DATA COMMUNICATIONS
 Exchange of data between two devices via
a form of transmission system (Forouzan)
 Transmission of binary or digital information
from one point to another (Frenzel)
 Process of transmitting and receiving digital
information from one point to another via
electrical, radio and optical mean
Data
 information stored/presented
 facts, concepts and instructions
 aka digital information
 single unit of datum (data is plural)
 information that have been processed,
organized and stored
Bit
 smallest unit of information (0s or 1s)
Forms of Information:
1. Text (Alphanumeric and Other Special
Characters)
 A bit pattern
 Sequence of bits
 Different sets of bit patterns
represents text symbols
i. Each set is called a code
ii. Coding – process of
representing symbols
2. Images (Graphics and Pictures)
 Composed of matrix of pixels
(picture elements)
i. Each pixel is a small dot
(size depends on the
resolution)
ii. Resolution – number of
pixels in an image
o Identified
width and
height of an
image
o Total number of
pixels
3. Sound (Voice, Music and the like)
 Recording or broadcasting of
sound or music
4. Video (Moving Images)
 Recording or broadcasting of a
picture or movie
 Can be either produced as a
continuous entity (TV camera) or
combination of images, each a
discrete entity, arrange to
convey the idea of motion
Four Fundamental Characteristics:
1. Delivery - data must be delivered to the
correct destination. It must be also
received by the intended device or user
and only by that user.
2. Accuracy – system must deliver the data
accurately. Data have been left altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable.
3. Timeliness- the system must deliver on time
(real-time transmission)
4. Jitter – means variation in the packet
arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets.
Data Flow (simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex)
a. Simplex - one way direction of data
b. Half – Duplex – one at a time direction of
data
c. Full Duplex- simultaneous flow of data, at
the same time
PROTOCOLS
 a synonymous with rule
 a set of rules
 determines what is, how it is and when it is
communicated
by  key elements:
o Syntax
o Semantics
o Timing
Protocol Stack
 list of protocols used by system
 generally include only one protocol per
layer
Key Elements:
o Syntax - structure or format of the data
- Indicates how to read bits – field
delineation
o Semantics – interprets the meaning of bits
- knows which fields define what
action
o Timing – when data should be sent
- Speed at which data should be
sent or speed at which it is being
received
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Protocols
o Connection Oriented
 Logical connection
established between the
endpoints
 Follows the sequence of
actions and
acknowledgements
 Provides a high degree of
reliability for data moving
through a network
 Characteristics:
o Handshake – connection
process that occurs between
two stations before data is
transmitted
o Require some means of
acknowledging the data
o Provides some means of error
control
o A specific handshake drops the
connection when the
connection is no longer
needed
o Connectionless Protocols
 Data are exchanged in an
unplanned fashion without
prior contribution b/w
endpoints
 Do not provide the same high
reliability
Major issue facing the data communications
industry today is worldwide COMPATIBILITY
 Software
 Programming Language
 Electrical and Cable Interest
DATA COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS
 Guidelines to manufacturers, government
agencies, other service providers
Reasons for Standardization:
 Ensure hardware/software compatibility
 Promote competition w/high quality
 Consumer can hold down the prices
 It opened the possibility to build networks
and share information
 Ensure Reliable communication
(protocol)
is
 Determine standard methods of
communications
Basic Types:
Propriety (Closed) System
 By one company only
 (advantage) tighter control, easier
consensus and monopoly
 (disadvantage) lack of choice for the
customer, higher financial investment,
over pricing and reduced costumer
protection (going out of business)
Open System
 Any company
 A royalty must be paid to the original
company
 (advantage) customer choice,
compatibility b/w vendors, competition
by smaller company
 (disadvantage) less product control and
increase difficulty acquiring agreement
b/w vendors for changes
STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS
o ISO (INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR
STANDARDIZATION
 Wide range of subjects
 Voluntary, non-treaty org
 Members from standard committees
of various governments
 Creates sets of rules and standards for
graphics and document exchange
  Member body from US is ANSI  Oversees the architecture protocols
and procedures used by the internet
o ITU-T (INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS  Manages the processes used to
UNION – TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR) create internet standards
 Formerly: Comite Consultatif
Internationnale de Telegraphie at
Telephonie (CCITT) a. INTERNET RESEARCH TASK FORCE (IRTF)
 For UN - Promotes research importance
 Developed three sets of b. IETF
specifications:
A SIMPLE COMMUNICATION MODEL
1. V-Series for modem
interfacing and data o Host Computer
transmission over tel. lines - Processing takes place
2. X-Series for data trans. over  Mainframes
public digital network,  Minicomputers
email and directory  Microcomputers (PCs)
services  Super computers
3. I and Q Series for o Terminal
Integrated Services Digital - Device that communicates with
Network (ISDN) and BISDN the host
 Dumb – send/receive
o IEEE (INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND data. Can’t modify
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS)  Smart – sends extra info
 Found in US (ECE, CPE and EE) to host
 World’s largest professional society w/  Intelligent –
200,00 members programmable
 Works closely with ANSI to develop
communications and information - PCs are the most intelligent
processing standards terminal

