CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the paradigm and methodology that was used in conducting this
research. It presents the adopted research approaches, the population and sampling
techniques, the research instruments which were adopted, the data collection procedure
and the data analysis plan. The research approach used was entirely qualitative in nature
due to intrinsic factors that quarantine the availability of scientific inquiry gateway.

32 research paradigm

A paradigm is a way of describing a world view that is informed by philosophical

assumptions about the nature of social reality, ways of knowing ethics and value systems. It
leads us to certain questions and therefore it is useful to unpick relevant and appropriate
approaches to enable systematic enquiry. Therefore ontological paradigm relates to
whether there is a verifiable reality or existence of multiple constructed realities as averred
by Patton (2012). There are four types of research paradigms namely positivism,
constructivism, emancipatory and post-colonial research paradigm. A positivistic paradigm
assumes a quantitative methodology while a constructivist utilises a qualitative
methodology. A paradigm is influenced by assumptions about the nature of reality and
knowledge, literature and research practice and it is also a factor of value system and
ethical principles.

This research chooses an emancipatory paradigm.

3.2.1 Transformative /emancipatory paradigm

An emancipatory paradigm is a transformative paradigm. The quest of this

paradigm is to quarantine and destroy myth, empower people to change society. It is
informed from critical theory, modern discourse, ferminist theory and to some it covers as
submitted in Chillisa (2011) to cover neo-Marxist theory. The assumptions is the ontological
assumption, which include multiple reality shaped by social, political, cultural, economic,
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race and gender. Therefore transformative includes critical social science research
(Newman, 1987). Participatory action research (Mills, 2009). An emancipatory deals with
family of research design influenced by various philosophies and theories with common
theme of emancipating and transforming communities through group action (Chillisa,
2009). This paradigm adopts the stance that social reality is historically bound and is
constantly changing depending on social, political, cultural and power based factors
(Simbson, 2009). Other theories within this paradigm include critical theory and femist
theories

The focus of this study is nomothetic, because it relates to people and focus on predictions
and explanation that relates to the operation of ZRPWN and its operations. The researcher
adopted a constructivist paradigm that lean towards and forward to answer the question is
ZRPWN ambled in the right direction to challenge and redress the status quo. Therefore
the research approach below instruments and design is qualitative so as to gather an in-
depth description that help to explain the operations of ZRPWN.

3.3 Research approach.

An operational framework within which the facts are placed so as to reveal with clarity
their meaning (Leedy and et al 2010). A research approach therefore, addresses the
planning of scientific enquiry and the subsequent finding out strategies for discovering of
something. On the same note, Nachmias and Nachmias (1981:74) point out that the
research approach is “a logical model of proof, which guides and directs the research in
different stages of the research and enables the researcher to come up with processes and
decisions that facilitate the collection of data”. Babbie and Mouton (2001), Mason (2002)
in Leonard (2005), suggests and proffer two types of research approaches identified as
quantitative and qualitative research approaches.

3.1.1 Qualitative Research approach

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 Musingafi and Hlatwayo (2013) identify qualitative research as the other type of research

approach. They go on to state that qualitative research approach includes studies as action

research, ethnography, feminist research and historical research. Qualitative Research is

useful in helping people clearly understand situations in their entirety by hypothetically

studying perceptions, attitudes, feelings, views and opinions. Babbie and Mouton (2001)

emphasise that this paradigm allows the researcher to get an insider perception on shared

action and seeks to understand social phenomena from the perspective of the respondents.

It thus aims at understanding feelings, desires, motives, insights, attitudes, impressions

and behaviours. It is interpretive, applies subjective analysis of data and makes use of in-

depth interviews.

Dawson (2002) notes that both methodologies have their strengths and weaknesses and

researchers should work to address the shortcomings of the selected model. Borman et al

(2000) argue that qualitative research is value laden while quantitative research is

obsessed with statistics and does not consider the internal feelings of people which

cannot be quantified. Not all research work requires positivist thinking that is full of

statistics and experimental observations. Some researches, especially ethnographic

researches require the researcher to understand the feelings of people. However,

notwithstanding the explained differences, the researcher combined ideas of ethnography

and feminism. Dawson (2002:17) states that “the emphasis of ethnography is on

describing and interpreting cultural behaviour.” The research sought to understand the

roles of ZRP Women Network (ZRPWN) in the empowerment of women at work place.

