Microwave Engineering (2171001) Date:

EXPERIMENT-1
Aim: To study Monochrome transmitter and receiver

Theory: Monochrome TV has 2 circuits: 1. Transmitter circuit 2. Receiver circuit

Transmitter circuit:

The explanation of different stages of Monochrome TV Transmitter are as follows:-

Television Camera: It converts the light or picture signals in the electrical signals.
Video Amplifier: It amplifies the video signal that is in form of electrical signals.
AM Modulating Amplifier : It modulates the Amplitude of the modulating signal.
Scanning and Synchronizing: It scans the pixels in the frame of a given picture
that has been divided into.
Crystal Oscillator: It generates the carrier frequency, which is passed through the
RF amplifier and power amplifier to obtain the carrier wave of desired frequency
and energy.
Modulator: It combines the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Microphone: It converts the sound into the electric signals.
Audio Amplifier: It amplifies the sound signal that is in the form of the electric
signals.

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Scanning and Synchronizing: It scans the pixels in the frame of a given picture that
has been divided into.
FM Modulating Amplifier: It modulates the Frequency of sound modulating signal.
FM Sound Transmitter: It transmits the FM sound signal to the combining
network.
Combining network: It combines the AM picture signal and the FM sound signal.
Antenna: It transmits the modulated signal to receiver over a large distance.
FM Modulating Amplifier: It modulates the Frequency of sound modulating signal.
FM Sound Transmitter: It transmits the FM sound signal to the combining
network.

Receiver circuit :

The explanation of different stages of Monochrome TV Receiver are as follows:-

Antenna: The main function of the antenna is to accept the electromagnetic waves
coming from the television transmitter. All TV antennas are mounted in horizontal
position for better reception and favorable Signal to Noise Ratio.
RF Tuner: It consists of RF amplifier, Mixer and Local oscillator. The function of this
section is to amplify both the sound and picture signals picked up by the antenna
and to convert the carrier frequencies and their associated bands into the
intermediate frequencies and their Sidebands.

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IF Amplifier Section: It is also called Video IF amplifier since composite video

signal is the envelope of the modulated picture IF signal. All the gain and selectivity
of the receiver is provided by the IF section. The main function of this section is to
amplify modulated IF signal over its entire bandwidth
Sound IF section: The Picture and sound signals on their respective carriers are
amplified together in the IIF section. The Inter carrier beat signals are amplified by
the IF amplifier and then given to FM detector.
Audio Amplifier: The output of FM detector is amplified by the Audio amplifier
stage.
Loud Speaker: The loudspeaker converts the electrical output of audio amplifier
Stage into sound signal.
Video Pre-amplifier: The output of IF section is given to video detector stage to
recover the composite video signal and to transform the sound signal to lower
carrier frequency.
Video Amplifier: Video amplifier provides gain of 40 to 60 to the output of video
detector having 2 volts magnitude. The response of the amplifier should be ideally
flat from dc to 5 MHz to include all essential video components.
Sync Separator circuit: This circuit separates horizontal and vertical sync pulses
from Composite video signal.
Picture tube circuitry: The output from the video amplifier can be fed either at the
cathode or control grid of the picture tube. The cathode drive is preferred and grid is
left free to receive retrace blanking pulses to ensure that no retrace lines are seen on
the screen.
Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-2
Aim: To study the Directional response of micro phone.

Theory: Microphones are designed to have a specific directional response pattern, described
by a so-called „polar diagram‟. The polar diagram is a form of two-dimensional
contour map, showing the magnitude of the microphone‟s output at different angles
of incidence of a sound wave. The distance of the polar plot from the centre of the
graph (considered as the position of the microphone diaphragm) is usually calibrated
in decibels, with a nominal 0 dB being marked for the response at zero degrees at 1
kHz. The further the plot is from the centre, the greater the output of the microphone
at that angle.
There are four typical patterns commonly found in microphone design.
1. Omni directional Pattern
2. Bidirectional Pattern
3. Cardioids Pattern
4. Hypercardioid Pattern

1. Omni directional Pattern:

Ideally, an Omni directional or „Omni‟ microphone picks up sound equally from all
directions. The Omni polar response is shown in Figure 1 , and is achieved by leaving
the microphone diaphragm open at the front, but completely enclosing it at the rear,
so that it becomes a simple pressure transducer, responding only to the change of air
pressure caused by the sound waves. This works extremely well at low and mid
frequencies, but at high frequencies the dimensions of the microphone capsule itself
begin to be comparable with the wavelength of the sound waves, and a shadowing
effect causes high frequencies to be picked up rather less well to the rear and sides of
the microphone. A pressure increase also results for high-frequency sounds from the
front. Coupled with this is the possibility for cancelations to arise when a high-
frequency wave, whose wavelength is comparable with the diaphragm diameter, is
incident from the side of the diaphragm. In such a case positive and negative peaks of
the wave may result in opposing forces on the diaphragm.

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Figure 1: Idealized polar diagram of an Omni directional microphone

Figure 2 shows the polar response plot which can be expected from a real Omni
directional microphone with a capsule half an inch (13 mm) in diameter. It is
perfectly Omni directional up to around 2 kHz, but then it begins to lose sensitivity at
the rear; at 3 kHz its sensitivity at 180° will typically be 6 dB down compared with
lower frequencies. Above 8 kHz, the 180° response could be as much as 15 dB down,
and the response at 90° and 270° could show perhaps a 10 dB loss. As a consequence,
sounds which are being picked up significantly off axis from the microphone will be
reproduced with considerable treble loss, and will sound dull. It is at its best on axis
and up to 45° either side of the front of the microphone.

Figure 2: Typical polar diagram of an Omni directional Microphone at a

number of frequencies.

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High-quality Omni directional microphones are characterized by their wide, smooth

frequency response extending both to the lowest bass frequencies and the high
treble with minimum resonances or coloration. This is due to the fact that they are
basically very simple in design, being just a capsule which is open at the front and
completely enclosed at the rear. (In fact a very small opening is provided to the rear
of the diaphragm in order to compensate for overall changes in atmospheric
pressure which would otherwise distort the diaphragm.) The small tie-clip
microphones which one sees in television work are usually Omni directional
electrets types which are capable of very good performance. The smaller the
dimensions of the microphone, the better the polar response at high frequencies,
and microphones such as these have quarter-inch diaphragms which maintain a
very good Omni directional response right up to 10 kHz.

Omni microphones are usually the most immune to handling and wind noise of all
the polar patterns, since they are only sensitive to absolute sound pressure. Patterns
such as figure-eight (especially ribbons) and cardioid , described below, are much
more susceptible to handling and wind noise than omnis because they are sensitive
to the large pressure difference created across the capsule by low-frequency
movements such as those caused by wind or unwanted diaphragm motion. A
pressure-gradient microphone‟s mechanical impedance (the Diaphragm’s resistance
to motion) is always lower at LF than that of a pressure (Omni) microphone, and
thus it is more susceptible to unwanted LF disturbances.
2. Bidirectional Pattern:
The figure-eight or bidirectional polar response is shown in Figure 3. Such a
microphone has an output proportional to the mathematical cosine of the angle of
incidence. One can quickly draw a figure-eight plot on a piece of graph paper, using a
protractor and a set of cosine tables or pocket calculator. Cos 0° = 1, showing a
maximum response on the forward axis (this will be termed the 0 dB reference
point). Cos 90°= 0, so at 90° off axis no sound is picked up. Cos 180° is −1, so the
output produced by a sound which is picked up by the rear lobe of the microphone
will be 180° out of phase compared with an identical sound picked up by the front
lobe. The phase is indicated by the + and – signs on the polar diagram. At 45° off axis,
the output of the microphone is 3 dB down (cos 45° represents 0.707 or 1/√2 times
the maximum output) compared with the on axis output.

