TVET Program (Property of Metals)

Institution Name
Addis Ababa Tegbareid poly Technique College

Title:- Identify Properties of Metals
TVET Program Title: Basic Metal Works Level I
Unit of Competence: Identify Properties of Metals
Module Title & Code: Identifying Properties of Metals IND BMW1 03 1017
Nominal Duration: 30 hrs.
LO1. CLASSIFY COMMON FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS

METALS
MATERIALS
Materials are physical substances used in production or manufacturing. Materials

can be raw, semi-finished, or finished. Sheet metal is a finished material. It is
produced from raw materials like iron and carbon that are mined and processed into
steel. This semi-finished material is then processed further into the finished material:
sheet metal. Materials are generally classified based on their properties and
characteristics. A basic classification method divides materials into metals and
nonmetals. Metals are further divided into nonferrous (contains no iron) and ferrous
(iron, steel) categories. Nonmetals can be further classified into polymer, ceramic,
and composite categories
Fig 1:- classification of materials
Page | 1 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Institution Name
Table 1:- Material classification helps designers, engineers, and scientists choose the proper
materials for specific applications
METALS
Metals are a substance that have the ability to conduct electricity and heat. Metals
are strong and malleable. For these reasons, metals have been used for hundreds of
centuries. In the past, they were made into tools and other goods that eased and
improved people’s lives. They played an important role in advancing civilizations.
Metals, both ferrous and nonferrous, have many useful properties. This ensures that
they will continue to be used now and in the future. The elements of all metals are
found naturally in the earth. However, they need to be extracted and processed before
they can be used for manufacturing purposes.

Institution Name
1. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS

1.1. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS
METALS
All metals may be classified as ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous metal has iron as its
main element. A metal is still considered ferrous even if it contains less than 50
percent iron, as long as it contains more iron than any other one metal. Metal is
nonferrous metals and alloys contain no iron.
FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
Ferrous metals contain iron and are magnetic. Iron and steel are the most common
ferrous metals. They are an economical material. They are widely used in machinery,
construction, and other applications where the ability to carry a load is important.
Ferrous metals are also used in shipping containers, industrial piping, automobiles,
railroad tracks, and many commercial and domestic tools. Ferrous metals have a
high carbon content which generally makes them vulnerable to rust when exposed
to moisture. There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists rust due to its
purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of chromium. Ferrous
metals include cast iron, steel, and the various steel alloys, the only difference
between iron and steel is the carbon content.
An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements.
Alloying element: substance added to a base substance to improve specific

properties. Pure iron (ferrite) is a relatively soft element. In order to be useful, it is
alloyed with other elements. Cast iron contains 2–4 percent carbon, 1–6 percent
silicon, and traces of manganese.
Institution Name
These alloying elements are added for several reasons:
 To improve mechanical properties.

 To improve resistance to corrosion and oxidization.
 To improve hardenability of the steel.
Some common ferrous metals include alloy steel, carbon steel, cast iron and wrought
iron.
Ferrous facts
 contain iron
 will corrode unless protected
 are attracted by a magnet(which makes them very useful for motor and
electrical applications
 are strong, rigid and cheap
Fig 2:- example of ferrous metals

Institution Name
Metals
Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals
Steels Cast Irons
Plain carbon steels Grey Iron
Low carbon steels White Iron
Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons
High carbon steels
Low alloy steels
High alloy steels

Stainless & Tool steels
Fig 3 classification of metals
CAST IRON
Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard
and resistant to wear. Types of cast iron include white cast iron and gray iron. Cast
iron properties vary, depending on the form of the carbon within the iron. Wrought
iron contains less than 0.25 percent carbon and is malleable and tough. It’s used in
water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and stoves.

Institution Name
STEEL
Steel is a general term used to describe alloys in which iron is the base metal and
carbon is the most important added element. Steel is made by adding iron to carbon
which hardens the iron. Steel is made by heating and melting iron ore in furnaces.
Steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing industries.
Steel is usually classified as either plain carbon steel or alloy steel.
Plain carbon steel is made up of iron, carbon, and trace amounts of alloying elements.
The carbon content in plain carbon steel does not exceed 1.7 percent. The higher the
carbon content, the harder and stronger the steel. The alloying elements in plain
carbon steel are limited to manganese, silicon, copper, and traces of other elements.
The properties of the steel depend on carbon content and heat treatment.
Plain carbon steel is divided into three groups: low-carbon steel, medium carbon
steel, and high-carbon steels. Low-carbon steel, or mild steel, contains a maximum
of 0.30 percent carbon. It has less strength and hardness and so is easier to machine
and work. Low-carbon steel is used to make galvanized sheets, storage tanks, and is
used in bridge, ship, and building parts. It is inexpensive to produce and purchase.
Medium-carbon steel contains between 0.30 and 0.60 percent carbon. Heat treating
increases its hardness and strength. It is versatile and is used in a variety of
applications. Common uses for medium-carbon steel include automobile parts,
forgings, and high-strength castings. It is more expensive than low-carbon steel.
High-carbon steel contains between 0.60 and 1.0 percent carbon. With heat treating,
it becomes very strong and very hard. However, it is also brittle. It is generally used

Institution Name
where high strength is needed, such as lawn mower blades, knives, railroad rails,
hand tools, and dies.
Alloy steel is carbon steel that contains 1–4 percent alloying elements. These
alloying elements are added for several reasons:
 To improve mechanical properties.

 To improve resistance to corrosion and oxidization.
 To improve hardenability of the steel.
 The table 2 lists the effect of alloying elements on steel.
Like plain carbon steel, alloy steel is also divided into groups: low-alloy steel and
high-alloy steel. Low-alloy steel contains less than 10 percent alloying elements.
The amount of alloy is sufficient to change the steel properties. High-alloy steel
contains more than 10 percent alloying elements. Stainless steel and tool steel are
two types of high-alloy steel.
Activity 1
Why alloying elements are added to steel?

Institution Name
Table 2 effect of alloying elements on steel.
Activity 2
Discuss briefly the effect of alloying element on
steel
Stainless steel resists oxidation and corrosion when correctly heat treated and
finished. It is also easy to clean. Stainless steel sheets are used to make industrial
kitchen equipment such as sinks, food preparation surfaces, and range hoods. They
are also used to make hospital equipment. Stainless steel is a widely used material
in the sheet metal industry.

