Culture, Identity and International Relations

Author(s): Rajen Harshe

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41, No. 37 (Sep. 16-22, 2006), pp. 3945+3947-
3951
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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 Perspectives

Culture, Identity and Culture, Civilisations

and East-West Encounters

International Relations
Culture as an aspect or cultural theories,
in general, seldom assumed prominenc
in analysing and interpreting internationa
relations because the term culture itself

This article explores the interrelationship between culture, has escaped precise definitional catego-
identity and international relations. After critiquing some ries. More often culture is a product of
man-made parts of the environment that
significant writings on this theme in the post-cold war context,
subsumes an ensemble of knowledge
it analyses liberal and Marxian modes of analysing hegemony systems, beliefs, traditions, languages, arts,
in contemporary international relations. It sheds light on the literatures coalescing into a collective
impact of macro-social identities such as race and the nation world view. More often, terms such as
civilisation and culture are also deployed
state in shaping the landscapes of international relations.
interchangeably [Majie 2002]. However,
The area of culture and international relations still appears civilisation subsumes cultures though all
nascent in scholarly writings. This critical gap in the literature cultural traditions may not necessarily lead
can be eventually overcome if scholars of international to the formation of a civilisation. The

relations studies creatively interact with scholars from civilisations in the past came into being
around rivers, seas and mountains. For
other social sciences where more sustained and systematic
instance, civilisations have flourished in
efforts have already been made to understand culture and the ancient period around rivers like the
the role of social identities. Nile, Ganges, and Yellow, regions along
the Aegean Sea and Mesopotamian
RAJEN HARSHE emotive impetus that stimulates their civilisation in west Asia registered their
formation is unquantifiable. And yet, conspicuous presence around the sea while
International relations are primarily cultural traditions involving identities, at a resilient civilisation of Tibet grew around
studied and interpreted with reference times even multiple identities, appear to the mountain ranges of the Himalayas.
to politico-diplomatic, economic and have dominated and shaped the ethos of Actually, civilisations in Asia such as that
commercial as also security oriented the major world civilisations across the of India and China have had long tradi-
realities that consistently shape them. centuries. tions due to the continuity in sustaining
Plausibly, the treaties and agreements As we shall note subsequently, the intellectual, spiritual, philosophical,
that states sign, bilaterally as well as popular as well as scholarly writings in cultural and artistic traditions.
multilaterally, the networks of trade and the IRS, especially in its post-cold war The processes of the formation of
commerce that they weave through the phase, concerning culture and international civilisations underwent a revolutionary
private and public sectors among them- relations have begun to acquire a fresh transformation with the onset of
selves, and the overall strategic goals space of debate in the IRS. In view of industrialisation in the west. Modern in-
they carve out, render obvious tools to this, I would venture to reflect on the dustrial civilisations of the west and their
pursue epistemic constructs under the theme of culture, identity and international continuous encounters with the oriental
umbrella of the diverse schools of thought relations. To begin with, I will try and world in the context of colonialism and
prevalent in international relations studies untangle the intertwined association imperialism nurtured an asymmetrical
(IRS).However, factors involving culture between culture, civilisations and inter- relationship of interdependence between
that inevitably shape international rela- national relations. Subsequently, I will the western world and countries from the
tions have yet to find their due space critique some of the dominant writings in orient. For instance, the trends unleashed
within the body of scholarly writings in the post-cold war world dealing with by modernity such as Enlightenment
IRS. Cultural factors, invariably, have culture and international relations and rationality, cultivation of scientific tem-
had their impact in evolving the trajec- proceed to reflect on the liberal and
per and promotion of industrial civilisations
tories of international relations [Mazarr Marxian ways of analysing hegemony touched
in the oriental world. Most of the
1996]. Such an impact appears obvious the current context of international rela- countries, ever since, have grappled to
while the relationships between macro- tions. Subsequently, I shall proceed to maintain their own balance between
social identities formed around nation, explore the impact of social identities traditions or indigenous ways of organising
race and ethnic groups are examined. formed on the basis of race and the nation societies while adapting themselves to the
Although cultural streams under different to further underscore the interrelationship phenomena of modernisation. Countries
circumstances are vibrant in influencing between culture, identity and international including China, Japan, Iran or India have
the nature of social identities, the very relations. struggled to absorb western modes of

Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006 3945

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thinking and live with their age old the ideological rivalries between the so- the Commonwealth of Independent States
civilisations. cialist camp, led by the former Soviet (CAS) that emerged after the disintegra-
Indeed, the core of industrial civilisation, Union, and the capitalist camp, led by the tion of the former Soviet Union in 1991,
like any other civilisation, has been shaped US, had almost set in motion a culturalhave chosen to develop themselves on
by a distinctly discernible cultural and paradigm of the so-called bipolar world capitalist lines. Also, even if China defines
value orientation. On the one hand, apartthat governed international relations. The its development strategy as market socia-
from building a public space for freedomrival ideologies of capitalism and socia- lism it has been broadly evolving a variant
and democracy, industrial civilisations oflism, respectively, aimed at organising their of capitalism in its development model.
the west that have rested essentially oneconomic, political and social organisations Certain features of capitalist forms of
materialism also generated scientific and ondiametrically opposite footings. While development such as private/corporate
well structured knowledge systems thatthe socialist camp valued the notionownership of of the means of production, the
laid claims to universality. And on theequality and an exploitation-free society, growth of wage labour, socialisation of the
other hand, such knowledge systems havethe capitalist camp valued liberty and free production process accompanied by pri-
come under severe scrutiny from the body enterprise. Thus the terms deployed by the vate appropriation of profits and-liberali-
of literature that has proliferated in the capitalist countries of the west and socia- sation in trade, investments and finance
form of post-structural and post-coloniallist countries of the east to bolster their have become common to most countries.
writings. In view of this, several questions credentials and undermine the credibilityHence, capitalism, with its regional and
beg answers. Can so-called modernity thenof their adversaries were pregnant with national variations, is setting the cultural
be perceived and adapted in multiple wayscuvtral meanings. pace of international relations by navigat-
and forms? Is the process of knowledge During the context of the cold war thereing them. Capitalism also is an agent of
building time and culture specific? These was a tendency among both the ideological globalisation or it could as well be argued
fundamental epistemic questions that stem camps to visualise international relations that the ongoing phase of globalisation is
from such encounters will continue to begand hence world politics through simplis-yet another phase in the history of the
for more satisfactory answers in the times tic binary opposites. The rival camps development of world capitalism. To put
ahead. However, it needs to be under- accused each other of being anti-demo-it simply, the world is getting even greater
scored that east-west encounters have had cratic, imperialist, and hegemonic on theexposure to a global consumerist culture
their indelible impact on human history.basis of socio-cultural values. Evidently, with the advent of market civilisation under
One extraordinarily visible global im-the political culture that enveloped thecapitalism. Moreover, culture has the
pact of the east-west encounters has been cold war politics forced all countries in thecapacity to design social and economic
the organisation of people under nation world to respond to the ideological terms structures and shape attitudes and world
states. The Westphalia Treaty that ushered of reference that had dominated the cold views. With the end of the cold war, it is
in the nation state as a form of social war. The group of non-aligned countriesalso in the domain of culture that the
organisation in 1648 has by now spread through mediation between ideologicallytriangular relationship between the state,
across the globe. In addition to the deve- adverse camps mitigated the intensity ofmarket and civil society is being constantly
loped industrialised countries of the west, the then ideological rivalry. In spite of theshaped.
post-colonial states in the east haveimplicit also clashes of cultures and civilisations
consciously promoted the state and nation- that were wedded to two opposite ideo-Cultural Dimensions
building processes. As a result, most oflogical
the standpoints, the politics of the cold of International Relations
transactions in international relations are
war was inevitably interpreted in conven-
conducted through the agency of sove- tional ways of understanding and analysing In fact, the realm of culture has acquired
power. This meant measuring the powerunprecedented importance in interpreting
reign nation states. Obviously, practically
all international as also regional organi- of any country on the basis of tangiblethe nature of international relations in
sations, in effect, operate through sove- industrial, financial, military, geopoliticalscholarly as well as popular writings.
reign nation states. Thus, if international and several other resources related assets. Indeed, scholars of eminence such as
relations are an ocean, sovereign nation That the ideological dimension of the cold Francis Fukuyama and Samuel P Hunting-
states are the vessels that steer the course. war had cultural underpinnings escaped ton have blazed a new trail in IRS by
Moreover. several complex patterns of the sufficient scholarly attention. However, drawing portraits of the possible trajecto-
relationships between states are governed the dimension of culture is finding some ries of international relations by analysing
by the actual as well as potential power space in scholarly studies after the end of the impact of cultural aspects. Both the
that states possess, in a given time and the cold war. authors have an uncanny capacity to carry
place, when the relations are set on the the essence of their writings at the popular
rails. Although nation states operate on the level. A few pertinent comments on their
Ascent of Capitalism in the
basis of their juridical power, cultural
Post-Cold War World writings, at this stage, are in order.
factors invisibly operate in the policy- Fukuyama's writings propounded his
making processes of all countries. The end of the cold war has brought an
famous thesis of the end of history when
end to the acute ideological rivalries
the former Soviet Union was undergoing
Cultural Factors in the Cold War between the two contesting camps. Atexistential
least strains and eventually disinte-
grated in 1991 [Fukuyama 1989, 1992].
for the time being, capitalism as a mode
In fact, culture of any epoch does set of production and a world system doesFukuyama's
not central argument was that
the tone of international relations. For have a formidable developmental alter-
there was no viable alternative to liberal
instance, in the context of the cold war, democracy
native [Harshe 2004]. All the countries of and capitalism. Further, a

Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006 3947

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substantial number of western countries Having got used to the idea of commu-[Majie 2002]. Obviously, while building
are liberal democracies and the rest of the nicating with ease with a wider and non-soft power no country can ignore hard
world, with variations, would be obliged professional readership, Huntington camepower.
to follow the same path in the years ahead. out with another popular work, namely, Unlike the liberal school, scholars in-
To put it simply, the ideological clashes Who Are We? [Huntington 2004], thatcluding Robert Cox (1993), Stephen Gill
that divided the world into two camps, in essentially deals with diverse streams of (1991) and Henk Overbeek (1993) have
the cold war phase, had lost their erstwhile migration and the winds of change they ventured to analyse the rise of US power
significance. This verdict on the futurebrought about in the process of constitut-by deploying the concept of hegemony as
course of the development of mankind ing America as a nation. The book isenunciated by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian
appeared attractive in the immediate after- insightful in several ways. However, one Marxist. Before dealing with their analysis
math of the so-called ascendancy of the insight about the transforming notion of of US power it would be essential to explain,
west and the disastrous debacle of the America as a nation deserves critical at- briefly, the Gramscian notion of hege-
socialist camp as well as ideology. tention. Huntington argues that techno- mony. In effect, Gramsci had used the
In contrast to Fukuyama, Samuel logical revolution of the 19th century notion of hegemony as an instrument to
Huntington came out initially with muchpromoted nationalisation of the American compare and understand state-civil society
more catchy arguments built around the elite while the rise of transnationalism ties in different countries including west-
clash of civilisations in Foreign Affairsof the late 20th century is promoting the ern liberal democracies and czarist Russia.
in 1993 [Huntington 1993]. Huntington process of denationalisation of theGramsci underscored the consensual na-
further elaborated and developed his ar-American elite. To put it simply, the ture of the rapport between states and civil
gument on the clash civilisations in theAmerican elite is in tune with the era of societies that strengthened liberal democ-
form of a controversial book [Huntingtonglobalisation while the other sections of racies in the west. However, Russia, under
1996]. In his view, it is not ideological the population have to hark back tothe czarist regimes, was a typical example
conflict but the conflict among diversenationalism to make their lives meaning-of a country where the state functioned
civilisations that will shape the destinyful and materially comfortable. Thus even with brute force without seeking any
of mankind. He perceived that the domi- the most powerful state such as the US at consent. In a word, hegemony inevitably
nating source of conflict was going to bethe moment is torn between the forces of involves complex mechanisms that incor-
cultural. While building a rather over transnationalisation and nationalism porate a potent blend of consent and
simplistic but powerful argument Hun-[Huntington: 265] coercion. When such a blend is harmoni-
tington endeavoured to demonstrate how ous, hegemony operates smoothly. When
the conflict dominated by cultural/ Liberal and Marxian Ways the ruling classes merely rely on coercion
civilisational clashes could effortlessly slide they, perhaps, establish a hegemonic order
of Analysing Hegemony
into the political space vacated by the and not hegemony. Hegemony as a notion
politics of the cold war. He was particu- Apart from these dominant, controver- evolves through a continuous reciprocity
larly concerned about the inevitable clashsial and widely read writings of Fukuyama of interactions between the dominant and
between the Islamic and western/Christian and Huntington, the notions of culture the and
dominated states in international rela-
civilisations. power have been quite effectively tions.inter-
In this context, a few arguments in connected in the scholarly writings ofInspired the by Gramsci' s conceptualisation
Edward Said's critique of Huntingtonliberals as well as Marxists of the Gramscian of hegemony, the school of Italian Marxism
deserve critical attention [Said 2003]. Saidpersuasion. Among the liberal scholars, widened the scope of hegemony by apply-
argued that with the end of the cold war,Joseph Nye has tried to evolve the concept ing it to the context of international rela-
the defence industry executives in the USof soft power in the global information tions.
ageBasing his analysis on certain stable
and the Pentagon were in search of a new[Nye 2004] The central elements that go
and durable elements of the US power, Gill
enemy to pursue their vocation and theinto the makings of soft power are longshed a different light on the way
(1991)
countries that were using political Islamdrawn out historical developmentsUSof a
hegemony operated in the early 1990s.
to attack US imperialism became natural country leading to evolution of a particularAccording to him, the structural ingredi-
candidates in this search. Indeed, the lack mode of thinking backed by distinct ents of American power such as security
of democratic culture and systems, coupledcultural traditions, scientific and tech- related complexes, technology, finance
with gross violation of human rights innological progress, and adaptability to and knowledge producing apparatuses
these countries facilitated the distinction changing circumstances. In this context, have been sound and durable, adding to
between the so-called "us and "them". a democratic culture, scientific progress US strength in world politics and en-
Moreover, Said asserted that the sources and political and social institutions in the dowing it to conceive a hegemonic role
of Huntington are journalistic and he has US have built the soft power of the US, for itself. The US intervention to topple
interpreted history with reckless distor- which has an enormous attracting and the Taliban led regime in Afghanistan after
tions built round lazy generalisations [Saidimitating force. Diverse information com- September 11, 2001 and its invasion of
2003:71]. In fact, the civilisations that munication technologies (ICT) that are Iraq in 2003 merely display outward
spread across several parts of the worldstimulating the phase of globalisation in symptoms of hegemonic goals. Any
absorbing within their mould multiple an information age do contribute sub- worthwhile study of the operational part
cultures, languages and states are seldom stantially in the making of soft power. of US hegemony would appear incomplete
static. They are neither monolithic nor Soft power is not tangible but it certainly without reference to the gradual rise of
homogenous. Islamic civilisation is no is not a mirage. It is dynamic, pervasive neoliberalism and the neoconservative
exception to this rule. and interdependent on hard power groups that have advised US foreign policy

