (75 x 10-3)

= 147.2 cm3

Total volume = 147.2 cm3 + 21.3 cm3 = 168.5 cm3

Compression ratio, rv= 168.5/21.3 = 7.92

117
  = 1- 1/(7.91)0.4

= 56.3%

Example 7.3
Initial temperature is 30oC and pressure is 1 bar. Maximum temperature is 1070K and
compression ratio is 7.92. Determine T2, T4, P2, P3 and P4 and heat supplied.

7.2.2.2.2 Diesel Standard Air Cycle

This is a basic cycle for diesel engine created by Dr Rudolf Diesel who used peanut oil as fuel
for the engine. Main characteristic in the diesel engine is that there is no spark plug as in petrol
engine. Combustion occurs because of high pressure and temperature in the combustion
chamber. Mixture of air and diesel will be ignited and heat is supplied at constant pressure.
Below is a P-v diagram for Diesel cycle.

P Qp
2 3

4
Qs
1

Thermodynamic processes in diesel cycle are as follows:

1 – 2 Adiabatic/isentropic compression Q12 = 0

2 – 3 Constant pressure (Heat Supplied) Qp = Q23 =m cp (T3 - T2)

3 – 4 Adiabatic/Isentropic Expansion Q34 = 0

4 – 1 Constant volume (Heat Rejected) W41 =0 Qs = Q41 = mcv (T1 - T4)

Cycle efficiency is:

118
 | Qs| | cv ( T1 − T4 )| |( T1 − T4 )|
 = 1− = 1− = 1−
Qp cp( T 3 − T 2 )  ( T3 − T2)

( T 4 − T1 )
 = 1−
 ( T3 − T2)

Efficiency for diesel cycle can also be written as follows:

1   −1
 = 1− ( )
rv −1  (  − 1)
Where:
rv = compression ratio v1/v2
 = volume ratio or cut-off ratio = v3/v2

Efficiency of a cycle increases with compression ratio. For the same compression ratio (rv),
efficiency of a Diesel cycle is lower than that for Otto cycle.
diesel < Otto

But actually compression ratio for Diesel cycle is higher than Otto cycle. Hence Diesel cycle
efficiency is higher than Otto cycle or petrol. Compression ratio for Otto cycle is in the range of
8-11, whilst compression ratio for diesel cycle is in the range of 12- 20. The limitation of
compression ratio for Otto cycle is to avoid a phenomenon called knock that will effect the
performance of the engine and cause damage to the engine.

Example 7.4
Diesel engine has inlet temperature of 15oC and 1 bar. Compression ratio is 12/1 and maximum
temperature is 1100oC. Determine the cycle efficiency.

P 3
2

1 bar
1
v

T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K

T3 = 1100 + 273 = 1373 K

119
(v1 / v2) = 12

From, pv = constant and Tv -1 = constant,

(T2/T1) = (v1/v2) -1

Then, T2 = 288 (12)0.4 = 778 K

T3 v4 v4 v2 v1 v2
= ( )  −1 = ( x ) = ( x )  −1
T4 v3 v2 v3 v2 v3

Process (2-3) is a constant temperature process, so, T/v = constant.

v3 / v2 = T3/T2 = 1373/778 = 1.765 (cut off ratio or volume ratio)

Then, T3/T4 = (12 x 1/1.765)-1

So, T4 = 638K

qh = q23 = cp(T3-T2) = 1.005 (1373 - 778) = 598 kJ/kg

qc = q41 = cv(T1-T4) = 0.718 (288 - 638) = -251 kJ/kg

| Q41| 251
So, the efficiency is:  = 1 − = 1− = 58%
Q23 598
Net work= efficiency x heat supplied = 0.58 x 598 = 346.8kJ/kg

7.2.2.3 Mixed Cycle (Dual combustion cycle)

Characteristic for most reciprocating engine is accurately represented by mixed cycle or dual
combustion cycle.