In doing this, it was imperative to study the dynamics around women’s empowerment.

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 Feminist research emphasizes the power dynamics between men and women and this is

ably done through participative inquiry to unlock the views, feelings and opinions of

individuals.

In this research project, the Qualitative research approach was invaluable during the

entire research work as the research endeavored to capture the actual views, perceptions

and opinions of the multiple respondents. The selected methodology helped to elicit

views, opinions and feelings of target group about empowerment of women. Tanggaard

(2008) describes the primary goal of this research approach as describing and then

understanding as opposed to merely examining social action.

3.2.2 Quantitative Research approach

Quantitative research methodology is an objective analysis of data based on rigorous

scientific examination of data (Musingafi and Hlatwayo, 2013:12). They add that this
research paradigm needs a rigorous analysis of data using recent statistical
methodologies. Collins et al (2003) posit that this methodology is positivist and things are
viewed rationally to discover social reality. Quantitative research designs use objective
analysis of data and can be experimental, inferential or simulation. Inferential is
characterised by collection of data from which inferences can be drawn about
phenomena. The experimental approach has a greater control over the research
environment and some variables are manipulated to have independent and dependent
variables. The simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
with a view to generalising the outcome to the other environments. This research
approach was however, not used in this research

3.3 Population

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 Population can be loosely defined as the aggregate of all cases that conform to some

designated set of specifications. Koul (2010) avers in his definition of population as:

anything that is targeted for consideration in the research. This could be human beings or

non-human beings including tangible or intangible things, this definition in all inclusive

and some researchers have referred to population as universe. It follows therefore that the

term population refers to all those people who could be included in a study. This also

means that it may be a group of people, houses, records and others. The specific nature of

the population depends on the purpose of the investigation. Research population refers to

all the subjects that can be involved in the research (Babbie, 1989). The population of this

study consisted of 4 members of ZRP women’s network organisation and 3 members ZRP

Beitbridge Management and 8 members from the ZRP Beitbridge

3.4 Sampling

Borg and Gall (2005) define Sampling as the selecting of a given number of subjects

from defined population as representative of the population. Sampling is therefore the

process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. Babbie

2010) suggests that the purpose of sampling is to choose a set of elements from an entire

population in such a manner that the descriptions of the elements will accurately portray

the parameters of the population from which the elements are drawn for study. Babbie

(2007) avers that “a sample is a smaller group of people or a subject of the population

from which the data are to be collected and knowledge gained from the subject is

representative of the population being studied”. When one talks of sampling, he/she

would be referring to a process of selecting units from those of a larger population.

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 Haralambos and Holborn (1990:722) give a comprehensive reason why sampling is

necessary when they say, “the use of samples saves the researcher time and money since

it reduces the number of individuals to be studied. If the sample is chosen carefully, it is

possible to generalise from it that is to make statements about the whole relevant

population”.

A sample size is a representative portion of the universal population (Best and Khan,

2004). The size of the sample should be representative enough to ensure that the findings

have some validity and can be relied upon. In other words, research findings should be

easy to generalize to other situations. Dawson (2002:49) adds that, for large scale

quantitative surveys, one need to contact many more people than one would for a small,

qualitative pieces of research.

Since the study is qualitative, the need to select large numbers of participants fell away

and the researcher selected senior management of ZRP, management of ZRP Women

Network and the general members of the police, all from Beitbridge District.

3.4.1 Sampling Methods

Dawson (2000) and Best and Khan (2004) agree that there are basically two sampling

methods which are probability samples and non-probability sampling. The difference

between probability and non-probability sampling has to do with a basic assumption

about the nature of the population under study (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995).

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 In probability sampling, randomisation is a feature of the selection process, rather than an

assumption about the structure of the population. Dawson (2002) identifies methods such

as Simple Random Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Systematic

Sampling, Multistage Sampling (in which some of the methods above are combined in

stages) can be used. Using this sampling method, researcher is able to determine which

sampling units belong to which sample, the probability that each sample will be selected

and that every item has a chance of being selected (Best and Khan, 2004).