Institution Name
Tool steel is carbon or alloy steel with properties suitable for use in tools. High-
speed steel is one type of tool steel. It is used in cutting tools found on lathes and
milling machines.
NONFERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
Nonferrous metals and alloys contain no iron. Nonferrous metals include copper,
zinc, tin, antimony, lead, and aluminum. Nonferrous alloys using those metals as a
base element include brass, bronze, and aluminum alloys.
Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals
Iron Aluminum
Low Carbon Steel Copper
Medium Carbon Steel Brass
High Carbon Steel Bronze
Cast Iron Zinc
Stainless Steel Lead
Tool Steels Tin
Others antimony and Others
Table 3 example of ferrous and nonferrous metals
Copper is ductile and malleable. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

It also resists corrosion so it is often used as roofing material. Alloys of copper
include brass and bronze.

Institution Name
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Small percentages of tin, lead, and other metals
are also found in some types of brass. The amount of zinc in brass can be determined
by its color, table 4.Tensile strength varies, according to composition and treatment.
Brass is easily polished to a bright finish that is useful in decorative applications.
In the past, bronze was defined as an alloy of copper and tin. Today, however, alloys
of copper and any alloying element other than zinc are also considered bronzes.
Bronze is used in a variety of applications, from decorative bells to marine parts. In
tin bronzes, the amount of tin alloyed with the bronze determines its use, table -
5.Special bronzes, such as phosphor, manganese, gun, and Tobin bronze, each have
different properties that are adapted for special uses. Bronze is used instead of brass
in some instances for its unique appearance and greater strength.
Bronze: A nonferrous metal that is an alloy of copper and tin, or copper and alloying
elements other than zinc.
Table 4 the amount of zinc in brass

determines its color.

Institution Name
Table 5 bronze becomes more brittle when the amount of tin increases above 5
percent.
Zinc is brittle at room temperature, but malleable and ductile between 212ºF (100ºC)
and 300ºF (149ºC). It is commonly used as a coating to prevent corrosion. Steel
sheets are dipped in liquid zinc, resulting in galvanized steel sheets. These are used
in car bodies to reduce corrosion resulting from road salt. Zinc is also used for eaves,
gutters, and roofs because it is light and easy to handle.
Zinc: A nonferrous metal used to galvanize iron and steel against corrosion
Tin is ductile and malleable but has low tensile strength. It can easily be drawn into
wire at 212nF (100ºC) and rolled into very thin sheets. Tin is used as a protective
coating for iron and copper because it resists corrosion.
Antimony is a hard, brittle metal that resembles tin. It is an elementary substance

that resembles metal in its appearance and physical properties, but is chemically
related to the class of nonmetallic substances. It is commonly mixed with lead in

Institution Name
battery plates, and is used in manufacturing semiconductors, paint, and flame

proofing compounds.
Antimony: A hard, brittle nonferrous metal that resembles tin.
Lead is the heaviest of the common metals. It melts at 621nF (327ºC) and is soft
enough to be cut with a knife. Lead is also malleable, ductile, and has low tensile
strength. Compared with other metals, it is not a good conductor of heat or
electricity. It is used to alloy with other metals for bearings and solders. Lead has
largely been replaced in the plumbing industry.
Bismuth has two remarkable properties: its specific gravity decreases under pressure
and it expands on cooling. The melting point is about 5200F (271ºC). Bismuth is
often alloyed with antimony to fill molds completely after solidification.
Bismuth: A nonferrous metal whose specific gravity decreases under pressure and
expands on cooling.
Aluminum is lightweight but can be made extremely strong through the use of
alloying elements or heat treatment. Common aluminum alloying elements include
copper, silicon, magnesium, nickel, iron, zinc, and manganese. Aluminum is
corrosion resistant, attractive, malleable, ductile, and a good conductor of heat and
electricity. Thermal expansion of aluminum is slightly more than twice that of steel
and cast iron.
Aluminum alloy castings are made in sand molds, permanent metal molds, or
pressure die-casting molds. Permanent molds are practical only when a large number
of identical castings are needed. The minimum number that will justify the
production of a metal mold, or die, varies greatly with the nature of the casting.
Institution Name
Aluminum is often rolled into sheets to be stamped, punched, or shaped into many
projects. Sheet aluminum is also used for siding on houses and commercial
buildings. It can be used for various purposes and a number of thicknesses are
available.
Babbitt metal is an antifriction alloy of tin, antimony, and copper. It was invented in
1839 by Isaac Babbitt, a Boston goldsmith. At that time, it was used in steam
engines. Today, Babbitt metal is used as bearing material in automobile crankshafts
and axles, and in marine applications. The alloy is made of a combination of hard
crystals and softer alloys, which allows it to conform to bearing shafts.
White metal is a term often applied to various alloys containing mainly zinc and tin,
or zinc, tin, and lead. White metal is used for bearings.
Activity 3
Discuss briefly the difference between ferrous and
nonferrous metals
MISCELLANEOUS METALS
Monel metal is an alloy of copper and nickel and a small percentage of iron. Its
melting point is 2480nF (1360ºC), and it may be forged from 1650F (740C) to 11000F
(593ºC). An important use of Monel metal is in ship propellers.
Muntz metal is an alloy containing 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin. It is used
when a hard sheet brass is desirable.
Tobin bronze is an alloy containing 58–60 percent copper, about 40 percent zinc,
and a small percentage of iron, tin, and lead. Its tensile strength is about 60,000

Institution Name
pounds per square inch. Delta metal is similar in composition and properties to Tobin
bronze.
Tantung ®is a trade name for a series of alloys that have great hardness, strength,
and toughness, and resistance to wear, heat, impact, corrosion, and erosion, even at
extremely high temperatures. These alloys are composed chiefly of cobalt,
chromium, and tungsten, with either tantalum or columbium carbide and other
components added.
Tantung G ® is widely used in tipped lathe tools, milling cutters, and in solid bits. It
is available in rods and bars that can be used as tool bits or converted into punches,
rollers, drills, and other special tools or wear-resistant parts.
Activity 4
What will happen if we stop using metals in day to day life?

Institution Name
1.2. PROPERTIES OF METALS

MATERIAL SELECTION
Materials are selected for use in products based on their properties, cost, source, and
environmental impact. The most important of these considerations is the properties
of the materials.
The material chosen must have the properties needed for the product. For example,
steel is strong, tough, and elastic. These properties make it useful in the construction
of bridges, buildings, and certain types of machines. These properties can also be
manipulated through the use of alloying elements and heat treatment. Steel is made
even more desirable because its cost is reasonable and it is easy to obtain.
PROPERTIES
Sheet metals are made from various metals, including iron, aluminum, steel, and
copper. Each material has properties that define its character or behavior under
various conditions. Knowing the properties of all types of metals helps in selecting
the right type of sheet metal for a particular job. In some instances, sheet metal
sections are part of a larger project. Knowing the properties of the sheet metal and
how it interacts with the other materials is important.
Properties: The characteristics or qualities of a material when that material is

placed in certain conditions or combined with other materials.
Materials have three basic properties: mechanical, physical, and chemical.