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Figure 3: Idealized polar diagram of a figure-eight microphone.

Traditionally the ribbon microphone has sported a figure-eight polar response, and
the ribbon has been left completely open both to the front and to the rear. Such a
diaphragm operates on the pressure- gradient principle, responding to the difference
in pressure between the front and the rear of the microphone. Consider a sound
reaching the microphone from a direction 90° off axis to it. The sound pressure will
be of equal magnitude on both sides of the diaphragm and so no movement will take
place, giving no output. When a sound arrives from the 0° direction a phase difference
arises between the front and rear of the ribbon, due to the small additional distance
travelled by the wave. The resulting difference in pressure produces movement of the
diaphragm and an output results.
At very low frequencies, wavelengths are very long and therefore the phase difference
between front and rear of the microphone is very small, causing a gradual reduction
in output as the frequency gets lower. In ribbon microphones this is compensated for
by putting the low-frequency resonance of the ribbon to good use, using it to prop up
the bass response. Single-diaphragm capacitor microphone designs which have a
figure-eight polar response do not have this option, since the diaphragm resonance is
at a very high frequency, and a gradual roll-off in the bass can be expected unless
other means such as electronic frequency correction in the microphone design have
been employed. Double-diaphragm switchable types which have a figure- eight
capability achieve this by combining a pair of back-to-back cardioids (see next
section) that are mutually out of phase.

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Like the Omni, the figure-eight can give very clear uncoloured reproduction. The
polar response tends to be very uniform at all frequencies, except for a slight
narrowing above 10 kHz or so, but it is worth noting that a ribbon mic has a rather
better polar response athigh frequencies in the horizontal plane than in the vertical
plane, due to the fact that the ribbon is long and thin. A high-frequency sound
coming from a direction somewhat above the plane of the microphone will suffer
partial cancelation, since at frequencies where the wavelength begins to be
comparable with the length of the ribbon the wave arrives partially out of phase at
the lower portion compared with the upper portion, therefore reducing the effective
acoustical drive of the ribbon compared with mid frequencies. Ribbon figure-eight
microphones should therefore be orientated either upright or upside-down with
their stems vertical so as to obtain the best polar response in the horizontal plane,
vertical polar response usually being less important.Although the figure-eight picks
up sound equally to the front and to the rear, it must be remembered that the rear
pickup is out of phase with the front, and so correct orientation of the mic is
required.

3. Cardioids Pattern:
The cardioid pattern is described mathematically as 1 + cos θ, where θ is the angle of
incidence of the sound. Since the omni has a response of 1 (equal all round) and the
figure-eight has a response represented by cos θ, the cardioid may be considered
theoretically as a product of these two responses. Figure 4a illustrates its shape.
Figure 4b shows an omni and a figure-eight superimposed, and one can see that
adding the two produces the cardioid shape: at 0°, both polar responses are of equal
amplitude and phase, and so they reinforce each other, giving a total output which is
actually twice that of either separately. At 180°, however, the two are of equal
amplitude but opposite phase, and so complete cancelation occurs and there is no
output. At 90° there is no output from the figure-eight, but just the contribution from
the omni, so the cardioid response is 6 dB down at 90°. It is 3 dB down at 65° off axis.

Figure 4: (a) Idealized polar diagram of a cardioid microphone. (b) A cardioid

microphone can be seen to be the mathematical equivalent of an omni and a figure-
eight response added together.

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One or two early microphone designs actually housed a figure-eight and an omni
together in the same casing, electrically combining their outputs to give a resulting
cardioid response. This gave a rather bulky mic, and also the two diaphragms could
not be placed close enough together to produce a good cardioid response at higher
frequencies due to the fact that at these frequencies the wavelength of sound became
comparable with the distance between the diaphragms. The designs did, however,
obtain a cardioid from first principles. The BBC type 4033 was one such example.
The cardioid response is now obtained by leaving the diaphragm open at the front,
but introducing various acoustic labyrinths at the rear which cause sound to reach
the back of the diaphragm in various combinations of phase and amplitude to
produce a resultant cardioid response. This is difficult to achieve at all frequencies
simultaneously, and Figure 5 illustrates the polar pattern of a typical cardioid mic
with a three-quarter-inch diaphragm. As can be seen, at mid frequencies the polar
response is very good. At low frequencies it tends to degenerate towards omni, and
at very high frequencies it becomes rather more directional than is desirable. Sound
arriving from, say, 45° off axis will be reproduced with treble loss, and sounds
arriving from the rear will not be completely attenuated, the low frequencies being
picked up quite uniformly.

Figure 5 : Typical polar diagram of a cardioid microphone at low, middle and high
frequencies.

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The above example is very typical of moving-coil cardioids, and they are in fact very
useful for vocalists due to the narrow pickup at high frequencies helping to exclude
off-axis sounds, and also the relative lack of pressure- gradient component at the bass
end helping to combat bass tip-up. High-quality capacitor cardioids with half-inch
diaphragms achieve a rather more ideal cardioid response. Owing to the presence of
acoustic labyrinths, coloration of the sound is rather more likely, and it is not unusual
to find that a relatively cheap electrets omni will sound better than a fairly expensive
cardioid.

4. Hypercardioid Pattern
The hypercardioid, sometimes called „cottage loaf‟ because of its shape, is shown in
Figure 6. It is described mathematically by the formula 0.5 + cos θ, i.e. it is a
combination of an omni attenuated by 6 dB, and a figure-eight. Its response is in
between the cardioid and figure-eight patterns, having a relatively small rear lobe
which is out of phase with the front lobe. Its sensitivity is 3 dB down at 55° off axis.
Like the cardioid, the polar response is obtained by introducing acoustic labyrinths to
the rear of the diaphragm. Because of the large pressure gradient component it too is
fairly susceptible to bass tip-up. Practical examples of hypercardioid microphones
tend to have polar responses which are tolerably close to the ideal. The hypercardioid
has the highest direct-to-reverberant ratio of the patterns described, which means
that the ratio between the level of on-axis sound and the level of reflected sounds
picked up from other angles is very high, and so it is good for excluding unwanted
sounds such as excessive room ambience or unwanted noise.

Figure 6 :Idealized diagram of a hypercardioid microphone.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-3
Aim: To study the frequency response of Microphone.

Theory: Frequency response refers to the way a microphone responds to different

frequencies. It is a characteristic of all microphones that some frequencies are
exaggerated and others are attenuated (reduced). For example, a frequency response
which favours high frequencies means that the resulting audio output will sound
more trebly than the original sound.
Frequency Response Charts:

A microphone's frequency response pattern is shown using a chart like the one below
and referred to as a frequency response curve. The x axis shows frequency in Hertz,
the y axis shows response in decibels. A higher value means that frequency will be
exaggerated, a lower value means the frequency is attenuated. In this example,
frequencies around 5 - kHz are boosted while frequencies above 10kHz and below
100Hz are attenuated. This is a typical response curve for a vocal microphone.

Which Response Curve is best?

An ideal "flat" frequency response means that the microphone is equally sensitive to
all frequencies. In this case, no frequencies would be exaggerated or reduced (the
chart above would show a flat line), resulting in a more accurate representation of the
original sound. We therefore say that a flat frequency response produces the purest
audio.