On the other hand, Best and Khan (2004) highlight Non-probability sampling methods

such as quota sampling, convenience sampling, purposive sampling; self-selection

sampling and snowball sampling are used. These sampling techniques help researchers

select units from a population that they are interested in studying. A core characteristic of

non-probability sampling techniques is that samples are selected based on the subjective

judgment of the researcher, rather than random or probabilistic selection methods

(Dawson, 2002) and the techniques are based on the assumption that there is an even

distribution of characteristics within the population. This is what makes the researcher

believe that any sample would be representative and because of that, results will be

accurate. Best and Khan (2004) posit that non-probability sampling represents a valuable

group of sampling techniques that can be used in research that follows qualitative and

mixed methods. Techniques such as purposive sampling can provide researchers with

strong theoretical reasons of the choice of cases to be included in the sample. Rather than

using probabilistic methods to generate a sample, non-probability sampling requires

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 researchers to use their subjective judgments, drawing on theory (i.e., the academic

literature) and practice (i.e., the experience of the researcher and the voluntary nature of

the research process) (Dawson, 2002). Unlike probability sampling, the goal is not to

achieve objectivity in the selection of samples, or necessarily attempt to make

generalisations (i.e statistical inferences) from the sample being studied to the wider

population of interest. Instead, researchers following a qualitative research design tend to

be interested in intricacies of the sample being studied. Whilst making generalisations

from the sample to the population under study may be desirable, it is more often a

secondary consideration (Dawson, 2002).

These non-probability methods were used to select respondents from ZRP Senior

Management and ZRPWN Management. Simple Random Sampling was used to select 8

from general ZRP members because of their sheer size.

3.5 Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods can be referred to as tools used in the collection of research data

(Mausingafi and Hlatwayo, 2013), (Collins et al, 2003) and (Dawson, 2002). They are the

techniques that are employed for the conduction of research and are derived from the

research paradigm chosen. Some of the commonly employed research techniques include

interviews, questionnaires, focused groups and observations. Each one is appropriate for

a particular type of study. Dawson (2002) adds that a combination of methods can be

desirable as it enables one to overcome the different weaknesses intrinsic in all methods.

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3.5.1 Interviews

The interview is an alternative method of collecting survey data. Rather than asking

respondents to record questionnaires and enter their answers, researchers ask the

questions orally and record respondents’ answers’. Babbie (1989; 244) defines an

interview as “a conversation in which the interviewer tries to get information from the

interviewee”. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. The need for

the questions to be predetermined is to ensure that the information that is elicited is the

same.

Semi-structured interviews are useful in extracting information from different groups of

respondents using the same set of questions. Musingafi and Hlatwayo (2013; 104) state

that same-structured interviews are flexible and allow for interruptions, pauses to take

place during interview. Dawson (2002) adds that the interview should nevertheless

remain flexible to accommodate any information that can be raised after the interview. An

interview schedule is produced by the researcher covering specific questions or topics to

be covered. Semi-structured interviews also allow the researcher great control over the

sample of respondents.

Unstructured interviews are referred to as in-depth interviews. They are useful for getting

as much information from a participant as possible. A research participant is allowed to

say out as much as he wishes to talk about a subject matter. This helps the researcher in

having clear understanding of how the participants feels about that subject. Unstructured

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 interviews are the best for getting information about feelings, values and options held by

people.

This study made use of the unstructured interviews to solicit data. The interview schedule

was structured into the following four themes ranging from Policy Mechanisms for

Women Empowerment to coordination of women empowerment activities. The gathered

data were presented under the themes that emerged from the study. Since the data

collected was qualitative, this study did not use graphs or charts but researcher instead

made use of descriptions and interpreted the findings.

3.5.2 focus Group discussion

Focus groups entail and consist of a group of people gathered to discuss or answer

questions in connection with an issue understudfy (Dawson 2002). The members of

the group are expected to offer their responses as freely as possible, to express theor

own feeling s and views about the subject. The role of the researcher is to moderate

the discussion so that it remains focused and that all members of the group remain

focused and can express theire views without feeling intimidated by rhe situation

and environment (HOGG and Gall 2005)

This studies combined focus group discussion with direct observation. The focus

group discussion schedule was structured under the theme policy mechanisms for

women empowerment. The researcher was able to make observations of all the

activities during the focus group discussions. The problems as observed by the

researchr prior to this study always helped to motivate the researcher to want to

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 study the role of ZRPWN in the empowerment of women at the workplace. 12

participanrts were drawn from service women in ZRP Beitbridge. They were then

allowed to air out their true feelings, attitudes and opinions while guided by

objectives of this study. The focus group discussions were based on the policy

mechanisms of women empowerment themes.