3948 Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006

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establishments, especially under the In their university life in New York, a
scholars in IRS have yet not drawn from
Republican regimes. number of them came under the intellec- the insights, concepts and theories pertain-
tual influence of the then towering socialing to social identity from other social
sciences. This has been well demonstrated
scientists like Leo Strauss although Strauss
Neoconservatives: Genesis and
Growth himself was not a neoconservative [Frachonby Horowitz (2002) through a critical analy-
and Vernet 2004:64]. Due to the generalsis of most of the major research journals
With Reagan's advent to power in the intellectual ambience they provided for the
in the field during the past decade. Thus,
1980s the neoliberal ideas related to City University of New York, it came tostudies concerning social identities and
governance and economy acquired pre- as the Harvard of the poor. Sometheir impact on international relations still
be known
eminence in the US polity. To put of it the
sim- appear to be a barren field. Generally,
prominent neoconservatives include
ply, neoliberalism rested on rolling Irving
backKristol, William Kristol, Donald social identities are built round sameness
the role of the state from the publicRumsfeld,
sphere Robert Zoellick, James and continuity. Identities get crystallised
by promoting market forces. Reagan rose Patrick Monyhan, Richard Perle,
Woolsey, when the distinction between the "self'
to power in the aftermath of the USRichard defeat Armitage, Douglas Feith, Allan and "other" gets consciously aggravated.
in Vietnam as well as the events such as Bloom, Paul Wolfowitz and Dick Cheney. Macro social identities invariably get
ouster of US allies like the Shah of Iran In the Bush administration the neoconser- socially constructed around religion,
vatives have been enjoying paramount ethnicity,
and the military intervention of the former language, region, race and
importance. They have been influentialnationality. To analyse the impact of iden-
Soviet Union in Afghanistan, in the 1970s.
These events started the "new cold.war" ideologues in shaping and controlling tity in shaping international relations I will
and Reagan conceived the Soviet Union international regimes such as the Worldbriefly reflect on identities built around
as an "evil empire" and chose to oppose Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF)race and the nation state.
it by turning the world bipolar. In the and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
process, the neoliberals began cutting (CTBT). Race as International Identity
welfare expenditure and enhanced the share It could as well be argued that both the
of the budget going to military and security Democratic as well as Republican admin- Racial identities have consistently influ-
related areas. Thus, on one hand, the US istrations have projected US power quiteenced international relations since the onset
began to reassert its hegemony by regroup- conspicuously either by dominating theof imperialism due to the dominant and
ing its European allies and Japan, and on United Nations or through military alliancesdependent ties they entailed among the
the other, it began to cultivate allies in the such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organi-white races of the west and the rest of the
third world. Ostensibly, the US has for- sation (NATO). The prominent role that theworld. Imperialism did cause injustice and