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In the real world a perfectly flat response is not possible and even the best "flat
response" microphones have some deviation.
More importantly, it should be noted that a flat frequency response is not always the
most desirable option. In many cases a tailored frequency response is more useful.
For example, a response pattern designed to emphasise the frequencies in a human
voice would be well suited to picking up speech in an environment with lots of low-
frequency background noise. The main thing is to avoid response patterns which
emphasise the wrong frequencies. For example, a vocal mic is a poor choice for
picking up the low frequencies of a bass drum.
Frequency Response Ranges:
You will often see frequency response quoted as a range between two figures. This is a
simple (or perhaps "simplistic") way to see which frequencies a microphone is
capable of capturing effectively. For example, a microphone which is said to have a
frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz can reproduce all frequencies within this
range. Frequencies outside this range will be reproduced to a much lesser extent or
not at all.
This specification makes no mention of the response curve, or how successfully the
various frequencies will be reproduced. Like many specifications, it should be taken
as a guide only.
Condenser vs Dynamic:
Condenser microphones generally have flatter frequency responses than dynamic. All
other things being equal, this would usually mean that a condenser is more desirable
if accurate sound is a prime consideration.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-4
Aim: To study the Directional Response of Loudspeaker.

Theory: The simplest possible radiating source is a point source, sometimes called a simple
source. An ideal point source is an infinitesimally small point radiating sound. It may
be easier to imagine a tiny pulsating sphere, uniformly increasing and decreasing in
diameter, sending out sound waves in all directions equally, and independent of
frequency.
Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as
being composed of combinations of such simple point sources.
The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not the same as for a single
source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the sources, the
position relative to them from which the listener hears the combination, and the
frequency of the sound involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple
combinations of sources are easily solved; others are not.
One simple combination is two simple sources separated by a distance and vibrating
out of phase, one miniature sphere expanding while the other is contracting. The pair
is known as a double, or dipole, and the radiation of this combination is similar to
that of a very small dynamic loudspeaker operating without a baffle.
The directivity of a dipole is a figure 8 shape with maximum output along a vector
that connects the two sources and minimums to the sides when the observing point is
equidistant from the two sources, where the sums of the positive and negative waves
cancel each other. While most drivers are dipoles, depending on the enclosure to
which they are attached, they may radiate as monopoles, dipoles (or bipoles).
If mounted on a finite baffle, and these out of phase waves are allowed to interact,
dipole peaks and nulls in the frequency response result. When the rear radiation is
absorbed or trapped in a box, the diaphragm becomes a monopole radiator. Bipolar
speakers, made by mounting in-phase monopoles (both moving out of or into the box
in unison) on opposite sides of a box, are a method of approaching omnidirectional
radiation patterns.

Polar plots of a four-driver industrial columnar public address loudspeaker taken at

six frequencies. Note how the pattern is nearly omnidirectional at low frequencies,
converging to a wide fan-shaped pattern at 1 kHz, then separating into lobes and
getting weaker at higher frequencies.

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In real life, individual drivers are complex 3D shapes such as cones and domes, and
they are placed on a baffle for various reasons. A mathematical expression for the
directivity of a complex shape, based on modelling combinations of point sources, is
usually not possible, but in the far field, the directivity of a loudspeaker with a
circular diaphragm is close to that of a flat circular piston, so it can be used as an
illustrative simplification for discussion.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-5
Aim: To study the frequency response of loudspeaker.

Theory: Frequency Response:

Of all the loudspeaker specifications, the frequency response is the easiest one to
take out of context. The frequency response is used to describe the audible
frequency range that a loudspeaker can reproduce. Audio frequencies are measured
in Hertz (Hz) and the theoretical range of human hearing is generally regarded as
being from about 20 Hz (the very lowest bass tones) through 20 kHz (the very
highest treble notes). It may seem logical to presume that a loudspeaker capable of
reproducing all or more than the audible frequency range would be best.

A frequency response plot is generated by using a calibrated microphone placed

directly in front of the speakers. The measurements are typically made in an
anechoic chamber (a room with no reflective surfaces). A sample frequency vs.
amplitude plot is shown in figure 1. The frequency response plot can be used to
show how strongly a loudspeaker reproduces sound across the frequency range. The
curve will be higher on the plot at frequencies where the loudspeaker system plays
louder, and lower at frequencies where the speaker is not as loud. Typically a
loudspeaker will have variations from 3 to 30 dB, often dropping off very rapidly at
very low bass and very high frequencies.

Ideally a perfect frequency response plot would look like a flat line across the entire
frequency range. A frequency response plot that is predominately flat will generally
reproduce all of the musical tones at the same level. A flat response plot is generally
good, indicating that the loudspeaker reproduces sound accurately. But since
inevitably the response will not be flat for any speaker, another positive
characteristic to look for is a smooth response curve between the amplitude
variations. A smooth response curve will literally sound more smooth and natural.
You will want to avoid plots that show rapid swings in amplitude across a short span
of frequency.

The frequency response plot however does not show the critical third dimension:
time. Examining plots that consider time will give us a visual indication of how a
loudspeaker responds to a dynamic impulse. For example, consider a loud thump
from a kick drum. When attempting to reproduce this thump the loudspeaker should

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start instantly and stop the very instant the kick drum stops making sound.

If the bass speaker continues to resonate and make sound after the thump has
stopped, the loudspeaker is not accurately reproducing the thump by colouring the
original sound. The lower portion of figure 2 shows a typical measured impulse
response. The plot shows that some sound persists after the impulse input has
stopped (i.e. the speakers resonate and “ring” after the impulse).

A Loudspeaker‟s Frequency Response Chart (or a frequency vs. amplitude plot).

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-6
Aim: To Study Composite Video Signal.

Theory: Composite video signal consists of a camera signal corresponding to thedesired

picture information, blanking pulses to make the retrace invisible, and
synchronizing pulses to synchronize the transmitter and receiver scanning.

A horizontal synchronizing (sync) pulse is needed at the end of each active line
period whereas a vertical sync pulse is required after each field is scanned. The
amplitude of both horizontal and vertical sync pulses is kept the same to obtain
higher efficiency of picture signal transmission but their duration (width) is chosen
to be different for separating them at the receiver. Since sync pulses are needed
consecutively and not simultaneously with the picture signal, these are sent on a
time division basis and thus form a part of the composite video signal.
Composite Signal Construction:
The composite video signal is constructed with 3 basic elements:
- Luminance Information from DC to 5.5MHz (B&W Detail)
- Chrominance Information modulated onto a carrier (at 3.58MHz or
4.43MHz)
- Synchronization Information (Horizontal and Vertical Sync)
The three analog elements of a composite video signal carry all the information
necessary to display a two dimensional picture on a cathode ray tube (CRT)
television.
The luminance signal carries the black and white parts of the picture. This
component of the composite video signal requires the most bandwidth (typically to
5MHz), and signal integrity, to convey sharp and clear images. Edge information,
brightness, and contrast of the image are entirely contained in the luminance
portion of the signal.
Until 1947 the broadcast video signal was only black and white. To maintain
compatibility with the installed equipment of the time, color or chrominance
information was added to the luminance signal to create the color composite signal
as we know it today.
The chrominance information is quadrature modulated onto the luminance
information. The chrominance is interleaved into the video signal bandwidth
between luminance spectra. The chrominance modulation scheme utilizes an I, Q (U,
V for PAL) coordinate system where hue and saturation is in vector format.

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A camera sensor captures light in Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) format. The RGB signal
is converted into Y (luminance signal) and I, Q (Color Difference signal) format along
with the synchronization information. The I, Q (commonly referred to as C) color
information occupies a smaller bandwidth than the Y signal. C bandwidths typically
range from 0.6MHz to 1.3MHz. The chrominance signal is modulated onto a carrier.
The carrier resides at 3.58MHz for NTSC signals and 4.43MHz for PAL signals.
The chroma information must be separated out of the video signal to demodulate it
to baseband. This is difficult because luminance information that resides from 2MHz
to 5MHz cannot be differentiated from chroma information. Several techniques have
been tried over the years to improve separating Y and C, each increasing in
complexity and performance.
The synchronization information is also imbedded in the composite video signal and
occupies precious amplitude range of the video signal. Horizontal Sync, Vertical Sync
also know as Vertical retrace) and the Color Reference Bursts are embedded in the
composite waveform.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-7
Aim: To study public address system and its components.