P
3
4

1
v

120
Heat is supplied in two processes that are constant volume process (2-3) and constant pressure
process (3-4). That is why it is called dual combustion cycle. Processes involved in this cycle are
as followed:

1–2 Adiabatic/Isentropic Compression Q12 = 0

2–3 Constant Volume (heat supplied) Q23= mcv(T3-T2)
3–4 Constant Pressure (heat supplied) Q34= mcp(T4-T3)
4–5 Adiabatic/Isentropic Expansion Q=0
5–1 Constant Volume (heat rejected) Q51 = mcv(T1-T5)

rv = (v1/v2) = compression ratio

rp = (P3/P2) = pressure ratio

= (v4/v3) = volume ratio, cut-off ratio

Then, the cycle efficiency is:

|𝑄𝑐 | |𝑄51 |
𝜂𝑐 = 1 − =1−
𝑄ℎ (𝑄23 − 𝑄34 )

Example 7.5

An engine takes air at 1.01 bar and 20oC. Maximum pressure is 69 bar. Compression ratio is
18/1. Determine the efficiency based on a mixture cycle (dual combustion cycle). Heat supplied
at constant volume is the same as supplied heat at constant pressure. Determine cycle efficiency.

P
3
69 bar 4

v1/v2 = 18
2

1.01 bar 1
v
v2 v1

121
 | Q 51 | cv(T 5 − T 1)
 = 1− = 1−
Q 23 + Q 34 cv(T 3 − T 2) + cp (T 4 − T 3)

cv(T 5 − T 1) (T 5 − T 1)
 = 1− = 1−
2cv(T 3 − T 2) 2(T 3 − T 2)

Have to determine T5, T3 and T 2.

Process 1 − 2: Pv = constant; Tv  -1 = constant,

T2 v1
= ( ) −1 , So, T2 = 931 K
T1 v2

Process 2-3 is a constant volume process: P/T = constant.

P3 T 3 P3
= , Then : T3=T2 x
P2 T 2 P2

Have to determine P2
Process 1-2 is an adiabatic process, Pv  = constant.

P2 v1
Then, = ( ) So, P2 = 57.8 bar
P1 v 2

P3
Then, T3 = T2 x = 1112 K
P2

Process 4 − 5 is an adiabatic process, so,

T4 v5
= ( ) −1
T5 v4

Have to determine T5 and v4

Given that Q23 = Q34

122
 cv(T 3 − T 2) = cp (T 4 − T 3)
So, T 4 = 1241.4 K
Constant pressure process v/T = constant,
v4 T 4
= = 1.116
v3 T 3

T4 v5 v1 v 2
= ( ) −1 = ( x ) −1
T 5 v4 v2 v4

T 5 = 408 K
T5-T1
Then,  = 1- = 68.2%
2(T3-T2)

7.3. Mean Effective Pressure – MEP (Pm)

Especially for internal combustion engine cycle, we do not use work ratio but MEAN
EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, is important to differentiate one cycle with another. High MEP
shows that the system has a bigger cylinder and piston size. MEP is useful to differentiate
various reciprocating engines. It can be defined as a mean pressure when multiplied by the
swept volume has the same area enclosed in the cycle.

Consider an Otto cycle:

P 3

B C
MEP

2
4

1
v
A D
If area ABCD = 1234, then length of AB is MEP

Net work done, wn = area of ABCD = Pm (v1-v2)

123
Example 7.6

Below is the important information for a diesel cycle:

Heat supplied = 260 kJ/kg

Efficiency = 68.2 %

Compression ratio, rv = 18

Initial pressure, P1 = 1.01 bar

Initial temperatureT1 = 293 K

What is the mean effective pressure?