Mechanical properties determine the ability of a material to resist or carry
mechanical stresses or forces. Physical properties are the characteristics of a material

Institution Name
as it interacts with various forms of energy (light, heat, electricity, and magnetism).
Chemical properties are the characteristics of a material as it reacts with its
environment, such as gases, liquids, and solids.
In sheet metal work, engineers are most concerned with a material’s mechanical
properties. These properties include strength, hardness, elasticity, plasticity,
ductility, Malleability, brittleness, and toughness.
STRENGTH
Strength is the ability of a material to resist stress. Stress is the result of a force or
load applied to a material. For example, steel beams used to frame a building are
under stress simply from their own weight. Those beams require incredible strength
to stay in place and not collapse under that weight. All metals need strength to
withstand the stresses encountered in different applications. If material is to be
useable and practical, it requires some type of strength to withstand the stress it will
encounter. Some types of forces and stresses are shown in Figure 4. Refer back to
this figure as you read the following paragraphs.
Strength: A material’s ability to resist stress.
Stress: The result of a force or load applied to a material.
Tensile strength is a material’s ability to resist a pulling force. This force is tensile
stress. Imagine a rope hammock. It is attached tightly to either end of the frame to
keep it taut. The tensile force pulls against the tensile strength of rope used in the
hammock.
Tensile strength: A material’s ability to resist pulling forces.

Institution Name
Compressive strength resists the force created by materials pressing together or

compacting. Compressive force is created by opposite forces pushing against each
other.
Compressive strength: A material’s ability to resist the force created by opposite

objects pushing against each other.
Flex strength is the ability to withstand tensile and compressive forces. When a
material is flexed, it experiences tension on one side and compression on the
opposite side.
Flex strength: The ability of a material to withstand bending forces.
Shear strength is a material’s ability to resist sliding action. The sliding action or
force is parallel to the resisting area. Shear force is usually not as strong in most
materials as tensile or compressive force. A related strength is torsion strength, the
ability to resist a rotating force.
Shear strength: A material’s ability to resist sliding forces.
Torsion strength: Related to shear strength; the ability of a material to resist a

rotating force.

Institution Name
Fig 4 Study the difference in the types of force applied to materials.
Impact strength is a material’s ability to withstand a sudden shock or load. When

a rock hits the windshield of a car, the impact strength of the windshield will be
tested. If it is strong enough, the rock will not shatter the windshield. However, if
the rock is too large or heavy, it will fracture the windshield.
Impact strength: The ability of a material to withstand a sudden shock or load.

Institution Name
Fatigue strength is the ability to withstand repeated stress. Fatigue stress is cyclic,
occurring over and over. Bending a metal rod back and forth repeatedly at the same
point is an example of fatigue stress. Eventually, the rod will break.
Fatigue strength: The ability of a material to withstand repeated stress.

Activity 5
What is the basic difference between tensile force, compressive
force, bending force, shear force and torsional force?
HARDNESS
Hardness is the ability of material to resist penetration or scratching by another

material. It is one of the most important properties of metal as it relates directly to
several other properties. Knowing the hardness of a material also indicates the
strength, brittleness, and ductility of that material. Hardness is measured using
several methods that will be explained later in this chapter.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after a load is
removed. For example, a rubber band returns to its original shape after it is stretched.
The elastic limits the maximum load this material can hold without being
permanently deformed.
Plasticity is the ability of a material to be permanently deformed without breaking.

Nearly all metals have this property. It is a useful property for materials that are
forged or extruded.

Institution Name
DUCTILITY AND BRITTLENESS
Ductility applies to material that can be drawn out, stretched, twisted, or bent when
cold, without breaking. Ductile materials are flexible and include iron, nickel, and
lead.
Material that breaks easily, with a somewhat smooth fracture is called brittle.
Brittleness usually increases as material becomes harder.
Ductility: The ability of material to be drawn out, stretched, twisted, or bent when
cold, without breaking.
Brittleness: A characteristic of a material that allows it to break suddenly.
Fig 5 elasticity Fig 6 Ductility
Toughness
Toughness is a property related to strength and ductility. Tough materials have the
ability to absorb shock and to be deformed without breaking.

Institution Name
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered,rolled, or pressed into various
shapes without rupture or fracture.
Fig 7 Malleability
Activity 6
1. What is the basic difference between Plasticity and Elasticity?
2. What is the basic difference between Ductility and
Malleability?

Institution Name
LO2. Test basic applications and methods for manufacturing
2. APPLICATIONS AND METHODS FOR MANUFACTURING
2.1. SELECTION OF CUTTING TOOLS
One of the most important components in machining process Success in metal

cutting depends on selection of the proper cutting tool (material and geometry) for a
given work material.
Basic properties that cutting must possess are:
 Tool material must be at least 30 to 50% harder than the work piece material.
 Tool material must have high hot hardness temperature.
 High toughness (impact strength).
 High wear resistance
 High thermal conductivity
 Lower coefficient of friction
 Easiness in fabrication and cheap
 Resistance to deformation
 Chemical stability
Activity 7
Why we say that cutting tools must be harder than
the work piece material?

Institution Name
2.2. TESTING OF MATERIALS
Materials are tested to determine what properties they possess and to what degree.
This information is then used when choosing materials for a specific application.
The materials chosen must be able to support the expected load. For example, bridge-
building materials need completely different properties than materials used for
gutters. Safety is the most important reason material testing is done.
Testing of materials are necessary for many reasons, and the subject of materials
testing is very broad one. Some of the purpose for the testing of materials are:
1. To determine the quality of a material. This may be one aspect of process control
in production plant.
2. To determine such properties as strength, hardness, and ductility.
3. To check for flaws within a material or in a finished component.
4. To assess the likely performance of the material in a particular service condition
In short
Why are metals tested?
 Ensure quality
 Test properties
 Prevent failure in use
 Make informed choices in using materials
Factor of Safety is the ratio comparing the actual stress on a material and the safe
useable stress.