Theory: It is and electronic system in which sound is first converted into electrical signal by a
microphone. The electrical audio signals are amplified processed and feed to
another transducer, the loudspeaker, which converts the audio signal into sound
waves. The block diagram is shown below.
Block
Diagram:

Microphone: It picks up sound waves and converts them into electric variations
called audio signals. Generally, amplifiers have provision of two or more microphone
and in addition, an auxiliary input for tape/record player.
Mixer: The output of mic is fed to mixer stage. The function of the mixer stage is
effectively isolate different channels from each other before feeding to main
amplifier. It can be either a built in unit or a separate unit.
Voltage amplifiers: It further amplifies the output of the mixer.

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Processing Circuits: This circuit has “MASTER GAIN CONTROL” and

“TONECONTROL” such as bass, treble.
Driver Amplifier: It gives voltage amplification to the signal to such an extent that
feed to the next stage; the internal resistance of the stage is reduced. This it drives
the power amplifier to give power.
Power Amplifier: It gives desired amplification to the signal. It uses the push-pull
type complementary circuit to even out harmonics from the output and the
transformer core doesn’t get saturated. The output of the power amplifier is
connected to the loud-speakers to the impedance matching network.
Loudspeakers: It converts electrical signals into audio signals with the help of
membrane.
Requirements of public Address systems: The following precautions should be
taken to install the PA Systems
Acoustic Feedback: Sound from loudspeaker should not reach the microphone
andcauses positive feedback system so that the amplifier gets overloaded and gets
burned.
It should be ensured that number and wattage of loudspeaker is sufficient to handle
maximum output of the power amplifier
Distribution of sound intensity: Loudness of a sound is contained in low notes
andintelligibility in high notes as high notes suffer greater attenuation with
distance low nodes intelligibility suffers the farther distance. PA systems should
take cognizance of this fact and hence should be uniformly distributed amongst the
audience.
This means instead of one or two powerful loudspeakers near the stage alone audio
power should be distributed between several loudspeakers to spread it right up to
the farthest point
It should be ensured that number and wattage of loudspeaker is sufficient to handle
maximum output of the power amplifier
Reverberation: In reverberating medium, the intelligibility is poor due to the
overlapping of successive waves.PA Systems should throw additional power in
those areas the sound gets submerged in the echoes. The problem of reverberating
hall can be solved by locating several small loud speakers at various points in the
auditorium rather than using the single speaker.
Orientation of Loudspeaker: To make the best use of the power in the PA
Systems, Loudspeakers should be direction oriented in such a way that it is directed
towards the audience and reflection from the walls do not take place.

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Ambient Noise: When ambient noise is high as in world cup or a fish market, the
PA systems should boost high frequency to restore high notes. In high frequency
part of the noise spectrum, the attenuation is high. So the amplification should be
high.
Dynamic Range Limitation: The amplifier of a good PA system is equipped with
level constant when input level exceeds certain predetermined value. This
provision takes cares of Speaker’s draw backs.
Selection of Microphones: Microphones for a PA system should be preferably be
cardioids type so that they neither pick up reflected sound nor the sound from
loudspeakers. For dramas where speaker may have to speak a distance from the
microphone sharply directive microphone for example a vertical column of
unidirectional microphones should be used to pick up more sound power.
Sense of direction and Source of Sound: Loudspeakers should be so placed that
sound appears to be coming from the direction of Source. Human ears perceive the
direction from the first sound received. Hence small speakers must be so placed as
to give the correct direction to the listeners and the volume for loudspeakers can be
used at further distances.
Phase delay: Sound from nearest loudspeaker may be heard along with sound
from loudspeaker with time difference. A delayed sounds in pairs the intelligibility
when delay is 45ms or more. This delay corresponds to about 16m. Hence
loudspeaker should not be located 16m apart. 10m separation is considered quit
good.
Matching: Matching of total number of loudspeaker impedance with output
impedance of amplifier is necessary for maximum transfer of energy from amplifier
to loudspeaker. Hence series parallel combination of loudspeaker should be such to
ensure maximum power transfer.
Grounding: Chassis and shields of equipment and coaxial cable s should be
properly earthed through water pipe.
Amplifier power: P.A. system gives amplified sound. So that it is comfortably
audible to the audience at distance. The output power of amplifier may be a few
watts for class lectures or small gathering to a few hundred watts for large public
meeting. The power of amplifier can be distributed uniformly by spacing several
loudspeakers.

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Choice of loudspeakers: The loudspeakers chosen should be able to withstand the

output power of the amplifier. Suppose we have 100w amplifier and loudspeaker is
25w each we must have at least 4 loudspeakers. When high fidelity is required,
speaker columns containing woofers may be used.
Closed ring connection of loudspeakers: For better reliability loudspeaker leads
should from a closed ring as shown in fig. If the lead is broken at any point it will
not make any loudspeaker inoperative.
AC hum: Microphone leads can pick up hum from A.C. main wires. Hence
microphone leads should be as possible. If long leads are unavoidable precaution
should be taken to run the microphone leads parallel to a.c. leads. Impedance of
microphone, leads and amplifier input should be matched to each other to set best
results.
Placements of microphones: Placements of microphones should be made in such
a way that they give total coverage for all sources of program e sound and at same
time not respond to unwanted sound. Also if path difference between microphones
is ʎ/2 for sound from particular source it will cause cancellation of signal in the
amplifier at least to one particular frequency and will affect the fidelity.
RF Pick up: Due to poor grounding cold or dry solder joints or defective RF by-pass
capacitors, local radio broadcasts stations and RF transmissions are picked up and
defected by pass capacitor at input terminals of the amplifier.
Presence not to be felt: An ideal PA system is one in which everyone among the
audience can hear the programmed comfortably without becoming aware that the
amplifiers are in use. This is not always possible but PA equipment should be as
unobtrusive as possible without sacrificing intelligibility. This aspect should be kept
in mind when permanent installation is being done at the time of construction of
multipurpose auditorium.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-8
Aim: To study the Colour TV Transmitter and Receiver.

Theory: Transmitter:
The fundamental aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its
natural limits, along with the sound associated with the scene being televised.
Essentially then, a TV system is an extension of the science of radio communication
with the additional complexity that besides sound the picture details are also to be
transmitted.

In most television systems, as also in the C.C.I.R. 625 line monochrome system
adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal
frequency modulated before transmission. The carrier frequencies are suitably
spaced and the modulated outputs radiated through a common antenna. Thus each
broadcasting station can have its own carrier frequency and the receiver can then be
tuned to select any desired station

The basic television transmitter block diagram is shown in figure,

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Basic television transmitter:

Picture tube ,Light ,Loudspeaker ,Audio, amplifier ,FM ,Sound ,demodulator ,Sound
IF ,amplifier ,Receiver ,antenna ,Common IF amplifiers ,RF tuner Video detector,
Video amplifier ,Scanning and synchronizing circuits.
It can be broadly sub divided into two separate section , viz, one that generates an
electronic signal (called video signal ) corresponding to the actual picture and then
uses this video signal to modulate an RF carrier so as to be applied to the
transmitting antenna for transmission ,other that generates an electronic signal
( called as audio signal) containing sound information and then uses this signal to
modulate another RF carrier and then applied to the transmitting antenna for
transmission .However only one antenna is used for transmission of the video as
well as audio signals. Thus these modulated signals have to be combined together in
some appropriate network.
Video Amplifier:
In addition there are other accessories also. For instance, video as well as audio
signals have to be amplified to the desired degree before they modulate their
respective RF carriers. This function is performed by video and audio amplifiers, the
block picture signal transmitter and audio signal transmitter is shown in figure.