o ANSI (AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS BITS AND BYTES

INSTITUTE)
 Binary representation can also be thought
 Official standard agency for US and
as of ON and OFF
US voting representative for ISO
 Private, non-profit organization Bytes

a. TIA (TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY  Group of bits

ASSOCIATION)  Consists of 8 bits
- Leading trade association  Represents a single character

CHARACTER CODES
b. EIA (ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATION)  The relationship of bytes to characters is
- Non US trade association determined by a character code
- Responsible for developing the  Used in data comm. including
RS (recommended standards) o Morse, Baudot
series of standards o EBCDIC, ASCII
o Unicode
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
 The terminal/ host must recognize the
Responsibilities: same coding scheme
Morse Code o Lots of special char (non-
printable)
 First character developed
o With an added parity bit
 For transmitting data over telegraph wires
o Better binary ordering
(telegrams)
 Extended ASCI
 Used dots (short beeps) and dashes (long
o Uses 8 bit
beeps)
o No parity
 More frequent the character, the fewer
o Used for processing and storage
beeps
of data
 Problems:
o Allows for international char
o Variable length character
representation UNICODE
o Requires pauses b/w letters
 Designed to support international
o No lower case, few punctuation
languages
or special characters
 Uses a 16-bit for total of 65,536 possible
o No error detection mechanism
char
Baudot Code o Incorporates ASCII in first 128
codes
 Developed for machine to machine
o Incorporates LATIN in first 256
 Uses 1’s and 0’s
codes
 For transmitting telex messages (punch
 Support found in newer hardware &
tape)
software esp. web tech
 Fixed character length (5 bits)
o 32 different codes SUMMARY OF CHAR. CODES
o Increased capacity by using two
 MORSE – dot & dash
codes for shifting (b/w character
 BAUDOT – 5 bit (no parity)
sets)
 INT. BAUDOT – 6 bit (5 data + 1 parity)
o 4 special codes (SP, CR, LF &
 ASCII – 8 bit (7 data +1 parity)
blank)
 EBCDIC – 9 bit (8 data + 1 parity)
o Total 56 different characters
 UNICODE – 16 bits (no parity)
 Problems:
o Require shift code Bits per Char affect:
o No lower case
o Few special char  Storage requirements
o No error detection mechanism  Throughput of info
o Char not ordered by binary value
Use of larger codes became feasible due to
o Designed for data transmission
 International Baudot  Higher transmission speeds
o Added a 6th bit for parity  Denser storage mediums
o Used to detect errors within a
single char Choice of character coding scheme is a trade-off
between
ASCII Code
 Simplicity & brevity
 American Standard Code for Information  Expressivity
Interchange
 7 bit code
 Developed by ANSI
 Allows 128 different char representations
(27)
o Upper and lower case
TRANSIMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
 a char code determines what bits will be
send b/w a host and terminal
 bits will be sent by:
o Parallel vs Serial Transmission
o Serial Transmission Timing
o Direction of Transmission Path
o Others:
 Speed
 Organization of data
(protocol)
 Transmission media
Parallel Data Transmission
 used most often for communication with
local devices
Serial Data Transmission
 used most for data communication
Serial Transmission Timing
o Synchronous
- Timing b/w sending and receiving
with use of clocks or sync char
- Provides support for block-mode
trans
- No start or stop bits
- Parity bits may not be used
- Frequently used w/smart or
intelligent terminals
Simplex Communication Path
- One way only
Half Duplex Communication Path
- two way but not the same time
Full Duplex Communication Path
- Both ways at the same time
COMPUTER NETWORK TYPES
Networks
Distinguished based on their geographical
span
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
o 2 hosts connected to one
another
o Ex: Bluetooth
 Local Area Network (LAN)
o Spanned inside a building
o Operated under single admin
system
o Number of systems varies from 2
to 16 million
o Useful way of sharing resources
b/w end users
o Common LAN Technologies
 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed
Data Interface)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o Throughout a city
o Ex: Cable TV network
o Service provided by ISPs
o Expands LANs
o Backbone: high-capacity and
high-speed fiber optics
o Works in b/w LAN & WAN
o Provides uplink for LANs to WANs
or internet
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
o Wide area
o Span across provinces and even
a whole country
o Ex: telecommunication networks
o Provide connectivity to MANs &
LANs
o Backbone: very high-speed
o Multiple admin
o Designed to do the ff:
 Operate over large,
geographically
separated areas
 Allows users to engage in
real-time
 communication with NETWORK TOPOLOGY
others
 Defines how computers, printers, network
 Provide full-time remote
devices and other devices are
resources connected to
connected
local services
 Describes the layout of the wire and
 Provide e-mail, WWW,I
devices (and paths used)
the transfer and e-
 Influences how network works
commerce services
 Can have both:
o Physical
o Common technologies:
 Physical layout of
 Modems
devices and media
 Integrated service digital
 Configurations of cables
network (ISDN)
and others
 Digital subscriber line
(DSL)
 Frame relay
 T (US) and E (Europe)
carrier series
 Synchronous optical
network (SONET)