mally promoted democratic regimes that US played in the UN military interventionpromoted all forms of racial inequalities.
are wedded to capitalism. However, expe- in Somalia and the NATO intervention in Practically all non-white races were vic-
dient and strategic considerations also Yugoslavia, in the 1990s, offer evidence of
tims of racial discrimination. However, no
governed the choices of allies when the US the same. The US administration, in gen-other race was insulted like the black races.
began to rally countries from the third eral, has opted to intervene in the internalThe black races were victims of the
world in its bid to contain the Soviet Union. affairs of different states through the so-institutionalised system of slavery. Since
Hence such networks of allies involved called "human rights diplomacy" [Majiethey were subjected to severe forms o
2002]. In its pursuit of promoting so-calledinjustice and domination, blacks all ove
diverse kinds of regimes, including dicta-
torial ones such as those as representeddemocratic
by norms of governance, the USthe world evolved a distinct psyche. In th
Pinochet in Chile, Mobutu in Zaire, Zia-has ventured to critique those regimes thatAfrican context, the writings of Frant
are allegedly violating human rights. TheFanon, Leopold Sedar Senghor and Georg
ul Haq in Pakistan as well as racist regimes
US led attack of NATO countries in Yu-
in apartheid South Africa and Zionist Israel. Padmore offer ample evidence of this
goslavia against the Milosevic regimeproposition.
It would be worthwhile to reflect briefly to Fanon had already discusse
on the antecedents of the neoconservatives stall ethnic cleansing in 1999 and the US how the colonial world constructs the
that have been enjoying a powerful pres- invasion of Iraq against the Saadam Hussein "white" and "black" races by building
ence in the current US administration. regime in 2003 fall in this category. What binary opposites through a Manichean
Ironically, most of the prominent neo- is more, the US has not spared countries world. The Manichean world often rests
conservatives of today came as migrants like China and India for their policies on in synonymy of the cause and effect. Thus,
to the US and studied in the City Univer-Tibet and Kashmir, respectively. Keeping if one is uncivilised then he/she has to be
this broad sketch of the role of culture and
sity of New York. Most of them were anti- black and if someone is black that person
notions of organising hegemony at the has to be uncivilised. Such rudimentary
Stalinist and followers of Trotsky [Frachon
and Vernet 2004]. They had a pathological
backdrop, I will now turn to the question and simplistic constructs that define at-
dislike for totalitarian regimes. As stu-
of identity and international relations. tributes of the ruling and ruled races in-
dents and later as professionals they per- variably lead to obvious as well as mute
ceived and visualised the US role as the forms of violence. Violence built around
Identities and
champion and promoter of democracies international Relations racial identity has been well explored by
across the world. For them, fighting any Fanon in his celebrated writings like The
form of totalitarian domination and pro-At the outset, it can be observed that Wretched of the Earth [Fanon 2001].
moting democratic regimes that respectresearch related to identity has, indeed, In contrast, Senghor reacted to imperio-
human rights ought to become a major flourished in contemporary literature racist powers by unleashing the concept
in sociology or psychology. However,
mission of US domestic and foreign policy. of negritude and launching the negritude

Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006 3949

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movement in the inter-war period. The biographies of the nation, the civic-
populations. The apartheid system, with
notion of negritude was a device to rebuild sanction from the Dutch Reformed Church,
territorial elements go into making the
the pre-colonial identity of the blacks, on had produced knowledge systems that
notions of citizenship. The notion of citizen-
the one hand, and highlight the qualities underlined the genetic inferiority of theship, in its turn, allows for the categorising
of the black races, on the other. The black races vis-a-vis the whites. As the of populations into citizens, refugees, mi-
movement ventured to demonstrate that white minority found it hard to contain grants,
the immigrants or tourists within the
the black races and people had a glorious emancipatory struggles, launched through defined borders of the state. In the history
the movements like the African National
past with flourishing civilisations.1 It also of nation states, there have been times
underscored the spiritual and humaneCongress (ANC), of the black and other where the establishment of the state pre-
aspects of the black races as against the deprived races, the state in South Africaceded the nation and. at times, the nation
materialist and individualist modes of became more repressive. It not merely too has preceded the establishment of the
existence of the industrialised western enhanced military expenditure but associ- state. While several states in sub-Saharan
societies. Furthermore, George Padmore ated the military with the decision-making Africa exemplify the former, a number of
in his famous work Pan-Africanismn processes
or in different bodies. The state west European states exemplify the latter.
Conlmunism vehemently pleaded with also sought and obtained military support Paradoxically, Pakistan and its evolution
all the black races to promote pan- from western powers like France, Germany, have posed a unique problem in the history
African movements because he suspected Italy and even the US [Harshe 1991]. As of the formation of nation states in 'the
that the communist movement that was contemporary world. Leaders like Jinnah
against this, anti-apartheid agitations were
supposed to be international was also being supported by the left and liberal conceived it as a separate nation of Mus-
dominated, primarily, by the white races groupings in the west, the former Soviet lims under the two-nation theory and hence
[Padmore 1972]. Union and east European countries as well the subcontinent was divided and Pakistan
as
In addition to the above set of writings, wide range of third world came into being in 1947. This theory
countries.
Kate Manzo's (1992) insights on racial virtually cracked up with the birth of
Since the militarised state under the apart-
heid regime functioned without any form
identity, built through a Foucouldian per- Bangladesh in 1971. Currently, Pakistan
of consent of the majority, it was inher-
spective, offer a fairly imaginative inter- is construed as a state in the process of
ently weak. In the realm of society, the
pretation of race as an international iden- building a nation. If an attempt is made
tity and its impact on the diverse regionsnetworks of power shaped by racial iden- to go further into the set of complexities
of the world. Manzo has constructed the tities had permeated deep enough to build of the formation of nation states, it could
interrelationship between black and a viable agitation with proper imefnationalas well be argued that the former Yugo-
white races through the example of the support against the apartheid system. slavia In and theSoviet Union had-functioned
Republic of South Africa as it functioned1994, the apartheid system was formally as multinational states. Indeed, even India
under racism and the apartheid system replaced in South Africa by a non-racial may fall in this category.
(1948-94). Manzo ventures to unveil therainbow coalition formed under the ANC. If the notion of the nation state is analysed
However, the case study of apartheid Southagainst the backdrop of the post-cold war
nature of global power relations. He treats
different networks of power as subjects Africa incontestably demonstrated thedevelopments in Europe, several complexi-
whose struggles and even conflictssignificance of race as an international ties could be perceived in the very being
evolve around identities. The capacityidentity
of and its role in shaping global powerof the nation state. While analysing such
aggravating the distinctions between the relations. Like race, the nation state too hasdevelopments Pierre Hassner (1997), in
been shaping the contours of international one of his seminal essays, had posed a
"self' and "other" in any form of identity
politics contributes to the strengtheningrelations in its diverse phases. question whether the nation state is ob-
and consolidation of identities. Thus, over solete or obstinate? Such questions
the long-term historical span of a 100 years,
Nuances in the Changing sprang up against two self-contradictory
the racial identities of blacks and whites developments that are affecting the status
Identity of the Nation State
have been socially constructed. The con- of the nation states within contemporary
stitution of such identities has been It is certainly not easy to come to gripsEurope.
with complex nuances that the term nation On the one hand, transnational and non-
characterised by their changing meanings,
which sprang up from changing reflects in diverse parts of the world.territorial forces related to trade, finance,
social
state
practices. In practice, it is easier to define and iden-migration and terrorist/mafia activities that
In the context of colonialism, whites tify than the state. The state involves le-are operating under globalisation have been
were viewed as civilised Christians while gitimate or illegitimate physical force, astimulating the broadening and deepening
blacks were dubbed as barbaric. The two well defined territory with a populationof the processes of European integration
identities clashed profoundly within the residing within its bounds, sovereignty andthrough organisations like the European
context of the Republic of South Africa government. The state is a juridical con-Union (EU). The process of integration
under successive apartheid regimes. The cept and comes into existence when othervisualised by leaders like Monnet and
white minority rule had disenfranchised states offer de jure recognition to it. theorised by scholars such as Haas in the
However, the nation is a psycho-cultural1960s is well under way. It is also demo-
the entire black population that constituted
an overwhelming majority in South reality. Various combinations of ethnic-cratic in terms of the domestic political
Africa. They had also cornered 87 per centnational and civic-territorial elements are systems of the member countries as well
interwoven into the collective memory ofas in the decision-making process of the
of the land. higher echelons of bureaucracy
and the military and maintained a continu-the people to construct a nation, socially.EU as a regional organisation. In fact, it
ous surveillance of the agitating blackIf the ethnic-national realities portray is the cosmopolitan character of the EU