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It may consist modulators as essential component. Video signal transmitter employs

an AM transmitter as amplitude – modulation is used for video signals where as
audio signal transmitter employs. FM modulator as frequency modulation is used for
sound information.
Scanning And Synchronizing Circuits:
Scanning circuits are used to mike the electron beam scan the actual picture to
produce the corresponding video signals . The scanning by electron beam is in the
receiver too. The beam scans the picture tube to reproduce the original picture from
the video signal and this scanning at the receiver must be matched properly to the
scanning at the transmitter .It is for this reason that synchronizing circuits are used
at the transmitter as well as receiver.The important block has already been
discussed individually in the preceding sections, that makes understanding of the
diagram shown here.The block diagram can be broadly divided into two sections
,viz, an amplitude modulated transmitter and a frequency modulated transmitter
.Former is used for video modulation whereas later is used for modulation .
Master Oscillator:
Master oscillator in both generates a sub multiple of carrier and then drives
harmonic generators ( frequency multipliers ) to achieve correct value carrier.
Harmonic generators are nothing but class C tuned amplifiers whose output tuned
circuits is tuned to some harmonic of the input signals . In actual practice master
oscillator and harmonic generator are scrated or isolated by buffer stage of the
harmonic generator on the oscillator output.
Amplitude Modulator:
The carrier is then fed to an amplitude modulator in video transmitter and a
frequency modulator in audio transmitter .Into –the modulator, the modulation
signal is also fed with proper amplitude. Since low – level modulation is employed,
the modulating signal is amplified by linear amplifiers up –to the desired degree
required for transmission. Video and audio signals on separate carriers are then
combined together so as to be fed to the transmitting antenna as on signal.
RF Amplifier:
A television transmitter essentially consists of a video modulator and an audio
modulator. In video modulator, the video signal amplitude modulates RF carrier
whereas an audio signal frequency modulates another RF carrier in audio
modulator.
Combining Network:
The modulated signals are combined in a combining network before they are
applied to common transmitting aerial system. A master oscillator is any LC
oscillator that gives a highly frequency stable operation

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Audio And Video Amplifiers:

Video signal is generated by television camera viewing the scene to be televised
whereas the audio signal is produced by a microphone. However, in practice, there
may be a number of televisions. Cameras viewing the scene and a number of
microphones picking up sound.These video and audio signals are amplified in video
and audio amplifiers respectively prior to modulation.
Final Stage:
Multi-cavity Klystron is the most commonly used device for final stage of
amplification. A multi-cavity Klystron is capable of generating, powers of the order
of 20KW or so with only 2W to 5W input. An automatic frequency control (AFC)
arrangement is used in conjunction with the master oscillators that generate the
carriers to keep their output frequency extremely stable.
Reactance Tube Modulator:
Reactance tube modulators are the commonly used FM modulators. Modern FM
modulators ,however ,the employ varactor diodes as the reactance producing
devices , A sync pulse generator generates horizontal and vertical synchronizing
pulse which serve the purpose of locking line and field generators at the receiver to
correct frequency .

Receiver:

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Tuner Amplifier:
The Tuners used in colour TV are VHF/UHF type, now a days hyper band and super
band tuners are used for cable channel reception.
Varactor tuning is done by frequency synthesis technique or Phase Locked
Loop(PLL) method. Figure shows the block diagram of colour TV receiver.
RF Amplifier:
The RF requirement in colour TV is more critical than monochrome TV receiver.
Output of tuner is given to Pre IF amplifier, which amplifies IF signal.
SAW Filter:
In VIF section, SAW filter is used to get desired wave shaping and complete IF band
pass response. In design of SAW filters, two inter digital electrodes mounted on
piezo electric substrate. AFT control is design to maintain VIF 38.9 MHZ for its
correct value. The 1st and 2nd VIF stages are AGC controlled.
Sound IF Amplifier And FM Detector:
The sound IF detector is fed from output of 2nd VIF amplifier. The output of 3rd VIF
stage feeds to video detector. 33.4MHz trap circuit (by pass filter) prevents passage
of SIF & its side band to final IF amplifier. This prevents generation of strong dot
patterning rate.

In sound section, SIF diode detector is used where heterodyning process is done and
inter carrier frequency 5.5 MHz is obtained. SIF trap is used for select wanted
frequency.

SIF amplifier is used to permit passage of only the inter carrier sound signal. The
amplified SIF signal is processed through limiter cum FM detector in same way as
monochrome TV receiver.

FM detector is differential peak type or PLL type circuit. Audio power amplifier is
used for final amplification of sound. The tone controlis used there for bass and
treble. Volume control is used for set amplitude of sound.

Video Detector:
The output from power amplifier is given to loud speaker of IV receiver. From 3rd
video IF amplifier ,signal is given to video detector which employs diode as rectifier
and filter circuit which grounds unwanted high frequency components. 5.5MHz filter
is used to remove sound signal.

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Video Buffer Amplifier:

The luminance signal is increased by 1st Video amplifier which operates as a
grounded emitter. 2ndvideo amplifier is emitter follower.3rd, 4th and 5thvideo
amplifier constitutes luminance channels, where the contrast and brightness control
is provided. To prevent colour sub carrier frequency 4.43 MHZ, trap circuit is
inserted at the input of luminance channel.

DC clamp circuit is used to restore dc signals. Contrast control is used to vary

amplitude of video signal that feeds into cathode of the picture tube.

Delay Line:
The use of delay line ensures time co-incidence of chrominance signals. Comb filter
is used to select frequencies that are to be passed 'without affect of bandwidth of the
signal.

The function of the colour decoder is to recover three colour signals from composite
colour signal. The decoder is used to perform two functions, first Synchronous
detection of quadrature modulated sub carrier, second to obtain R,G,B by matrixing
the detected colour difference signals with Y signals.

The output of 2nd video amplifier fed to the three stage chroma band pass amplifier.
The first stage is tuned to accept the chrominance signal. Delayed and suitably
shaped line sync pulses are fed at the base of this amplifier transistor which is often
connected as an emitter follower.

The next stage is tuned amplifier having bandwidth of nearly 2 MHZ around 4.43
MHZ. This stage is also used as vestigial side band correction when unequal colour
channel bandwidth is present.

The gain of band pass amplifier is controlled by ACC circuit to obtain a nearly
constant output voltage. A saturation control is also used in band pass amplifier.
Chroma Decoder:
The last stage is design to feed chroma signal to the two demodulator circuit. Last
chroma band pass amplifier is also known as delay line driver because it feeds signal
to demodulators through the delay line network. The other circuit is called color
killer which in turn is controlled by a 7.8 KHZ tuned amplifier and IDENT circuits.

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During reception of any colour transmission,7 .8 KHZ switching rate signal for (R
—Y) is available at the APC (Automatic Phase Control] circuit of the reference
oscillator. The 0° shift is given to (B-Y) demodulator and A 90° shift is given to (R—
Y) demodulator. Then get (G-Y) and apply R-Y, B-Y, G-Y to drive amplifiers and after
mixed with Y signal, amplified R, G, B is given to cathodes of picture tube.

Sync separator is used to separate the sync pulses from CVD (Composite Video
signal). It is used to maintain 50 HZ for vertical oscillator and l5625HZ for horizontal
oscillator for faithful reproduction of picture.SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) is
used in TV receiver for higher efficiency, operating on lower voltage, miniature in
size and constant output

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-9
Aim: To study basic principle of Picture tubes

Theory: Monochrome picture tube:

The picture tube is a special form of cathode ray tube, the face plate of which serves
as a screen of the television receiver. The various parts of a monochrome picture
tube are shown in Fig. The cathode ray tube (CRT) is housed in a bell-shaped glass
enclosure. A filament heats a cathode that emits electrons. The negatively charged
electrons are attracted and accelerated by positive-bias voltages on the elements in
an electron gun assembly. The electron gun also focuses the electrons into narrow
beam.
A control grid that is made negative with respect to the cathode, controls the
intensity of the electron beam and brightness of the spot it makes. The beam is
accelerated towards the screen by a very high voltage applied to an internal metallic
coating called aquadag. The face or front of the picture tube is coated internally with
a phosphor,that glows and produces white light, when it is struck by the electron
beam.

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Around the neck of the picture tube is a structure of magnetic coils called the
deflecting yoke. The horizontal and vertical current linear saw tooth waves
generated by the sweep and synchronising circuits are applied to the yoke coils. This
produces the magnetic field inside the tube that influences the position of the
electron beam. When the electrons flow, a magnetic field is produced around the
conductor through which the current flows. In a CRT, the electron beam is moved or
deflected by the magnetic field produced by the deflection coils in the yoke. Thus the
electron beam is swept across the face of the picture tube.
As the beam is being swept across the face of the tube to trace out the scene, the
intensity of the electron beam is varied by the luminance or Y signal. The Y signal is
applied to the cathode or in some cases to the control grid. The control grid is an
element in the electron gun that is negatively biased with respect to the cathode. By
varying the grid voltage, the beam can be made weaker or stronger, thereby varying
the intensity of the light spot produced by the beam, when it strikes the phosphor.
Any shade of grey from white to black can be reproduced.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-10
Aim: To study basic principle of and types of Camera tubes.

Theory: TV Camera Tubes:

TV Camera Tubes: Camera is the first and basic equipment in a TV. The input to a
camera is the light from the picture or scene to be televised and output obtained
from camera is the electrical pulses corresponding to the information contained in
picture.

The TV Camera is just analogous to human eye. The basic principle of all TV cameras
is based on the fact the each picture of all TV Cameras is based on the fact the each
picture may be assumed to be composed of small elements with different light
intensity. The camera picks up each element and by transducing action convertsit
into “electrical signal” proportional to its brightness there is a photosensitive layer
called target or image plate in each camera which performs this job. At the same
time simultaneous, pick up of this information is also necessary for this purpose.
There is an electron gun (which produces an electron beam) which scans the image
plate at a fast speed. Thus opto-electric conversion as well as pick-up of the signal
takes place simultaneously and at a fast speed.

The image-orthicon, vidicon and plumbicon are some important electronic scan
camera tubes which find wide applications these days.
1. Image Orthicon:
It is a sensitive tube and is capable of handling a wide range of light values and
contrast. In a single envelope, it includes three sections:
(a)Image Section: This section includes:
1. A photo sensitive surface, called photo cathode, operated at a very large
negative potential.
2. A target plate which is a thin plate of glass of low resistivity. Thickness is less
than 0.0002 in.
3. A screen located very close to target plate and has about 500,000 openings
per square inch.
When the optical image is focused on the photo cathode, photoelectrons, in
proportion to the amount of light impinging, are emitted. Most of the photoelectrons
pass through the screen and hit the target plate.

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As the photoelectrons are accelerated to several hundred electron volts, they

liberate several secondary electrons from the target plate surface, and are then
collected by the nearby-screen which is at a small positive potential. The emission of
secondary electrons from target plate leaves a distribution of positive charge on its
surface. The low resistivity of target plate resists the lateral charge flow on its
surface and thus the image charge pattern, formed on the plate, is truly restored as
such. Since the plate is thin, this charge pattern also appears on the other side (away
from screen) of the plate.
(b) Scanning Section:
The other side of the pattern is now scanned by a beam of low velocity electrons
generated by an electron gun. The beam is deflected on the plate in vertical and
horizontal directions and enables the electron beam to scan the whole plate. This
beam gives up the number of electrons required to neutralize the positive charge at
that point and thus the returning electron beam varies in magnitude in accordance
with the brightness variation of the image.

It should be noted here that since the target portion affected by the white portion of
the image will be positively charged and hence the electron beam has to give up
large number of electrons to neutralize the positive charge at that point, i.e., the
intensity of returning electron beam is much reduced and the video signal
developed across the output resistor for this part will be small. It, therefore,
concludes that the brightest part of image are transmitted as the signals of low
amplitude which is very advantageous in avoiding the effect of strong noise at the
receiver.
(c) Electron Multiplier Section:
An electron multiplier is located within the pick-up tube for amplifying the electron
density variation in the returning beam.

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Merits and Demerits:

1. It has high Sensitivity.
2. The S/N ratio is better and its typical value is 30 dB.
3. Its spectral response is close to eyes.
4. The ratio of signal current to illumination os gamma and it varies from
unity at low light to 0.5 at high light levels.
5. It produces no lag.
6. Size of image orthicon is bulky in nature.
7. Its operation is elaborate.
8. It is very costly camera tube and life time of this camera tube is nearly 1500
to 6000 hrs.
2. Vidicon camera tube

Vidicon camera is a television camera which converts the light energy into electrical
energy. It functions on the principle of photo conductivity, where the resistance of
target material decreases when exposed to light.

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Construction:
The Vidicon consists of a glass envelope with an optically flat face plate (Fig). A
photosensitive, target plate is available on the inner side of the face plate. The target
plate has two layers. To the front, facing the face plate, is a thin layer of tin oxide.
This is transparent to light but electrically conductive. The other side of the target
plate is coated with a semiconductor, photosensitive antimony trisulphide. The tin
oxide layer is connected to a power supply of 50V.
Grid-1 is the electron gun, consisting a cathode and a control grid. The emitted
electrons are accelerated by Grid-2. The accelerated electrons are focussed on the
photo conductive layer by Grid-3. Vertical and Horizontal deflecting coils, placed
around the tube are used to deflect the electron beam for scanning the target.
Working:
The light from a scene is focussed on the target. Light passes through the face plate
and tin oxide, incident on the photo conductive layer. Due to the variations in the
light intensity of the scene, the resistance of the photo conductive layer varies. The
emitted electrons from antimony trisulphide reach the positive tin oxide layer. So,
each point on the photo conductive layer acquires positive charge. Hence, a charge
image that corresponds to the incident optical image is produced. As the electron
beam from the gun is incident on the charge image, drop in voltage takes place. As a
result, a varying current is produced. This current produces the video-signal output
of the camera.
3. Scanning and synchronising
A still picture is fundamentally an arrangement of many dark and light areas. Each
small area of light or shade is called a picture element. All the elements contain the
visual information in the scene. If they are transmitted and reproduced in the same
degree of light or shade as original and in proper position, the picture will be
reproduced.
In order to produce video signal for all the elements in the picture, it is scanned by
the electron beam, one element at a time, in sequential order. The scanning is done
in the same way as a written page is read to cover all the words in one line and all
lines on the page. Hence, scanning is the process by which an electron beam spot is
made to move across a rectangular area, so as to cover it completely. This
rectangular area may be the target surface in a television camera or the screen of a
picture tube in a television receiver.

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The scene is scanned rapidly both in the horizontal and vertical directions
simultaneously. This provides sufficient number of complete pictures or frames per
second to give the illusion of continuous motion. In most of the television systems,
the frame repetition rate (scanning frequency) is 25 per second.
For scanning the picture elements, saw tooth potentials can be used. Saw tooth
potentials are produced by using a unijunction transistor and a R-C network. Saw
tooth potentials are applied to horizontal and vertical deflector plates in a TV
camera. When the saw tooth potential is applied to the horizontal plates called line
synchronising pulse, the electron beam at A travels along a slanting line AB by the
voltage variation of OM and reaches the point B (Fig a and b). From B, the scanning
spot travels along a line BC by the voltage variation MN. In order that no picture
should be scanned during the return journey (i.e. the beam from the right horizontal
end to the beginning of the next line), a blanking pulse, which is a high negative
potential, is applied to the control grid of electron gun during the duration of the
return journey. This prevents the emission of electrons from electron gun. Then the
electron beam starts to scan the next line and the process gets repeated till the
whole picture is scanned. On reaching the right bottom corner, the scanning spot
quickly moves up to the top left corner by the application of saw tooth potential to
the vertical deflector plates, called frame synchronising pulse. Thus for scanning the
picture, the three synchronising pulses are used. These synchronising pulses along
with the output of the TV camera are modulated on an ultra high frequency carrier
and transmitted. The accompanying sound is frequency modulated and transmitted
via the same antenna.