3.5.3Observation

observation is used in basically two ways which are the direct observation and

participation observation (Borg and Gall 20003, Dawson 2002). Direct observation is

when the researcher observes the behaviour of subject from afar. Under the observation

method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation

without asking from the respondent.

Furthermore, Best and Khan (2004) talk of participant and non-participant types of

observation in the context of studies, particularly for social sciences. This distinction

depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing.

If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is

observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the

observation is called as the participant observation. But when the observer observes as a

detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through participation

what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant

observation. Participant observation is a method used in ethnography by sociologists to

uncover feelings and views of participants (Borg and Gall, 2005), (Haralambos and

Holborn, 2007), (Dawson, 2002). In this type of data collection, the researcher is deeply

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 involved with the activities of the respondents. Musingafi and Hlatwayo (2003), state that

there are two types of participations namely covert and overt.

Borg and Gall (2005), Musingafi and Hlatwayo (2003) concur that covert observation is

where the researcher participates fully in the activities of the respondents without

disclosing his or her identity. The major advantages drawn from covert participation are

that the researcher is likely to get undiluted information from the group as the group’s

behaviour is not modified to suit the perceived needs of the researcher. The other

advantage is that covert observations remove the observer effect. Respondents tend to

change their behaviour if they notice that they are being observed (Borg and Gall 2005).

Covert observations help the researcher not to be noticed. However, the main

disadvantage with covert observation is that the researcher may find the respondents’

behaviour to be unethical and fail to make the desired observations. The other

disadvantage is that the researcher might become totally ensnared in the group and fails

to de-role after the research.

In this study, the researcher’s extensive work experiences is enough to dub him, a

participant observer.

3.5.3 Documentary Sources

The researcher perused a number of documents relating to the formation and operation of

ZRPWN organisation that were selected to participate in the research. The following

include some of the documents that the researcher found to be relevant for interrogation;

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 Acts of Parliament governing the Zimbabwe Republic Police namely:-

 The Police Act

 The National Gender Policy of Zimbabwe

 The United Nations Capstone Doctrine,

 The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 of 2000.

In this study, these documents provided valuable information that guided the researcher

during the study’s Focus Group Discussion.

3.6 Instrument Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to the extent to which a specific measurement provides data that relates to

the commonly accepted meaning of a particular concept. It is concerned with the extent

to which an instrument measures what one thinks it is measuring. Nachmias and

Nachmias (1981:138) tend to agree with the above author when he says that validity is

concerned with the question, “is one measuring what one thinks is measuring or are

questions focusing on what one wants to really find out?” The validity of a measuring

instrument may therefore be defined as, “The extent to which differences in scores on it

reflect true differences among individuals on the characteristics that we seek to measure,

rather than constant random errors”(Seiltiz et al, 1976: 79).

There are different types of validity and each of them concerned with a different aspect of

the measurement situation. Content validity has two types namely face and sampling

validity. Face validity is concerned with the extent to which an instrument measures that

which it appears to be measuring according to the researcher’s subjective statement.

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 Sampling validity is concerned with whether a given population of situations or

behaviour is adequately sampled by the measuring instrument in question, that is, does

the content of the instrument adequately represent the content population of the property

being measured? On the other side construct validity involves relating a measuring

instrument to an overall theoretical framework in order to determine whether the

instrument is tied to the concepts and theoretical assumptions that are employed.

Babbie (1992) defines reliability of instruments as likelihood that a given procedure will

yield the same description of a given phenomenon if that measurement is repeated. On

the same note, Henderson (1980: 223) tends to agree with the above writer when he says

“Reliability is a measure of consistence or stability of a test over time or with its use by

different rates.” A method of measurement is therefore, reliable if, applied repeatedly to

the same object yields the same results each time.

In this study, validity and reliability were ensured through discussing the drafted data

gathering instruments with experienced people who have got knowledge of research

methods. Information from secondary sources also helped to validate that from primary

sources.