3950 Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006

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that is inspiring transnational debates about of the state as well as the nation and, hence,Materialism and International Relations.
the future of a common European currency the nation state itself. Cambridge University Press, Cambride,
such as the euro as well as common
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Fanon, Frantz (2001): The Wretched of the Earth,
European citizenship and defence and
Conclusion Penguin Modern Classics. London.
security policy. The unprecedented devel- Frachon Alain and Daniel Vernet (2004):
opments in ICT, coupled with an attempt It may not be easy to figure out L'Amerique
the Messirtaiqe, Seuil, Paris.
Fukuyama, Francis (1989): 'The End of History?'
invisible impact of non-quantifiable
to integrate the European elite through cul-
The National Interest, Summer.
diverse forms of economic, financial, tural factors that, in effect, affect and
- (1992): The End of History and the Last Man,
educational, technological and cultural constantly shape the very landscapes Avon,ofNew York.
cooperation have certainly transformed the international relations. In certainGill,
ways, Stephen (199 ): American Hegemony and the
mindset of the young generation in EUcold war politics revolved around two forms Trilateral Comniission, Cambridge University
countries. At the same time, countries like of political culture, stimulated by Press,
two
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Harshe, Rajen (1991): 'Dismantling Apartheid:
France are still keen on guarding French diverse ideologies. Also, culture manifested
Problems and Prospects', Economic and
citizenship within the EU. Is western in its pervasive sense can be a major Political Weekly, Vol 26, No 8, February 23,
Europe then witnessing a tussle betweencementing force in the process oforganising
pp 438-42.
the democrats, who aspire to build a and building the hegemony of any -power- (2004): 'Globalisation and Changing Notions/
Practices of Boundaries in International
borderless Europe, and republicans who ful state such as the US. Even though
Relations', Interpreting Globalisation
are protecting citizenship within a single scholars in IRS have adopted a slightly
Perspectives in International Relations,
country as Hassner (1997) has pointed complacent attitude towards realities like Indian Council of Social Science Research
out? In a word, the developments in the formation of social identities that and Rawat Publishers, New Delhi, Jaipur,
western Europe offer evidence of the ex- essentially stem from a cultural back-
pp 76-95.
istential strain the nation state has been Hassner, Pierre (1997): 'Obstinate and Obsolete:
ground, a beginning has already been made
Non-Territorial Transnational Forces
undergoing. to assess the impact of social identities as
versus the European Territorial Stat
In contrast to the developments in western well as diverse cultural factors in shapingTunander Ola, Pavel Baev and Einagel
Europe, in eastern Europe ethno-national international relations. Since the area of Victoria Ingrid (eds), Geopolitics in Post Wall
forces are on the rise. The link that was
culture and international relations appearsEurope Security, Territory and Identity, Sage,
being established during the phase ofnascent in the scholarly writings of IRS, London, pp 45-58.
it will take some time before scholars are Horowitz, Michael (2002): 'Research Report on
modernity between the territory, state and
the Use of Identity Concept in International
nation is being reworked out in east able to place it in the overall scholarlyRelations', Harvard University Project.
Europe. Moreover, after the Treaty of literature within the discipline by giving Huntington, Samuel P (1993): 'The Clash of