P 3
2

Pm
4

1 bar
1
v
v2 v1

 = wn/qsupplied

Work done: wn =  . qsupplied = (0.682)(260) = 177 kJ/kg

wn = Pm (v1-v2) = Pm v1 (1 - v2/v1)

wn = Pm (RT1/P1) (1 - 1/18)

So, Pm = 2.25 bar

124
 TUTORIAL 4 AIR CYCLE

1 What is the highest thermal efficiency for an engine operating between 800oC and 15oC.
(73.2%)

2 Two heat engines operate in series between hot reservoir at 527oC and cold reservoir at
17oC. If both of the engines have the same efficiency and if the first engine rejects heat at
about 400kJ/kg to the second engine, determine:
a) Temperature where heat is supplied to the second engine.
b) Heat taken from the hot reservoir.
c) Work done.
(209oC, 664 kJ, 264 kJ, 159.2kJ)

3 A Carnot cycle operates between 307oC and 17oC, maximum pressure is 62.4 bar and
minimum pressure is 1.04 bar. Determine thermal efficiency and work ratio.
(50%, 0.287)

4 A gas turbine cycle operates between maximum temperatures of 7600C and minimum
temperatures of 20oC with pressure ratio of 7:1. Determine thermal efficiency and work
ratio.
(42.7%, 0.503)

5 In an Otto cycle, maximum temperature is 1400oC and minimum temperature is 15oC.

Heat is supplied per kg air is 800kJ. Determine compression ratio and thermal efficiency.
Also determine high pressure to low pressure ratio.
(5.26:1, 48.6%, 30.5:1)

6 A four-cylinder petrol engine has a swept volume of 500cm3 and clearance volume of
60cm3 in each of the cylinder. Determine the thermal efficiency. If inlet conditions are 1
bar and 24oC and maximum temperature is 1400oC, determine mean effective pressure for
the cycle.
(59%,5.27bar)

7 Determine thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure for diesel cycle with
compression ratio of 15/1, maximum temperature 1650oC and minimum temperature
15oC. Maximum pressure is 45 bar.
(59.1%,8.39bar)

8 In a dual combustion cycle, maximum temperature is 2000oC and maximum pressure is 70

bar. Determine thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure when initial pressure is 1
bar and initial temperature is 17oC. Compression ratio is 18/1.
(63.6%,10.5)

125
7.4. Steam Cycle

7.4.1. Rankine Cycle

A Rankine cycle is also called a steam cycle that is use is a steam power plant. The figure below
shows a schematic diagram of a simple Rankine cycle that consists of a boiler, turbine,
condenser and a feed pump. The boiler is also called a steam generator. The boiler receives heat
externally and changes water into saturated steam at high pressure in a constant pressure heat
supply process. The high pressure steam enters a steam turbine where it expands to a lower
pressure in an adiabatic expansion process. The lower pressure wet steam is passed through a
condenser where heat is removed at constant pressure until the steam becomes saturated liquid or
water. The water is then pumped to the boiler pressure into the boiler via a feed pump. The
change in enthalpy is small to increase the liquid pressure.

Turbine
Boiler

4 2
Condenser
Pump
3

T-s diagram for steam plant cycle is as follows:

5 1

3 2

126
This cycle is called Simple Rankine cycle where the steam produced from the boiler is saturated
steam. All the components of the Rankine cycle are open system therefore steady flow energy
equation will be used to analyze the cycle.

The thermodynamic processes involved are based on steady flow energy equation:

1-2 Adiabatic expansion through a turbine w12 = - (h2-h1)

2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection through a condenser q23 = - (h3-h2)
3-4 Adiabatic compression through a pump w34 = - (h4-h3) = -vf3 (P4-P3)
4-1 Constant pressure heat supply in the boiler q41 = h1 - h4

w12-|w34| q 41− | q 23 |
Efficiency  = =
q41 q 41

|q23|
 = 1-
q 41

w12 − | w34 |
WorkRatio =
w12

Since the work done through a pump is small (w34 = small), so the work ratio is large.

Another steam plant performance criterion is how much steam in kg is required to produce 1 kJ
of energy. This criterion is called the Specific Steam Consumption (S.S.C.)

Specific Steam Consumption = 1 /wnet (kg/kJ)

Or Specific steam consumption = 3600/wnet (kg/kWh)

But, processes through the turbine and pumps are irreversible processes in the actual processes.
So, the Rankine cycle will involve isentropic efficiencies.