3.7.1 Validation in Qualitative Research

Creswell (1994) highlight that in qualitative research, validation can be done through

triangulation, respondent validation, reflexivity and paying attention to ‘negative’ cases

among other methods. In this study, respondent validation was used. Tanggaard (2008)

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 puts forward that this is a technique used by researchers to help improve the accuracy,

validity, and transferability. He adds that it is also called a member check or informant

feedback. Creswell (1994) puts forward that there are many subcategories of respondent

validity including narrative accuracy checks, interpretive validity, descriptive validity,

theoretical validity and evaluative validity.

In this research, respondent validation was done during the interview process, to increase

the credibility and validity (statistics) of this qualitative study. The interviewer managed

to build rapport with the interviewees in order to obtain their honest and open responses.

Furthermore, Respondent validation occurred during the period of data collection when

the researcher obtain feedback from the participants about the accuracy of the data they

have given and also the researcher’s interpretation of that data. At the conclusion of each

interview process, researcher restated the information provided and then questioned the

participant to determine accuracy. This allows participants to critically analyse the

information they provided, comment on them and participants either affirm that the

summaries reflect their views, feelings and experiences, or that they do not reflect these

experiences.

3.8 Data Analysis

Kothari (1995) puts forward that there are two basic approaches to analysing qualitative

data namely the deductive approach and the inductive approach. Deductive approaches

involve using a structure or predetermined framework to analyse data. Essentially, the

researcher imposes their own structure or theories on the data and then uses these to

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 analyse the interview transcripts. This approach is useful in studies where researchers are

already aware of probable participant responses.

On the other hand, the inductive approach involves analysing data with little or no

determined theory by the actual data itself to derive the structure of analysis. This

approach is comprehensive and is the best approach used to examine qualitative data. In

this study, the inductive approach to data analysis was used. Kothari (1995) adds that the

common method of analysing quantitative data in the inductive approach is called

thematic content analysis. While the method arose out of the grounded theory, it can be

used in a range of other types of qualitative work, including ethnography and

phenomenology. Indeed, the process of thematic content analysis is often very similar in

all types of qualitative research, in that the process involves analysing transcripts,

identifying themes within those data and gathering together examples of those themes

from the text.

In this study, data were analysed using thematic content analysis with themes being

derived from the research objectives. This was important as it enabled the researcher to

make close examination of views, opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, behaviours and

norms of the research respondents. This study examined the views of all the respondents

to try to make sense out of them in the context of the research objectives.

3.9 Ethical Issues

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 Nachmias and Nachmias (1992) notes that when conducting research, involving human

participants, one is usually required to pay particular attention to some considerations.

Researchers must decide if the scientific and social benefits of carrying out a research

outweigh the possible costs or risks to the participants. Kumar (2005) acknowledges that

it is unethical to accumulate information without the knowledge of participants and their

expressed willingness and informed consent.

While Skovdal and Abebe (2002) note that it is problematic to draw the thin line between

ethical considerations in qualitative research and what needs to be done to have an

informative and useful research report. The essential principle is that the investigation

should be considered from the participants’ standpoint and foreseeable through their

psychological wellbeing, health, values or dignity (O’Neill, 1998). It thus becomes

imperative that investigation and psychological consequences for the research

participants is considered to make a meaningful deduction. The primary challenge to have

a smooth study in a particular jurisdiction is because of the copious challenges like

confidentiality of information, participants’ anonymity and consent, security of

interviewees as well as engagements on matters that elicit emotions.

In this study, the researcher made it clear that participation was voluntary and that they

were free to withdraw from participation at any time for honesty and integrity of the

respondents and their invaluable information. He protected the identity and

confidentiality of the research participants by allocating numbers instead of names. The

researcher also deliberately left out information that he felt could be sensitive as to

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 expose the participants to risk of harm at their work places. This was done in cognisance

of the fact that the participants were drawn from organisations that were disinclined to

risk taking.

3.10 Summary

This chapter gave an insight into the research methodology that was used to undertake

this research. It examined the methods that were employed to collect data. The chapter

also analysed some strengths and weaknesses of the tools used and how the researcher

ethically protected the participants from harm. The next chapter presents analysed data

and gives findings of the study.

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