Institution Name
Testing is conducted using a material sample. The results of testing are assumed to
apply to all material from which the sample is taken. In other words, the test results
from a bolt taken from a group of 500 bolts will apply to all the bolts in that group.
Testing can be destructive or nondestructive. In destructive testing, the test piece is

destroyed and is no longer usable. Changes the dimensions or physical and structural
integrity of the specimen. (It is essentially destroyed during the test)
e.g., Tensile, Compression, Shear and Rockwell Hardness
In nondestructive testing the test piece is not destroyed and can, therefore, be used
in a finished product. Does not affect the structural integrity of the sample. (A
measurement that does not affect the specimen in any way) e.g., weighing,
measurements etc.
Activity 8
Why are metals tested? What if we used them without test?
MECHANICAL TESTING (DESTRUCTIVE TESTING)

Word that mostly we used
 Ultimate Tensile Strength - The maximum tensile stress that a material is

capable of developing during a test.
 Load- Applied force either pounds or newton's
 Stress - The intensity of the internally-distributed forces or components of
forces that resist a change in the form of a body. Commonly measured in units
dealing with force per unit area, such as pounds per square inch (PSI or lb/in2)
or Mega Pascal's (Mpa). The three basic types of stress are tension,

Institution Name
compression, and shear. The first two, tension and compression, are called
direct stresses.
 Elastic Limit - The greatest amount of stress a material can develop without
taking a permanent set.
 Percent Elongation - The total percent strain that a specimen develops during
testing.
 Modulus of Elasticity - Also known as Young’s modulus; calculated by
finding the slope of the stress-strain curve for a given material within the range
of its linear proportionality between stress and strain.
 Proportional Limit - The greatest stress a material can develop without
deviating from linearity between stress and strain. Otherwise stated, the
greatest stress developed in a material within its elastic range.
 Percent Reduction in Area - The difference between the original and final
cross-sectional areas of a test piece, expressed as a percentage.
 Yield Point – Also referred to as Elastic Limit, is the point at which any
additional stress will result in permanent deformation.
 Yield Strength - The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting
permanent set.
STRESS AND STRAIN
Recall that stress is defined as a naturally occurring force or load working against
the material. Stress is measured as force per unit area, such as pounds per square
inch or newton per square meter. This stress causes the tested material to deform.
The deformation is known as strain and causes elongation, compression, or
distortion of the material.
Institution Name
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
Elasticity and plasticity determine the ability of a material to return to its previous
shape after stress is released. Elastic material will return to its original shape and
plastic material will retain some permanent deformation after the load is removed,
Figure 7
Fig 7 note the differences between elasticity and plasticity

Institution Name
TENSILE STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY

Tensile strength and ductility are both measured by applying a pulling force to a
sample. The tensile strength machine has a set of jaws. The material sample is placed
in the machine and then pulled apart by the jaws until the material breaks. The
machine also provides a profile, outlining how the material reacted to the force being
applied. Tensile strength is measured by the elongation of the material. Ductility is
also tested using a tensile test and is measured by the elongation of the material and
the reduction in cross sectional area.
There are a several tensile testing machine, as in figure shows.
Fig 8 tensile testing machine fig 9 the schematic drawing of a tensile

Institution Name
Testing apparatus. These machines are capable of performing compression, shear

and bending tests as well as tensile tests. The typical progress of tensile test can be
seen in the next fig
Figure 10. Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load; (2)
uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area; (3) continued elongation,
maximum load reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to decrease; and (5) fracture.
If pieces are put back together as in (6), final length can be measured.
Let's now look at Figure 3. In this figure, the gauge length (L0) is the length over
which the elongation of the specimen is measured. The minimum parallel length
(Lc) is the minimum length over which the specimen must maintain a constant cross-
sectional area before the test load is applied. The lengths L0. Lc, Li. and the cross-
sectional area (A) are all specified in BS 18.

Institution Name
The elongation obtained for a given force depends upon the length and area of the
cross-section of the specimen or component, since:
Elongation = applied force x L/E x A
Where L = length
A = cross-sectional area
E = elastic modulus
Therefore if the ratio [L/A] is kept constant (as it is in a proportional test piece), and
E remains constant for a given material, then comparisons can be made between
elongation and applied force for specimens of different sizes.
TENSILE TEST RESULTS
Let's now look at the sort of results we would get from a typical tensile test on a
piece of annealed low-carbon steel. The load applied to the specimen and the
corresponding extension can be plotted in the form of a graph, as shown in Figure
11 and 12.

Institution Name
Fig 11 Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel
Fig 12 stress strain curve

Institution Name
 From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load. Also, if the load
is removed the specimen returns to its original length. Under these relatively
lightly loaded conditions the material is showing elastic properties.
 From B to C it can be seen from the graph that the metal suddenly extends
with no increase in load. If the load is removed at this point the metal will not
spring back to its original length and it is said to have taken a permanent set.
Therefore, B is called "limit of proportionality ", and if the force is increased
beyond this point a stage is reached where a sudden extension takes place with
no increase in force. This is known as the “yield point” C.
 The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is, the load at B divided by
the original cross-section area of the specimen. Usually, a designer works at
50 percent of this figure to allow for a 'factor of safety'.
 From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, and if the load is
removed little or no spring back will occur. Under these relatively greater
loads the material is showing plastic properties.
 The point D is referred to as the 'ultimate tensile strength' when referred
extension graphs or the 'ultimate tensile stress' (UTS) when referred to stress-
strain graphs. The ultimate tensile stress is calculated by dividing the load at
D by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Although a useful
figure for comparing the relative strengths of materials, it has little practical
value since engineering equipment is not usually operated so near to the
breaking point.
 From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under reduced load
conditions. In fact the specimen is thinning out (necking) so that the 'load per
Institution Name
unit area' or stress is actually increasing. The specimen finally work hardens
to such an extent that it breaks at E.
In general, values of load and extension are of limited use since they apply to one
particular size of specimen and it is more usual to plot the stress strain curve.
P
 
A0
P is the load in lbs. on the specimen and A0 is the original cross-sectional area near
the center of the specimen.
l  l0

l0
l is the gage length at a given load and l0 is the original gage length with zero load
and The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region is the
modulus of elasticity, which is known as Young's modulus

E

Institution Name
The tensile test experimental results on some materials
The interpretation of tensile test data requires skill borne out of experience, since
many factors can affect the test results - for instance, the temperature at which the
test is carried out, since the tensile modulus and tensile strength decrease as the
temperature rises for most metals and plastics, whereas the ductility increases as the
temperature rises. The test results are also influenced by the rate at which the
specimen is strained. Figure 12 shows a typical stress-strain curve for an annealed
mild steel. From such a curve we can deduce the following information.
 The material is ductile since there is a long elastic range.