 Internetwork
o A network of networks
o Aka INTERNET
o Logical
o Largest network in existence in
 How medium is
the planet
accessed by the hosts
o Connects all WANs and can
for sending data
have connection to LANs and
 Used to pass information
home networks
b/w wokstations
o Uses TCP/IP protocol suite
o Uses IP as addressing protocol
 Bus Topology
o Implemented using lPv4 – lPv6
o Called linear bus
o Access enormous amount of
o Connects using a single cable
information worldwide
and T-Connector (BNC)
o Uses WWW, FTP, email services,
o Like a bus line
etc.
o Single line; one way connection
o Huge level: Client server model
o Main cable: end w/a terminator
o Backbone: very high speed of
that absorbs signal
fiber optics
 No terminator: the data
o Submarine communication
bounces back (signal
cable – fibers laid under sea
reflection) causing errors
o Purpose:
o Advantages:
 Email
 Easy to implement and
 Instant messaging
extend
 Blogging
 Initially less cable
 Social media
 Cheap
 Marketing
 Small networks
 Networking
o Disadvantages:
 Resource sharing
 Difficult to troubleshoot
 Audio and video
streaming
  Limited cable length and
nos. of stations
 Trouble with cable,
whole network goes
down
 Maintenance cost
higher
 Heavy traffic on
additional networks
 Low security
 One virus can affect all
 Proper termination is
required
 Ring Topology
o Form of a circle or ring
o has single point of failure
o cheap and easy to implement
o shares a single cable
o one direction only
o single-ring: wired as a star
o dual ring: two rings allows data to
be sent in both directions
o Redundancy (fault tolerance) – if
one ring falls, data can be
transmitted in the other ring
o Advantages:
 No collisions of data
packets
 All data traffic is in the
same directions (w/o
bottle neck)
 Transmission of data is
relatively simple as
packets travel in one
direction
 Handles high-volume
network traffic
o Disadvantages:
 Data packets must pass
through every computer
between the sender and
recipient (makes it
slower)
 Any of nodes is broken,
data cannot be
transmitted
 Difficult troubleshooting
 Total dependence upon
one cable
 Star Topology
o Made up of central connection
where all cabling segments meet
 Hub
 Router
I o Each host is connected to the
central device w/its own cable
o Advantage:
 Own cable
 Easy to install and wire
 No disruptions to the
network when
connecting or removing
devices
 Easy to detect fault and
remove parts
o Disadvantage:
 Central connection
 Extended Star Topology
o Extended start network to include
an additional networking device
 Hierarchical Topology (Tree Topology)
o Doesn’t use a central node
o Used a trunk node – branches to
other nodes
o Two types:
 Binary tree
 Each node splits
into two links
 Backbone tree
 Has branch
nodes w/links
hanging
 Full Mesh Topology
o Connects all devices (nodes) to
each other for redundancy and
fault tolerance
CONSIDERATIONS WHEN CHOOSING A TOPOLOGY
 Money
 Length of cable needed
 Future growth
 Cable type
OSI MODEL (OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION)