Westphalia of 1648, the countries of it a critical attention. Evidently, the analy- Civilisations', Foreign Affairs, Summer,
western Europe proceeded to initiate,sis of identities built around race and the Vol 72, No 3, pp 22-28.
-(1996): Clashes of Civilisations and the Remaking
nation state, in this paper, has merely of World Order, Simon and Schuster,
consolidate and justify the modern nation
state. However, the nation state was not illustrated a tip of the iceberg. Eventually, New York.
embraced and nurtured with similar pas- this critical gap in the literature can be- (2004): Who Are We? Penguin, New Delhi.
sions in eastern Europe. Most of the states overcome if scholars of IRS creatively Majie, Zhu (2002): 'Contemporary Culture and
and nationalities of these regions were interact with scholars from other social International Relations' in Yu Xintian (ed),
Cultural Inpact on International Relations,
located on the tri-junction of three major science disciplines, where more sustained Chinese Philosophical Studies, Asia, Series
empires: the Austro-Hungarian, the Otto- and systematic efforts have already been III, Vol 20, www.culturalpolicy.org.
man and the Russian/Soviet empire. Their made to understand culture and the role - (2002): 'The Role of Soft Power in International
territories were also absorbed by such of social identities. 3i1 Relations', Yun Xintian (ed).
empires which, in their turn, provided them Manzo, Kate (1992): 'Global Power and South
African Politcs: Foucauldian Analysis',
with common currency, security and po- Email: rgharshe@gmail.com
Alternatives, Vol 17, No 1, pp 23-66.
litical stability. Since the early 1990s, Mazarr, Michael J (1996): 'Culture in International
however, developments including the break Note Relations', Washington Quarterly, Spring http:/
up of former Yugoslavia and the fall of www.globalpolicy.org.
[This article is a revised version of a talk I gaveNye, Jr, Joseph S (2004): Power in the Global
the Soviet Union, have unleashed forces
as keynote address in an international seminar on Information Age, Routledge, New York.
of ethno-nationalism in the entire region'Culture, Identities and International Relations'
Overbeek, Henk (ed) (1993): Structuring
that are determined to carve out sovereign organised by the Centre of Russian and East Hegemony in the Global Political Economy:
territorial space for their independentand Central European Studies to celebrate the The Rise of Transnational Liberalism in the
50th anniversary of the School of International 1980s, Routledge, London, New York.
existence. If the history of the formation
Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
of the nation state is sketched onto the Padmore, George (1972): Pan-Africanism or
in March 2006.]
Communism, Doubleday and Company,
landscapes of Europe, it would reveal that
1 Leopold Sedar Senghor was a poet, statesman New York.
different peoples and spaces are living inand among the most influential writers in theSaid, Edward (2003): 'The Clash of Definitions'
different time zones. Furthermore, if anyFrancophone Africa. For a critical overview in Qureshi Emran and Michael A Sells (eds),
attempt is made to grapple with the for-of Senghor's ideas see Watts (2002). The New Crusades Constructing the Muslim
mation of nation states in the so-called Enemy, Oxford University Press. Oxford,
References
third world. the interrelationship between pp 68-87.
Watts, Richard (2002): 'Senghor's Prefaces
the state and nation would surely display
Cox, Robert (1993): 'Gramsci, Hegemony and between the Colonial and Postcolonial',
kaleidoscopic complexities that keep de- International Relations: An Essay in Method' Research in Africanl Literatures, Vol 33, No 4.
fying acceptable definitions of the concept in Gill Stephen (ed), Gramsci, Historical Winter, pp 76-87.

Economic and Political Weekly September 16, 2006 3951

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