 The material is fairly rigid since the slope of the initial elastic range is steep.
 The limit of proportionality (elastic limit) occurs at about 230 MPa.
 The upper yield point occurs at about 260 MPa.
 The lower yield point occurs at about 230 MPa.
 The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) occurs at about 400MPa.

Institution Name
Fig 12 Typical stress-strain curve for annealed mild steel.
And the next fig which is Figure 13 shows a typical stress-strain curve for a grey
cast iron. From such a curve we can deduce the following information.
 The material is brittle since there is little plastic deformation before it

fractures.
 A gain the material is fairly rigid since the slope of the initial elastic range is
steep.
 It is difficult to determine the point at which the limit of proportionality
occurs, but it is approximately 200 MPa.
 The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is the same as the breaking stress for this
sample. This indicates negligible reduction in cross-section (necking) and
minimal ductility and malleability. It occurs at approximately 250 MPa.

Institution Name
Fig 13 Typical stress-strain curve of grey cast iron.
It is important to determine the properties of polymeric materials which are May

ranged from highly plastic to the highly elastic. As in figure 14 the stress-strain
curves for polymeric materials have been classified in to five main groups,
Fig 14 Typical stress-strain curves for polymers.

Institution Name
TENSILE TESTING – PROCEDURE
 Tensile tests are used to determine the tensile properties of a material,

including the tensile strength. The tensile strength of a material is the
maximum tensile stress that can be developed in the material.
 In order to conduct a tensile test, the proper specimen must be obtained. This
specimen should conform to ASTM standards for size and features. Prior to
the test, the cross-sectional area may be calculated and a pre-determined gage
length marked.
 The specimen is then loaded into a machine set up for tensile loads and placed
in the proper grippers. Once loaded, the machine can then be used to apply a
steady, continuous tensile load.
 Data is collected at pre-determined points or increments during the test.
Depending on the material and specimen being tested, data points may be
more or less frequent. Data include the applied load and change in gage length.
The load is generally read from the machine panel in pounds or kilograms.
 The change in gage length is determined using an extensometer. An
extensometer is firmly fixed to the machine or specimen and relates the
amount of deformation or deflection over the gage length during a test.
 While paying close attention to the readings, data points are collected until the
material starts to yield significantly. This can be seen when deformation
continues without having to increase the applied load. Once this begins, the
extensometer is removed and loading continued until failure. Ultimate tensile
strength and rupture strength can be calculated from this latter loading.

Institution Name
 Once data have been collected, the tensile stress developed and the resultant
strain can be calculated. Stress is calculated based on the applied load and
cross-sectional area. Strain is the change in length divided by the original
length.
THE COMPRESSION TEST
Simplistically, compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing. A compressive

load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen. The choice of a compression test
over other types of testing largely depends on the type of loading the material will
see during application or service.
Metals and many plastics, for example, are more efficient at resisting tensile loads.
Therefore, they are more commonly tested using tensile loading, depending on the
application, of course. Materials, such as concrete, brick, and some ceramic
products, are more often used in applications for their compressive loading
properties and are, therefore, tested in compression. Again, it is important to choose
the test that best reflects the loads and conditions the material will be subjected to in
application or service.
Because the compression test increase the cross-sectional area of the sample,
necking never occurs.

Institution Name
Fig15 shows a comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths of gray cast iron
and concrete, both of which are brittle materials.
COMPRESSION TESTING – PROCEDURE
During a typical compression test, data are collected regarding the applied load,
resultant deformation or deflection, and condition of the specimen. For brittle
materials, the compressive strength is relatively easy to obtain, showing marked
failure. However, for ductile materials, the compressive strength is generally based
on an arbitrary deformation value. Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden
fractures that brittle materials present. They tend to buckle and "barrel out".

Institution Name
Fig 16 Sample under Compressive Loads
 Prior to this and any test, the dimensions of the specimen should be measured
with adequate precision using proper instruments. Once these measurements
have been taken and recorded, the specimen should be loaded into the testing
machine.
 In compression testing, and testing in general, care should be taken to insure
that the axis of the specimen is centered and aligned with the axis of loading.
 Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary, but a general
figure is 0.005 inches per minute strain rate. Loading rates typically range
from 500-1000 lb/min.
 As in most tests of mechanical properties, the loading rate can adversely affect
the results if you get carried away. Loading continues at this rate up to
approximately one-half of the anticipated strength and, then, should be
reduced to allow for more frequent data collection. In this way, subtle changes
can be observed in the specimen's behavior.
 As in all of these tests, please observe proper safety procedures. Obtain and
properly wear personal protective equipment. Some of these materials exhibit
violent fractures with explosive results.
SHEAR TESTING
Shear testing involves an applied force or load that acts in a direction parallel to the
plane in which the load is applied. Shear loads act differently than, say, tensile or
compressive loads that act normal or perpendicular to the axis of loading. Direct
shear and torsional shear are important forces used to determine shear properties.

Institution Name
Direct or torsional loading depends on the forces a material is expected to be

subjected to during service.
SHEAR TESTING - PROCEDURE
 Before testing, the specimen is accurately measured using proper instruments

and the gage length is marked. The troptometer or a suitable replacement is
attached to the specimen and zeroed out. Proper precautions should be taken
to center the specimen in the machine or fixture. The grippers are tightened to
insure against slippage, yet not so tight as to cause deformations which would
affect test results.
 In general, shear testing involves either direct or torsional loading. In direct
shear tests, the specimen is placed in the shear test fixture and a load is
applied. This can be seen in the figure below. For plate specimens, a punch
and die combination may be used. Plastics, generally, are square specimens
with holes in either end to facilitate gripping. The applied load and resultant
deformation are recorded and a suitable graph can be plotted.
Fig 17 shear test

Institution Name
IMPACT TESTS (TOUGHNESS TESTING)
A specimen under test will exhibit different properties, depending on the rate at
which the load is applied. For example, most materials will exhibit greater strength
is the load is applied in a slower, gentler manner (static loading) than suddenly
(dynamic). Because properties are strain-rate dependent, tests have been
standardized to determine the energy required to break materials used sudden blows.
These are termed impact tests.
Impact tests generally involve sudden shock loading that results in breakage of the
specimen. The result is calculated based on the energy required to break the
specimen and the resultant loss of momentum. This can be calculated if one knows
the initial energy and final energy or the initial angle and final angle of the object
used to break the specimen. The Izod and Charpy tests are commonly used to
measure impact strength. They differ only slightly, the configuration and
specifications of the test specimen
Toughness is measured using an impact test. Impact tests are designed to test the
ability of a notched sample to absorb sudden force. A striker is mounted on the end
of a pendulum. When it is released, it breaks the sample. The height of the swinging
pendulum after it breaks the sample is the amount of energy absorbed by the sample
piece.

Institution Name
Figure 18 shows a typical impact testing machine which has a hammer that is
suspended like a pendulum, a vice for holding the specimen in the correct position
relative to the hammer and a dial for indicating the energy absorbed in carrying out
the test in joules (J). When the heavy pendulum, released from a known height,
strikes and breaks the sample before it continues its upward swing. From knowledge
of the mass of the pendulum and the difference between the initial and final heights,
the energy absorbed in fracture can be calculated, as shown in figure 19 the
schematic drawing of the impact test machine.
Fig 18 impact tests machine fig 19 schematic drawing of the impact test machine
Figure 20 shows how a piece of high carbon steel rod will bend when in the annealed
condition, after hardening and lightly tempering, the same piece of steel will fracture
when hit with a different hammer.

Institution Name
Figure 20 Impact loading: (a) a rod of high-carbon (1.0%) steel in the annealed (soft)
Condition will bend struck with a hammer (UTS 925 MPa); (b) after hardening and
lightly tempering, the same piece steel will fracture when hit with a hammer despite
its UTS having increased to 1285 MPa.
There are several types of the impact tests and the most famous type is the Izod test.
In the Izod test, a 10mm square, notched specimen is used, it is preferred to use a
specimen that have a more than one or two and even three notched in the same
specimen. The striker of the pendulum hits the specimen with a kinetic energy of
162.72 J at a velocity of 3.8m/s. Since test use a notched specimen, useful
information can be obtained regarding the resistance of the material to the spread of
a crack which may originate from a point of stress concentration such as sharp
comers, undercuts, sudden changes in section, and machining marks in stressed
components. Such points of stress concentration should be eliminated during design
and manufacture.

Institution Name
Fig 21 Izod test (Strikes at 162.72 Joules.)
A second type of impact test is the Charpy test. While in the Izod test the specimen
is supported as a cantilever, but in the Charpy test it is supported as a beam. It is
struck with a kinetic energy of 298.3 J at a velocity of 5m/s. The Charpy impact test
is usually use for testing the toughness of polymers.
Fig 22 Charpy impact test (Strikes form higher position

with 298.3 Joules)

Institution Name
HARDNESS
Hardness is measured using one of a variety of hardness tests. Hardness can be

determined using a scratch test, an indentation test, or a rebound test.
In a scratch test, a sharp file is drawn slowly and firmly across the surface of the
sample material. If the file does not bite into the surface, it is considered file hard. If
the file cuts quickly and easily into the surface, the material is soft. There are several
obvious disadvantages to this test. There are differences in the files used for testing.
There are differences in the way operators conduct the test. The hardness cannot be
recorded as numerical data. The advantages include that the test is inexpensive,
rapid, and nondestructive. A skilled inspector may be able to use the test to discard
unsatisfactory pieces.
The shore scleroscope hardness test is a type of rebound test. A small diamond-
pointed hammer is dropped from a predetermined height onto the surface of the test
piece. The rebound height of the hammer is measured and this number translates to
a scale. The corresponding number on the scale is the scleroscope hardness number.
Softer material has greater deformation and less energy available for rebound.
Indentation testing methods are the most commonly used method. In these tests, an
indenter of a known force is pressed into the material. The depth or area of the
resulting indentation is measured and given a hardness value. Values differ based on
which test is used.
There are four different hardness tests:
 Rockwell.
 Brinell.
Institution Name
 Knoop.
 Vickers.
Each test has its own scale and these scales do not correlate with each other. So, a
five on a Rockwell test is not the same as a five on a Knoop test. However, all values
increase as hardness increases.
The Rockwell hardness test uses either a hardened steel ball or a diamond-tipped
cone as the indenter. A minor load is applied first and then a major load. The minor
load produces an initial indentation. The dial is then set at zero, and the major load
is applied for a set time interval. Hardness numbers are read directly from the
indicating dial. A Rockwell hardness tester is shown in Figure 23
Fig 23 One type of Rockwell hardness tester

Institution Name
Fig 24 Rockwell indenter (Rockwell B (ball) used

for soft materials. Rockwell C (cone) uses diamond cone for hard materials.)
Rockwell tests are considered nondestructive because the indentations are so small
they do not affect the integrity of the test piece. Rockwell tests are rapid and accurate.
In the higher hardness range, it is considered more accurate than the Brinell test.
The Brinell hardness test applies a predetermined load onto a hardened steel ball that
then presses into the material under that load for a short time interval (not less than
15 seconds). See Figure 27 The diameter of the indentation is measured in two
directions and averaged. This average is converted to a Brinell hardness number
using a chart or a formula. Generally, the softer the metal, the larger the indentation,
and the lower the Brinell hardness number. The Brinell test is considered destructive
under some conditions.

Institution Name
Fig 25 Brinell hardness tester
Fig 26 Brinell hardness indenter (Uses ball shaped indenter)

Institution Name
Fig 27 an illustration of The Brinell hardness test
The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test. It is used to test the hardness of
very brittle or thin materials that can have only a small indentation made for testing
purposes. It is considered a destructive test. Precautions that must be observed when
conducting this test make it impractical in many situations.
The Vickers hardness test is done in the same way as the Brinell test, but using a
differently shaped indenter. The impression left by the Vickers indenter is clearer
than that left by the Brinell indenter.
Fig 28 Vickers hardness test indenter (Uses square

shaped pyramid indenter.)

Institution Name
Relationship between Mechanical Properties and Hardness
All mechanical properties are directly affected by hardness.
 Toughness increases as hardness decreases. In contrast, toughness decreases

as plasticity and ductility decrease.
 Plasticity increases as hardness decreases. When hardness of a metal becomes
great enough, the metal ruptures before plastic deformation takes place.
 Ductility decreases as hardness increases. Decrease in ductility can make
fabrication of a metal more difficult.
 Tensile strength increases as hardness increases.
Effects of Temperature
All mechanical properties are affected by temperature. As temperature increases,

tensile strength and hardness decrease. As temperature increases, plasticity and
deformation also increase. The effects of temperature on the mechanical properties
of metals are numerous and complicated.