ISO need to create a network model that

would help vendors create interoperable network
implementations.

 Approved for international standard for

communications architecture
 1984
 Developed by ISO
 Primary Architectural model for inter-
computer comms
 Descriptive network scheme
 Greater compatibility & interoperability
 Describes how data makes it way from
application programs through a network
medium to another program on another
network
 Divides the problem of moving info b/w
computers into seven smaller & more
manageable problems
o Layering – separation into smaller
manageable functions
 Composed of 7 layers (has specified
network functions)
All
People
A LAYERED NETWORK MODEL
Seem
 The process of breaking up the functions To
or tasks of networking into layers reduces Need
complexity
Data
 Each layer provides a service to the layer
above it Processing
 Each layer communicates w/the
same layer on other computers

 Lower 4 Layers: (flow of data)

o Transport (4)
o Network (3)
o Data Link (2)
o Physical (1)

 Upper 3 Layers (user/service)

o Application (7)
o Presentation (6)
o Session (5)

 Data is encapsulated as it moves

down the layers
  Each layer support the layers above and  Delivery of a message form one process
offers services to the layers below to another
 a layer has unique and specific task
LAYER 3 – Network Layer
 a layer only has knowledge on its
neighbour  Handles addressing messages for
delivery
LAYER 7 – Application Layer (user)
 Handle decisions needed
 top layer  Ex:
 provides sets of interfaces for sending o IP
and receiving applications/data o IPX
 applications and services run on it o AppleTalk
 ex programs:  Delivery of individual packets from the
o spreadsheet source host to destination host
o word
LAYER 2 – Data Link
o bank terminal
 network applications:  Handles special data frames (packets)
o mail  Packages raw data (receiving end)
o web  Handles conversion of data (sending
o file transfer end)
o management  Ex:
o remote connections o Ethernet
 upper layer data – datagrams o Frame delay
 provides services to the user o FDDI
 Moving frames from one hop (node) to
LAYER 6 – Presentation Layer
the next
 encryption and decryption of data
 Programmers consider data structure  Logical Link Control (LLC)
and presentation o Control logical links b/w local
 Ex: devices
o ASCII  Media Access Control (MAC)
o GIF o Procedures used by devices to
o JPEG control access to network
 Translation, compression and medium
Encryption  Frame sequencing
 Frame acknowledgment
LAYER 5 – Session Layer
 Addressing
 Hold ongoing communications across a  Frame delimiting
network  Frame error checking
 Ex:  Datagrams are called frames
o SQL
LAYER 1 – Physical Layer (Binary)
o ASP (Apple Talk Session Protocol)
 Dialog control, authentication, security,  Converts bits into electronic signals
permission and synchronization  Manages interface b/w computer and
network medium
LAYER 4 – Transport Layer
 Bottom layer
 Manages the transmission of data  Ex: EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ
 Includes:  Movements of individual bits from one
o TCP (Transmission Control hop (node) to the next
Proctocol)
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol)