Coach–athlete attachment and the

quality of the coach–athlete

relationship: implications for athlete’s
well-being
Louise Davis &Sophia Jowett
Pages 1454-1464 | Accepted 22 Feb 2014, Published online: 09 Apr 2014

This study examined whether athletes’ attachment styles with the coach were
linked to aspects of the coach–athlete relationship quality and, in turn, whether
relationship quality was linked to athletes’ well-being. One hundred and ninety-
two athletes completed a questionnaire measuring their attachment styles and
relationship quality with the coach as well as their feelings of positive affect (PA)
and negative affect (NA). Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis found
athletes’ avoidant and secure attachment styles to be associated with aspects of
coach–athlete relationship quality such as social support, relationship depth, and
interpersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflict appeared to play a key role in
athletes’ PA and NA. From a practical perspective, an understanding of conflict
management could provide a resource that allows athletes (and coaches) to
enhance the quality of their sporting relationships. Specifically, an awareness of
proactive strategies (e.g., steps to clarify expectations) and reactive strategies
(e.g., cooperation during the discussion of disagreements) could potentially lead
both coaches and athletes to “broaden” their viewpoints and in turn “build”
connections that are capable of generating positive emotions including interest,
excitement, happiness, and zeal.
Social Psychology in Sport.
Jowette, S., & Lavallee, D. (Eds.). (2007). Social Psychology in Sport. Human Kinetics.

Social psychology in sport has grown impressively in the last decade, but no single text has
addressed all the important topics in the field--until now. Through the contributions of an international
group of established scholars and creative young minds, Social Psychology in Sport offers readers a
global perspective, a broad base of knowledge, and the latest thinking in topics such as social
relationships, communication, coach leadership, team cohesion, motivation and motivational climate,
audience effects, and morality. This text allows readers to gain insight into the interactions and
dynamics that affect sport performance and the sport experience for youth and adults. Using the
latest research in the field, Social Psychology in Sport (1) provides a complete and current analysis
of the field, exploring the social aspects of interactions, relationships, influences, and perceptions;
(2) addresses a broad range of topics from theoretical, empirical, and applied perspectives; (3)
delves into established areas of interest such as group dynamics and coach-athlete and peer
relationships; and (4) dissects emerging topics such as relational efficacy, passion, and cross-
cultural issues. Through the applicable nature of the research, Social Psychology in Sport will fuel
more research interest, ensuring that the recent growth in the field continues well into the future. As
such, this text should be of great interest to students in upper-undergraduate and graduate courses
and to researchers interested in the psychosocial aspects of sport. (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2019 APA, all rights reserved)

The coach–athlete relationship: a

motivational model
Geneviève A Mageau &Robert J Vallerand

Pages 883-904 | Accepted 17 Jul 2003, Published online: 17 May 2010

The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete

relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In
line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the
hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a
motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards
coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their
athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches'
behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure
and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy,
competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation
and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches'
autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes
through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic
and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and
personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.

The relationship between coach

leadership, the coach–athlete
relationship, team success, and the
positive developmental experiences of
adolescent soccer players
Stewart A. Vella,Lindsay G. Oades &Trevor P. Crowe

Pages 549-561 | Received 11 Sep 2011, Accepted 20 Apr 2012, Published online: 01 Oct 2012

Background: The goals of participation youth sports are primarily concerned with
the facilitation of positive youth development as opposed to outright success.
Consequently, there are strong theoretical and empirical links between sports
coaching and athlete development. Transformational leadership behaviours, in
particular, have been theoretically linked to positive developmental outcomes
within a youth sport context, while the coach–athlete relationship is a key tool
used by coaches who aim to teach life skills to young athletes. Outright team
success has also been shown to correlate with important developmental
variables such as a mastery climate and athlete perception of youth sports
coaches.

Aims: The purpose of this study was to test the relationship between coach
transformational leadership behaviours, the perceived quality of the coach–
athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences
of adolescent soccer players.

Method: Cross-sectional data were taken from 455 adolescent athletes aged
between 11 and 18 years. Each participant was competing in a local soccer
competition that is classified as a participation sport. Thus, the theoretical focus
is on developmental and skill gains. Each participant completed the Differentiated
Transformational Leadership Inventory for Youth Sport, the Coach–Athlete
Relationship Questionnaire, and the Youth Experience Survey for Sport. Team
success was measured by the total number of competition points accumulated
during the season.

Findings: The results show that coach transformational leadership behaviour and
the coach–athlete relationship have a moderate positive correlation with
developmental experiences. Team success has no relationship with overall
developmental experiences. The best predictor of developmental experiences is
a combination of coach transformational leadership behaviour and the quality of
the coach–athlete relationship. The most influential leadership behaviours are
individual consideration, intellectual stimulation, and appropriate role modelling.

Discussion: Transformational leadership and the quality of the coach–athlete

relationship may work synergistically to influence positive athlete outcomes within
youth sports. Importantly, coaches who practise within the youth sport context
are able to facilitate positive developmental outcomes from both team success
and team failure by taking advantage of naturally occurring teachable moments.
The best way to take advantage of these may be to engage in intellectual
stimulation, individual consideration, and positive role modelling, in addition to
facilitating positive, developmentally appropriate coach–athlete relationships.
Future coach education programmes should incorporate relevant interpersonal
and intrapersonal skills that allow youth sports coaches to engage in these
behaviours. Longitudinal work is needed in order to make causal inferences
between transformational leadership behaviour, the quality of the coach–athlete
relationship, and positive youth development through sports.

Abused athletes' perceptions of the

coach-athlete relationship
Ashley E. Stirling &Gretchen A. Kerr

Pages 227-239 | Published online: 16 Feb 2009

The coach-athlete relationship is often one of the most important and influential
relationships experienced by a young athlete.1 While coaches may have many
positive influences on young athletes, emerging literature also indicates problems
of abuse. In fact, recent research indicates that athletes are not immune from
experiences of physical, sexual and emotional abuse.2 Furthermore, the power
of the coach is thought to be a contributing risk factor in abusive
relationships.3 The purpose of this study therefore was to investigate abused
athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. More specifically, we were
interested in abused athletes' perceptions of the power held by the coach, and
the influence of this power on an athlete's experience of abuse. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with nine previously abused athletes; four retired elite
female gymnasts and five retired elite female swimmers. Consistent with
previous research, the participants reflected upon the significant power held by
the coach over the athlete. The findings contributed to existing literature by
revealing specific ways in which the coach's power influenced the athletes'
experiences of abuse and their ability to report incidences of maltreatment.
These findings are discussed and recommendations are made for abuse
prevention and future research.

Interpersonal relationships in sport: Uncharted territory

in sport psychology research.
Wylleman, P. (2000). Interpersonal relationships in sport: Uncharted territory in sport psychology
research. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31(4), 555–572.

Abstract
Discusses the need for a stronger emphasis on relationships in sport psychological research.
Notwithstanding its significance in the athletic setting, the field of interpersonal relationships has
remained underdeveloped as a topic of sport psychology research. Factors underlying this lack of
recognition are tentatively discussed in view of the scientific delineation, as well as the conceptual
and methodological limitations identified in earlier studies on relationships. A framework and
methodology specifically developed to assess interpersonal relationships in competitive sport are
described and illustrated with results of a study on talented athletes' interpersonal relationships in
the athletic triangle. Specific recommendations for further research by sport psychologists on
interpersonal relationships in sport are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all
rights reserved)
Relationship Maintenance Strategies in
the Coach-Athlete Relationship: The
Development of the COMPASS Model
Daniel J. A. Rhind &Sophia Jowett

Pages 106-121 | Received 08 Apr 2009, Accepted 08 Sep 2009, Published online: 01 Feb 2010

The investigation of relationship maintenance strategies has received

considerable attention in various types of dyads including romantic, marital, and
familial relationships. No research, however, has yet investigated the use of
maintenance strategies in the coach-athlete partnership. Thus, this study aimed
to investigate coaches’ and athletes’ perceptions of the strategies they use to
maintain relationship quality. Twelve one-to-one interviews with coaches (4
males and 2 females) and athletes (2 males and 4 females) were conducted. The
interviews were structured based on the factors within Jowett's (2007) 3+1C
conceptualization of the coach-athlete relationship (i.e., closeness, commitment,
complementarity, and co-orientation). Deductive and inductive content analysis
revealed seven main categories: conflict management, openness, motivation,
positivity, advice, support, and social networks. The COMPASS model was
developed based on this analysis and was offered as a theoretical framework for
understanding how coaches and athletes might maintain the quality of their
relationships.

Applying sport psychology: Four perspectives.

Taylor, J., & Wilson, G. (Eds.). (2005). Applying sport psychology: Four perspectives.
Human Kinetics.

Abstract
Applying Sport Psychology: Four Perspectives combines the experiences and perspectives of
researchers, consultants, coaches, and athletes to bridge the gap between theory and practice in a
way that has never been done before. In each chapter, experts present their perspectives based on
the current research and their understanding of the topics. Then coaches and athletes relate that
research to their real-world experiences, providing tips based on what has worked for them on and
off the field or court to improve their performances. Students and professionals in sport psychology
will benefit by the following: gaining four perspectives on each concept and its application, learning
how to customize those concepts and applications to any situation and, developing the tools to meet
clients' needs and to be a successful sport psychologist. In Applying Sport Psychology: Four
Perspectives more than 50 contributors from around the globe make the study of sport psychology
come alive. The four perspectives on each topic present a well-rounded approach to understanding
team and individual sport performance. Because readers are privy to a conversation of sorts taking
place among these four key stakeholders, they will gain understanding from the-varying
perspectives, increase their knowledge, and improve their interactions with clients. With Applying
Sport Psychology: Four Perspectives, learn how to apply the theory that helps athletes perform to
their potential. With the in-depth analysis and discussions among the authors, you are afforded a
distinctive view into the world of applied sport psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019
APA, all rights reserved)

Understanding the Coach-Athlete Relationship.

Article · January 2007

This chapter has addressed critical issues in the conceptualization of and research on coach–
athlete relationships. The coach–athlete relationship can be defined as a situation in which a
coach’s and an athlete’s cognitions, feelings, and behaviors are mutually and causally
interrelated and change over time. The basic motives for initiating and maintaining relationships
can be categorized in a 2_2 taxonomy. A brief outline of conceptual models of coach–athlete
relationship led to a proposed integrated research model, which aims to provide an impetus for
research that will help develop a strong science of coach–athlete relationships. This model
should help researchers understand the processes that regulate interpersonal components, the role
of communication in relationship quality, and the influence of interpersonal components and
processes on various outcomes. With such a model, the generated scientific knowledge is better
organized and makes more apparent what is known and what is not known. To achieve a
dependable body of knowledge and understanding pertaining to the coach–athlete relationship,
research must be carefully designed. The critical linkage between theory and research was
discussed, and it is imperative that researchers use better samples; provide more thorough
description throughout the study process; give greater attention to causation; and make stronger
inferences by attempting to replicate findings, eliminate explanations of findings that
contradict each other, and increase explanations that complement each other. The practical
implications of studying the coach– athlete relationship are many and include finding
methods of establishing positive relationships and repairing unhealthy relationships so that both
personal and performance goals can be met. In addition, as Berscheid and Reis (1998) observed,
“Knowledge about interpersonal relationships is essential to the further development of social
psychology” (p. 196). Indeed, any social psychology in sport settings that emphasizes the
individual athlete or coach is naturally tested and stretched by the study of dyadic relationships
(e.g., coach–athlete relationships). We hope that this chapter provides a springboard for such
testing and expansion.
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