5 1

3 2

s
127
Example 7.6

A steam plant operates between boiler pressure at 40 bar and condenser pressure at 0.03 bar.
Determine efficiency, work ratio and S.S.C. for both cases below:

a) Simple Rankine cycle.

b) Rankine cycle with isentropic efficiency of 80% for expansion process in a turbine. The
isentropic efficiency of the pump is 100%.

Solution

a) For simple Rankine cycle case:

T 40 bar

5 1 0.03 bar

3 2

(i) From superheated Steam Table:

h1 = 2801.4 kJ/kg (hg at 40 bar)

s1= 6.0701kJ/kgK

s2= 6.0701 = sf +x sfg (at 0.03bar)

6.0701 = 0.3545 +x (8.2231)

x= 0.695

h2= hf + xhfg (at 0.03 bar)

128
 h2= 101.05 +x (2444.5)

h2 = 1800 kJ/kg

h3 = 101.05 kJ/kg (hf at 0.03 bar)

v3 = vf = 0.001 m3/kg

Work done on the pump is:

w34= -0.001 (40 - 0.03) = -4.0 kJ/kg (ignored if pump work is neglected)

w34 = - (h4-h3) = -4.0

h4 = h3+4.0 =101.05 +4 = 105.05 kJ/kg (h3=h4 is pump work is neglected)

Work done by the turbine:

w12 = h1 - h2 = 1001.4 kJ/kg

Heat supplied to the boiler:

q41 = h1 - h4 = (h1-h4)

= (h1-h4)

= (2801.4 – 105.05)

= 2696.35 kJ/kg ( if pump work is neglected 2700.35 kJ/kg)

Rankine cycle efficiency is:

R = (w34 + w12)/q41 = (-4.0 + 1001.4)/2696.35 = 37%

(if pump work is neglected R =37.08%)

Work ratio for Rankine cycle:

Work Ratio = (w34 +w12)/w12 = (1001.4-4) / 1001.4 = 0.996

(if pulp work is neglected Work ratio = 1)

Specific Steam Consumption is:

S.S.C. = 3600 / (-4.0 + 1001.4) = 3.61 kg/kW

129
 ( if pump work is neglected S.S.C = 3.59 kg/kWh)

Pump work is very small compared to the turbine work and is commonly neglected. Since the
efficiency, work ratio and the S.S.C are almost the same for the case where the pump work is
neglected.

b) For turbine with isentropic efficiency:

5 1

3 2i 2

Isentropic efficiency: i = (h1 - h2) / (h1 - h2i) = w12 / w12i = 0.8

So, w12 = 0.8 (1001.4) = 801.12 kJ/kg

Cycle efficiency is:

R = (801.12 - 4.2) / 2683.8 = 29.7 %

Cycle Work Ratio is:

Work Ratio = (801.12 - 4.2) / 801.12 = 0.995

Cycle Specific Steam Consumption is:

S.S.C. = 3600 / (801.12 - 4.2) = 4.52 kg/kWh

Compare to Carnot cycle at relevant temperatures:

Carnot Efficiency: c = 1 – (T2/T1) = 1- {(24.08+273)/(250.4+273)}

= 43.24%

130
The Carnot efficiency is the highest possible efficiency obtained in a steam cycle based on heat
supply at constant temperature in the boiler and heat rejection at constant temperature in a
condenser. The comparison with Carnot cycle gives the opportunity to engineers to modify the
Simple Rankine cycle to improves its efficiency.

7.4.2. Modified Rankine Cycle

Although work ratio for Carnot cycle is large, its efficiency is higher than the Rankine cycle. To
increase the efficiency, we have to make sure that area enclosed by cycle on the T-s diagram
must be as high as possible.

R = Wnet /Qsupplied

Based on First Law of Thermodynamics, Wnet = Qnet

Then, R = Qnet/Qsupplied

Qnet is area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram.

7.4.2.1 Increase Boiler Pressure

One of the methods to increase the net heat supplied is to increase the boiler pressure.