Institution Name
RECORD AND COMPARE TESTING RESULTS
COMPLETION GUIDE FOR THE MATERIAL TEST REPORT (MTR)
The Material Test Report (MTR) provides a record of the Material test results taken
from product produced during the product on process run. Unless the customer
specific requirements (PPAP Element 18) differ, the results relate to the method
defined within the Test Inspection Criteria (TIC) for ongoing production. The
following provides reference to the MTR and guidance on what is required to
complete the report.
Activity 9
1. 1 what is the difference between destructive and non-
destructive metal testing?
2. What is the use of recording and comparing testing results?

Institution Name
MATERIAL TEST Report no
1 REPORT [MTR] Sheet of
PSO REFERENCE/VENDOR CODE DRAWING NUMBER PRODUCT NUMBER
NAME OF FACILITY (if different to ENGINEERING CHANGE/ISSUE LEVEL PRODUCT NAME

PSO)
CHAR RESULT EVALUATION

2 NO
SPECIFICATION
TOL - TOL + PRO.1 PRO.2 PRO.3 PRO.4 PRO.5 OK NOT OK
3 PREPARED BY
PRINT NAME SIGNATURE TITLE DATE
AUTHORISED BY
PRINT NAME SIGNATURE TITLE DATE

Institution Name
Table 6 MATERIAL TEST REPORT [MTR]
AREA 1:
1. REPORT No.: The reference number used by the Production Supply Organization
to link this document to the associated Production Submission Warrant (PSW).
2. SHEET: The sequence referred for the sheet in use and the total used, e.g. First
sheet of two sheets would be 1 of 2.
3. PSO REFERENCE/VENDOR CODE: The name of the production facility that

produces the product and completes the inspection (name and code assigned to the
production site).
4. DRAWING NUMBER (shown on drawing): The design definition reference that

specifies the customer number for the product related to the Material Test Report.
5. PRODUCT NUMBER: If different to item 4, the design definition released

finished end item product number.
6. NAME OF FACILITY (if different to PSO): The name of the facility that carried
out the material testing when this is different to the PSO.
7. ENGINEERING CHANGE/ISSUE LEVEL: The change level and date of the

design definition.
8. PRODUCT NAME: The name for the product referenced on the drawing.
AREA 2:
9. CHAR No.: A common reference used by the PSO to identify the characteristic,
this is consistent throughout all documents and reports used.

Institution Name
10. SPECIFICATION: The specification value and unit of measure detailed within
the design definition or engineering specifications.
11. TOL (-) or (+): Acceptance criteria for the associated engineering value (Upper
and Lower limit of the specification).
12. RESULTS: The result for the product analyzed (i.e. Product 1 or 2 or 3, etc.) as
an output of the required Test/Inspection Criteria.
13. EVALUATION: An indication of the referenced characteristic and evaluation

of the results conformance to requirements as either OK (acceptable) or NOT OK
(not acceptable).
AREA 3:
14. PREPARED BY: Details of the person who has completed the report (e.g.
Inspector, Metrologies etc.)
15. AUTHORISED BY: Details of the person who has reviewed and is authorizing
the report (e.g. PPAP Coordinator
Nondestructive Material Testing with
Ultrasonic
Introduction to the Basic Principles
Documentation
The higher the value of a test object or the greater the importance of a component
with regard to the safety requirements of the complete object e.g. an aircraft bolt,
then the more important the required ultrasonic documentation becomes(product

Institution Name
liability) . On the one hand this documentation proves that the test was completely
and correctly carried out, and on the other hand enables the test to be repeated at any
time under the same conditions (test reproducibility).
The documentation, the test report of an ultrasonic test, roughly consists of 3 parts:
A. Data concerning the test object and the test method.

B. Data concerning the testing device.
C. Results of the test:
Typical tabular list of all detected and evaluated discontinuities, refer to the example
report, if necessary, a drawing of the test object with flaw positions. The operator
must record data during the test, especially data of the detected discontinuity.
Creation of the actual report is normally made later in the office. The recordings
must be frequently supplemented by calculations before the operator transfers them
into the report. The creation of a test report very often takes as much time as the
actual test itself and should be taken into account when determining test expenditure.
Even when working conscientiously, transfer or calculation errors cannot be
excluded, especially with large amounts of data.
Modern ultrasonic instruments with memory and data transfer functions greatly
improve recording of the adjustment data and test results during the test as well as
creation of the test report and therefore ease the operator of a burden, who can then
concentrate on the test task. By directly storing of all discontinuity data in the
instrument, transfer errors can be excluded, position coordinates of the detected
discontinuities are entered into the instrument and are therefore contained in the

Institution Name
stored data set along with the A-Scan. If required, the documentation can be printed
at the test location, Fig. 30.
Fig 30 USD 10 my choice table with flaw data
Individual documentation matched to the test task is carried out with a PC. The
possibilities for measurement data processing are as versatile as the programs
offered on the market. In order to make the application of data communication with
a digital ultrasonic instrument flexible, a utility program is very often used. This is
normally a program which is easy to operate and enables reliable data transfer
between PC and test instrument.
In addition to this, all stored instrument settings (= Data set), the corresponding
adjustment parameters (= Function lists), the display contents (= A-Scans) as well
as the individual parameters can be recalled and stored on a floppy disk or hard disk.
Function lists are filed into an ASCII format, A-Scans and LCD menus in normal
graphic formats (PCX, IMG). A data set corresponds to a complete instrument
adjustment and is saved in a hexadecimal format. This guarantees that by return
transfer of the data set to the test instrument exactly the same instrument settings are

Institution Name
available. The function lists and graphics are now available to the operator for further
use. Now he is able to use his own program (word processing, database) for
individual design of his own test documentation. Instrument settings and display
graphics are simply read into his program. This routine work is easily made by a so
called Macro. A macro is nothing more than a list of commands belonging to the
user program being used and runs automatically thus creating the required
documentation. The names of the files to be processed are requested, in dialog, by
the operator. The following report is an example of documentation automatically
produced for a weld test. The test was made with the USK 7 D and the indications
from the discontinuities stored in the instrument. Finally, all data (function lists and
A-Scans) were stored on a disk using the program Ultra Doc. The test report was
made with a macro from the program WordPerfect 5.1:

Institution Name
DIAGNOSIS OF INDICATIONS (OUTLOOK)
As opposed to the tasks of an ultrasonic operator, dealt with up until now, the
diagnosis of indications is not only based on measured ascertainable parameters. The
interpretation of the echo is an additional task. This interpretation normally requires
many years of practical experience including carrying out comparison tests of
ultrasonic findings with the results of a destructive test on a test object which is no
longer to be used. Methods for diagnosis of indications as well as signal analysis
techniques using auxiliary equipment are outside the bounds of this introduction to
ultrasonic testing. For this, there is a range of literature available as well as many
special publications which we would like to point out to the reader.