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Interlaced scanning:
In India, the frame repetition rate has been standardised at 25 frames per second. This
repetition rate is enough to cause an illusion of continuity. But, the brightness of one frame
blends (mix) smoothly into the next, through this time when the screen is blanked between
successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light, that is very annoying to the
observer, when the screen becomes alternatively bright and dark. To eliminate this flicker,
each frame is scanned twice.
In this scanning, the total number lines are divided into two groups called fields. During the
presentation of the first field, only the odd numbered lines are scanned, while during the
second field all the even numbered lines are scanned. Half way along the bottom of the first
field, the vertical retrace returns the scanning beam to the top of the image and completes
the unfinished lines. (i.e) The remaining even numbered lines are then scanned during
second field. This method of scanning is known as interlaced scanning. In the 625 line TV
system, for successful interlaced scanning, the 625 lines of each frame or picture are divided
into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternatively to cover the entire picture area.
The principle of interlaced scanning is shown in Fig .
Hence, with the interlaced scanning the flicker effect is eliminated without increasing the
speed of scanning, which in turn does not need any increase in channel bandwidth.

4.Plumbicon:
The construction of a plumbicon camera tube is similar to that of a standard vidicon
except for the target material. The plumbicon has a new type of photo-conductive
target, i.e., lead oxide of the form PbO. The figure below shows the constructional
features of a plumbicon camera.

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Operation:
The operation of a plumbicon camera tube can be best explained from the diagram.
Initially, when there is no light input, the PIN diode is reverse biased due to a
positive potential appearing on SnO2coating (n-type) and p-type stabilized at a
potential slightly below the cathode due to negatively charged scanning beam. This
results in a very small output current which is almost negligible. This is the greatest
advantage of a plumbicon camera tube especially when used with color systems.
The photo electronic conversion is almost similar to that of a standard vidicon
except for the method of discharging each storage element. In standard vidicon each
element acted as a leaky capacitor with leakage resistance decreasing with more
light. Here when light falls on the target, the diode becomes forward biased upon the
extent depending upon light intensity. The forward bias on each diode results from
the photo excitation of the pure PbO and doped PbO junction. Thus the target
behaves as a capacitor in series with PIN diode.
Merits and Demerits:
1. In plumbicons, the uniluminated or the dark current is negligible and also it
is temperature independent.
2. It has got high sensitivity and a high signal to noise ratio.
3. Resolution is good but not as good as that of a vidicon.
4. Operational gamma is unity.
5. It is compact and exhibits simplicity of operation.
6. It is free of spurious signals.
7. Susceptibility to damage by over loads is not as severe as it is in vidicons.
8. There are some forms of PbO which have spectral limitations.

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-11
Aim: To study the pattern generator.

Theory: A pattern generator produces audio/video signals, direct and with the RF
modulation on the allocated T.V. channel frequencies for alignment testing and
securing of T.V. receivers. The output signals are designed to simple pattern.
1. Check board Pattern
2. Horizontal Bars
3. Vertical Bars
4. Check board Pattern at one corner
5. Cross hatched
6. Dot Pattern
7. Pure White Pattern
Working:
The pattern generator contains two stable chains of multi vibrators, dividers and
pulse shaping circuits one below the line frequency to produce a series of horizontal
bars and the other above 15625HZ to produce vertical bars. The signals are
modified into short duration pulses which fed to the video section of the receiver
along with the sync pulses train to produce fine lines on the screen.
Output from the multivibrator produces square wave video signals at ‘m’ times the
horizontal frequency to provide vertical black and white bars. After every ‘m’ up to
the synchronizing the bar signal on each line. We can vary the number of bar by the
front panels of pattern generator by changing its frequency.
In the same way, square wave pulses derived either from 50HZ mains or from the
master oscillator are used to trigger another set of multivibrators to generate
square wave video signal that is ‘n’ times the vertical frequency. When they are fed
to the video amplifier they produce horizontal black and white bars. The faculating
late of the multivibrator can be controlled by a potentiometer i.e. on the front panel.
It controls the no. of black and white horizontal bars. The sync and blanking pulses
are added to these signals prior to modulation.
A master oscillator is used to generate blanking and gating pulses and generation.
The composite sync signal is given to the pattern video signal and sync adder. The
output of the vertical and horizontal bar generator goes to cross hatch and check
board pattern generator. The pattern video signal is given to the adder. From this
adder the signal goes to the VHF modulator.

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Amplitude modulation takes place over the carrier frequency output is available in
high or low level from the output sockets. The master oscillator, sync, generator and
blanking generator supply the blanking pulses getting pulses to the multivibrator
that generates the vertical and horizontal bar signals.
A 1 KHz audio oscillator generates a signal which is frequency modulated over a
carrier of 5.5MHz. This serves the purpose of the frequency modulated audio signal
for the testing of the audio section. Its output is available over a separate socket
marked as audio/sound signal. The combination of switches mH and nV, the
multivibrator generates different pattern.

The horizontal bar pattern is used for checking vertical linearity. The vertical bar
pattern is used for checking horizontal linearity. The cross hatch pattern is used for
both linearity picture containing and aspect ratio. The dot pattern is suitable for
checking and adjusting the static convergence of the picture in the centre of the
screen with a low ambient brightness. The white pattern, with no information is
suitable for checking uniformity of brightness over the entire screen in the absence
of hum.

Color picture patterns are suitable for checking color purity, proper color
reproduction and overall performance of the receiver. The test signals available with
pattern generator are (1) RF signals (2) IF signals (3) video signals.
CONTROL & SPECIFICATION OF PATTERN GENERATOR:
Controls: -
1. Time frequency
2. Video (amplitude) output
3. Power on/off switch
4. FM socket
5. RF socket
6. Controls to change vertical &
horizontal bars
7. Pattern selector switch

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Applications:-
1. Checking time and frame time bar linearity
2. Checking picture height and width
3. Video IF checking
4. Adjustment of sound IF stage and checking
5. AGC section checking
6. Troubleshooting video amplifier and using variable video output.
Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-12
Aim: To study the latest features and technologies in TV.

Theory: High-Definition Television:

High-definition television (or HDTV) is a digital television broadcasting system with
higher resolution than traditional systems (standard-definition TV, or SDTV). HDTV
is digitally broadcast, the earliest implementation used analog broadcasting but
today digital TV (DTV) signals are used, requiring less bandwidth due to digital
video compression.
HDTV technology was introduced in the United States in the 1990s by the digital
HDTV grand alliance, a group of television companies and MIT.
HDTV BROADCAST SYSTEMS ARE IDENTIFIED WITH 3 MAJOR PARAMETERS:
1. Frame size in pixels is defined as number of horizontal pixels x number of vertical
pixels, for example 1280 x 1080 or 1920x 1080. Often the number horizontal pixels
are implied from context and are omitted.
2. Scanning system is identified with the letter p for progressive scanning or for
interlaced scanning.
3. Frame rate is identified as number of video frames per second. For interlaced
systems an alternative form of specifying number of fields per second is often used.
Recently the uniform notation of specifying number of frames per second both for
progressive and interlaced video became increasingly popular.
For example, 1920x1080p25 identifies progressive scanning format with 25 frames
per second, each frame being 1920 pixels wide 1080 pixels high. The 1080i25 or
1080i50 notation identifies interlaced scanning format with 50 fields (25 frames)
per second, each frame being 1920 pixels wide and 1080 pixels high. The 1080i30 or
1080i60 notation identifies interlaced scanning format with 60fields (30 frames)
per second, each frame being 1920 pixels wide and 1080 pixels high. The 720p60
notation identifies progressive scanning format with 60 frames per second, each
frame being 720 pixels high, 1280 pixels horizontally are implied.
While 50Hz systems have only three scanning: 25i, 25p and 50p, 60Hz systems
operate with much wider set of frames rates: 23.98p, 24p, 29.97i/59.94i, 29.97p,
30p, 59.94p and 60p.
When resolution is considered, both the resolution of the transmitted signal and the
(native) displayed resolution of a TV set are taken into account, most HDTV sets
contain video scalars and will 'upscale' or 'up convert' the transmitted signal to that
of the set's native format.