1’
5’

4’ 1
5

3 2i 2

131
Example 7.7

Use the data in example 7.6; determine efficiency when boiler pressure is at 100 bar.

w 34 + w 12 ( h1 − h 2 ) − vf ( P 4 − P 3 )
R = = = 41.1%
q41 h1 − h 2

The efficiency has increased from 37% to 41.1% when the boiler pressure is increased to 100
bar.

7.4.2.2. Superheated Steam

In the Rankine cycle with superheat, saturated steam from the boiler output is heated in a
superheater until it becomes superheated steam before entering the turbine.

w12

Superheater

q46 4 2

3
w34 q23

5 6

3 2

132
From the modification above, we can see that the work done by the turbine has increased. The
heat supply has also increased because steam has to be heated until it becomes superheated.
However, the increase in the work done by the turbine is larger than the increase in heat supply.

For the same power output, the plant that uses a superheater is smaller than plant that does not
use a superheater. Normally the saturated steam from the boiler is passed back to the furnace to
superheat the steam as shown below:

Boiler
6

The presence of water during the expansion process is not favorable because the water droplets
have different flow characteristic. This causes the turbine efficiency to decrease. Usually,
exhaust from the turbine has steam with dryness fraction not less than 0.9.

7.4.2.3. Reheat

Below is the steam plant schematic with superheater and reheater.

w78

Superheater 2 7

q61 q27 Reheater

q46 4

3
3
w34 q23

133
 T
1
7

5 6

4 2

3 8

Using Rankine cycle with reheater, higher pressure can be used and steam dryness fraction at
turbine exhaust can be increased. If compared with Rankine cycle with, the efficiency of a reheat
cycle increases just a little bit but difference in specific steam consumption is bigger.

7.4.2. Vapour Compression Cycle

Vapour compression cycle is a cycle that usually used in the refrigeration system and air-
conditioning. Fluids used are R134a, Freon R12, R22, Ammonia (NH3) and others. R134a table
is used similar to the steam table. These fluids are called refrigerant having a low boiling point
temperature.

A vapor compression cycle is used in a heat pump or a refrigerator which is a reverse of the
power cycle. The power cycle is usually represented by several processes in clockwise direction
whilst a vapor compression cycle has processes in an anti-clockwise direction.

Main objective in the refrigeration system is the extraction of heat (q41) from the environment or
a space to be refrigerated or cooled (not producing work).

The refrigerant is initially compressed via an adiabatic compression process in a compressor. The
superheated vapor at high pressure is condensed in a condenser via a constant pressure heat
rejection process to change the superheated vapor into liquid. The liquid refrigerant then is
expanded in throttle to reduce its pressure and as a result also reduces its temperature. The low
temperature and pressure saturated vapor enters an evaporator. Heat is extracted from the
environment or the space to be cooled and added to the evaporator. The process in the evaporator
is a constant pressure heat addition. As results the saturated vapor becomes dry saturated vapor
prior to compression process.

134
 q23

2
3 Condenser

Compressor
Throttle
e

Evaporator
4 1

q41

2
3

4 1

The vapor compression cycle is shown on the T-s diagram above. A process through a throttle is
an irreversible process. So, the line 3-4 is drawn with a dotted line.

135
Usually, evaporation process will continue until the steam becomes dry saturated steam. The
objective is to prevent the flow of the fluid from entering the compressor because it will be
mixed with the lubricant oil and will thus reduce the refrigerant in the system.

1
4

s
Process (4-1) is a heat extraction process. If area under line (4-1) is larger then the heat
extraction will increase. This can be achieved with sub cooling.

3’

1
4’ 4

s
Heat extraction q41 is called the Refrigerating Effect.

Performance of a cycle is normally called efficiency defined as

What we want
Efficiency =
What we pay for

In a vapour compression cycle, the measurement of performance of normally called Coefficient

of Performance (COP).

136
 𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟

What we want is the amount of heat extracted from a space to be cooled and added to the
evaporator that is the refrigerating effect. What we pay for is the compressor work. Hence

| q41 | h1 − h 4
COP = =
| w | h 2 − h1

Refrigerating effect: q41 = (h1 - h4) (kJ/kg)

Refrigerating capacity = Refrigerating effect x mass flow rate of refrigerant (kW)

The process may also go through a compressor having an isentropic efficiency. So, the T-s
diagram will look like this:

T 2

2i

1
4

s
P-h diagram below is a simpler and easier diagram to show the vapor compression cycle.

3 2

4 1

h 137
A P-h chart for each refrigerant is available so that a refrigeration cycle can easily be drawn on it
to determine the enthalpy values at each point on the cycle.

Example 7.7

Determine coefficient of performance for a vapour compression cycle that uses R134a.
Evaporator temperature is 4oC and condenser temperature is 34oC. The refrigerant enters the
compressor as dry saturated.

34oC 3

4oC 1
4

s
From the refrigerant table for R134a,

By using interpolation:

So, h1 = hg (@ 4oC) = 249.5 kJ/kg

Then, h3 = hf (@ 34oC) = 97.3 kJ/kg = h4

Also for entropy:

s1 = s2 = sg (@4oC) = 0.9169 kJ/kgK

Condenser Pressure = 0.8624 MPa

From superheated table,

138
 0.9169 − 0.9066
h2 = x(273.66 − 264.15) + 264.15 = 267.33
0.9374 − 0.9066

0.9169 − 0.9054
h2 = x(271.25 − 266.18) + 266.18 = 269.76
0.9217 − 0.9054

0.8624 − 0.8
h2 = x(269.76 − 267.33) + 267.33 = 268.85
0.9 − 0.8

h2 = 268.85kJ/kg

h1 − h4 249.5 − 97.3
COP = = = 7.86
h2 − h1 268.85 − 249.5

139
 TUTORIAL 5 – VAPOUR CYCLE
(RANKINE CYCLE AND VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE)

1. Steam supplied as of dry saturated steam at pressure of 4MPa to a turbine. The

condenser pressure is 3.5 kPa. Sketch the cycle on a T-S diagram. Determine:
a) Work ouput neglecting pump work
b) Work required for the pump.
c) Heat transferred to the water in the condenser and amount of cold water needed
through a condenser if increases of water temperature is assumed as 5.5 K.
d) Heat supplied
e) Cycle efficiency.
f) Specific Steam Consumption.
g) For same steam condition, determine efficiency and specific steam consumption
for Carnot cycle.

(983.1kJ/kg, 4kJ/kg, 1707.1kJ/kg, 2686kJ/kg, 36.6%, 3.67kg/kWh, 42.7%, 3.14kg/kWh)

2. Repeat the first question for steam at 4MPa and 3500C entering the turbine with the
condenser pressure of 3.5kPa.
(1125kJ, 4kJ, 1857kJ, 80.7kg, 2978kJ, 37.6%, 3.2kg/kWh)

3. Steam is supplied to a turbine at pressure of 4MP and temperature 350oC. It is

expanded in the first turbine until it becomes dry saturated steam. After that, it is
reheated to 350oC and expands through the second turbine. Condenser pressure is
3.5kPa. Determine output work and heat supplied per kg steam. Also determine
specific steam consumption and cycle efficiency.
(1290kJ, 3362kJ, 2.79kg/kWh, 38.4%)

4. From question 3, if the expansion process through a turbine has isentropic

efficiency of 84% for first turbine and 78% for second turbine, determine output
work and heat supplied per kg steam, thermal efficiency and specific steam
consumption. Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram.
(1026kJ, 3311kJ, 31.1%, 3.51kh/kWh)

5. A R134a refrigerator operates between temperature of 0.14 and 0.8 MPa. The mass
flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05kg/s determine

a. The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space

b. The power input
c. The rate of heat rejection to the environment
d. COP of the cycle.
( 7.13 kW,1.8 kW,8.93 kW, 3.96)

140