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Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings intended for broadcast are typically recorded
either in 720p or 1080i format as determined by the broadcaster. 720p is commonly
used for the internet distribution of high-definition video, because all computer
monitors operate in progressive-scan mode. 720p also imposes less strenuous
storage and decoding requirements compared to both 1080i and 1080p.

1080p is usually used for blue- ray disc.

Digital compression methods such as mpeg-2 allow the bandwidth of a single analog
TV channel (60 MHz in the US) to carry upto 5 standard definition or upto 2 high-
definition digital TV channels instead. Initially mpeg-2 was most commonly used as
the compression codec for digital HDTV broadcasts. Although mpeg-2 suppose upto
4:2:2 ycbcrchroma sub sampling and 10 bit quantization, HD broadcast use 4:2:0
and 8-bit quantization to save bandwidth. The Chinese HDTV system uses an
intellectual property free mpeg-2 codec that may have some coding interoperability
issues with current DVB codes.
Advantages Of HDTV Expressed In Non-Technical Terms:
High-definition TV (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard television
does, because it has a greater number of lines of resolution. The visual information
is some 2-5 times sharper because the gaps between the scan lines are narrower or
invisible to the naked-eye. The larger the size of the television the HD picture is
viewed on, the greater the improvement in picture quality. On some smaller
televisions there may be no noticeable improvement in picture quality.
Disadvantages Of HDTV Expressed In Non-Technical Terms:
Limitation to picture quality:
In practice, the best possible HD quality is not usually achieved. The main problem
is that many operators do not follow HDTV specifications fully. They may use lower
bit-rates or smaller resolution to pack more channels within the limited bandwidth,
reducing video quality. The operators may use a format that is different from the
original programming introducing artifacts in the process of re-encoding. Also
image quality may be lost if TV is not properly connected to the input device or not
properly configure for the input's optimal performance, which may be difficult
because of customer confusion regarding connections.

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Connector cables:
Appropriate cabling must be used. Either HDMI or component video cables must be
used to support a high-definition signals. For instance, if composite cables are used
for connections from a cable box or satellite dish than only quality picture will be
seen. HDMI cables provide the best picture and sound. Component video cables are
RCA cables that are colour-coded for proper signals. They consists of 3 video cables
(gbr), two audio cable (red and white), and they carry an analog signal. HDMI cables
carry all the video and audio in one cable using a digital signal.
Aspect ratio:
Adding a new aspect ratio makes for consumer confusion if a display is capable of
more than one ratio but must be switched to the correct one by the user. traditional
programs and feature films (mostly movies from before 1953) originally filmed in
the standard 4:3 ratio, when displayed correctly on a HDTV monitor will have empty
display areas to the left and right of the image. Many consumers aren't satisfied with
this unused display area and choose instead to distort their standard definition
shows by stretching them horizontally to fill the screen, giving everything the
appearance of being too wide or not tall enough. Alternatively, viewer may choose to
zoom the image which removes content that was on the top and bottom of the
original TV show.
Plasma Television:
Plasma television is a flat, light weight surface covered with millions tiny glass
bubbles. Each bubble contains a gas like substance, the plasma and has a phosphor
coating. Think of the bubbles as the pixels. Essentially millions of Neon signs.
Now think of each pixel-bubble as having three sub pixels-one red, one green and
one blue. When it is time to display an image signal digitally controlled electric
current flows through the flat screen, causing the plasma inside designated bubbles
to give off ultraviolet rays. This light in turn causes the phosphor coatings to glow
the appropriate color making your plasma TV provide the best video image
anywhere.
Millions of RGB bubbles glowing and dimming to make a rich, vivid image.
The plasma display is one of the most exciting consumer electronics products to
debut in the past decade. It is literally changing the shape of TV, from the familiar
CRT-type TVs that have been around for fifty years, to sleek, nearly a flat display that
can hang on a wall. This new displays deliver high definition TV and they serve both
as TVs and computer monitors. This article provides information on plasma displays
in general so when you are ready to make a purchase, you will have enough
information to make an informed decision.

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The Basics Of Plasma Displays:

Plasma display technology is a new “emissive” flat panel display technology which
gives you the rich, accurate color fidelity of conventional CRT monitors in a large
display that is thin enough to hang on the wall. This technology is known as the
“Plasma Vision” is an array of cells, known as pixels, which are composed of 3 sub-
pixels, corresponding to the colors red, green and blue.
Gas in a plasma stat e is used to react with phosphors in each sub-pixel to produce
colored light. These phosphors are the same types used in CRT devices such as TVs
and standard computer monitors. You get rich, dynamic color you expect. Each sub
pixel is individually controlled by advanced electronics to produce over 16 million
different colors. You will get perfect images that are easily viewable in a display that
is less than 4 inches thick.

Conventional Plasma Displays:

Basic plasma display technology has been around since the 1960‟s, and works this
way: a mixture of neon and xenon gas fills the space between two parallel sheets of
glass, which contains millions of tiny cells filled with the gas mixture. This mixture is
simulated by electrical current and is changed into the plasma. As a result
ultraviolet light is emitted. Red, green and blue fluorescent substances in the cells
absorb this UV light, then Re- radiate this energy as visible light to produce the color
and images you see on the screen.
This process creates a bright, vibrant picture. And since these individual cells are
creating light and color, there is no need for the large CRTs used in conventional and
projection TVs, and the problems of images bending at the edge of a picture, as seen
in conventional TVs.

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A plasma display is a TV monitor, capable of displaying high definition TV, regular

TV and home video and it is a computer monitor, capable of doing everything a
regular computer monitor can do.The plasma display is also a monitor for a PC or
Mac. You can use it as the primary monitor for your desktop computer or connect it
to your laptop computer. Either way, it is able to process signals up to and including
1280 x 768 so charts, graphs, the internet and full motion DVDs will all look clean
and crisp. Like any computer monitor, plasma units allow you to display several
personal computer applications simultaneously. For each example, you can run a full
motion DVD from your DVD driver in one window, the internet in another,

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT-13
Aim: To find crossover network frequency response.

Theory: When a multi-way loud speaker system is use to get flat frequency response for the
entire range of audio frequencies it is essential to have a crossover network to divide
the incoming signal into separate frequency ranges for each speaker. In the absence
of crossover network, the speaker will suffer overheating and the output will be
distorted when full power at frequencies outside their range is fed to them. Overall
efficiency will be much reduced in absence of crossover networks.

Crossover networks make use of the fact that the capacitive reactance decreases
with increase in frequency [XC =1/ (2*П*f*c)], and the inductive reactance increase
with increase in frequency (XL = 2*П*f*l). A basic crossover network is illustrated in
fig below. The circuit consists of low pass LC filter across the woofer and high pass
LC filter across the tweeter. The low pass filter permits only low audio
frequencies(16Hz to 1000Hz) to go to the woofer. The series reactance of L and
shunt reactance of C for high audio frequencies prevent these frequencies from
going to the woofer.
Circuit
Diagram:

Conclusion:

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