Institution Name
MANUFACTURING METHODS
THE PROCESS OF CONVERTING RAW MATERIALS INTO PRODUCTS
Sequence of operations, often done on a machine or at a given area.
Historical Perspective:
Stone → Bronze → Iron → Advanced materials
Beginning of the Material Science - People began to make tools from stone – Start
of the Stone Age about two million years ago. The Stone Age ended about 5000
years ago with introduction of Bronze in the Far East. The Iron Age began about
3000 years ago and continues today. Age of Advanced materials: throughout the Iron
Age many new types of materials have been introduced (ceramic, semiconductors,
polymers, composites…).
Iron is found in iron oxide in the earth.
Three primary iron ores:
o magnetite,
o hematite,
o taconite
Iron is extracted using blast furnace
Steps in extraction of iron
 Ores is washed, crushed and mixed with limestone and coke

 The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted

Institution Name
 Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is used to convert the iron oxides to
iron
 Limestone helps to separate the impurities from the metal
 The liquid waste is known as slag that floats on the molten iron
 They are then tapped off (separated)
 The iron produced is only about 90% to 95% pure.
 The iron is then further refined using the basic oxygen furnace and the electric
arc furnace to produce steel which is widely used now.
Fig blast furnace
 Ore, coke, and limestone are “charged” in layers into the top of a blast furnace
 Ore is the source of the iron , Coke is the source of the carbon (coke is derived
from coal, by heating in a coking oven)
 Limestone acts as a fluxing slag to remove impurities like sulphur and silica
Institution Name
 1100-deg. air blown into bottom of furnace, burns oxygen off the iron oxides,
causing temperature in furnace to get above the melting point of iron (approx
3000 degrees)
 Molten iron sinks to bottom of furnace, where it is tapped off from furnace
and cast into large ingots called “pigs”…pigs contain high carbon content (4%
or so), plus many impurities, such as sulphur and silica which wasn’t removed
by the limestone.
 Shortly the next schematic drawing will explain as briefly
Into different thing means that
 Casting: expendable mold and permanent mold etc.

 Forming and Shaping: rolling, forging, sheet forming, molding etc.
Institution Name
 Machining: turning, boring, drilling, milling,, shaping, grinding, ultrasonic

machining, chemical machining etc. .
 Joining: welding, soldering, mechanical joining etc.
 Finishing: surface treating, coating, plating etc.
Activity 9
1. Discuss briefly extraction of pig iron and steel
4. HEAT
2. What are the three TREATMENT
basic things( materials ) that we use in blast
furnace during iron extraction and discuss briefly the use of them
in the process

Institution Name
LO4. Define common heat treatment outcomes and applications
4.1. Identify heat treatment process
Heat treatment is any one of a number of controlled heating and cooling operations
used to bring about a desired change in the physical properties of a metal. Its purpose
is to improve the structural and physical properties for some particular use or for
future work of the metal. There are five basic heat treating processes: hardening,
case hardening, annealing, normalizing, and tempering. Although each of these
processes bring about different results in metal, all of them involve three basic steps:
heating, soaking, and cooling.
1) Heat the metal to the correct temperature

2) Keep it at that temperature for the required length of time (soaking)
3) Cool it in the correct way to give the desired properties
Activity 10
Why are metals heat treated?
HEATING
Heating is the first step in a heat-treating process. Many alloys change structure
when they are heated to specific temperatures. The structure of an alloy at room
temperature can be either a mechanical mixture, a solid solution, or a combination
solid solution and mechanical mixture.
A mechanical mixture can be compared to concrete. Just as the. Sand and gravel are
visible and held in place by the cement. The elements and compounds in a
mechanical mixture are clearly visible and are held together by a matrix of base

Institution Name
metal. A solid solution is when two or more metals are absorbed, one into the other,
and form a solution. When an alloy is in the form of a solid solution, the elements
and compounds forming the metal are absorbed into each other in much the same
way that salt is dissolved in a glass of water. The separate elements forming the
metal cannot be identified even under a microscope. A metal in the form of a
mechanical mixture at room temperature often goes into a solid solution or a partial
solution when it is heated. Changing the chemical composition in this way brings
about certain predictable changes in grain size and structure. This leads to the second
step in the heat treating process: soaking.
SOAKING
Once a metal part has been heated to the temperature at which desired changes in its
structure will take place, it must remain at that temperature until the entire part has
been evenly heated throughout. This is known as soaking. The more mass the part
has, the longer it must be soaked.
COOLING
After the part has been properly soaked, the third step is to cool it. Here again, the
structure may change from one chemical composition to another, it may stay the
same, or it may revert to its original form. For example, a metal that is a solid
solution after heating may stay the same during cooling, change to a mechanical
mixture, or change to a combination of the two, depending on the type of metal and
the rate of cooling. All of these changes are predictable. For that reason, many metals
can be made to conform to specific structures in order to increase their hardness,
toughness, ductility, tensile strength, and so forth

Institution Name
4.2. CHANGING OF METAL PROPERTIES
HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS
All heat-treating operations involve the heating and cooling of metals, the common
forms of heat treatment for ferrous metals are hardening, tempering, annealing,
normalizing, and case hardening.
HARDENING
Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a process of heat
treatment and other is an extrinsic property of a material.
A ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required

temperature and then cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot metal into a quenching
medium, such as oil, water, or brine. Most steels must be cooled rapidly to harden
them. The hardening process increases the hardness and strength of metal, but also
increases its brittleness.
Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance are important.
The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness. This enables
tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed by this process also improves
wear resistance. Gears, shafts and bearings. Tensile strength and yield strength are
improved considerably y hardening structural steels.

Institution Name
Fig 29 application of gear
Because of rapid cooling, high internal stresses are developed in the hardened
steel. Hence these steels are generally brittle. Hardening in general is followed by
another treatment known as tempering which reduces internal stresses and makes
the hardened steel relatively stable.
TEMPERING
Steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use after being
hardened. Severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling of the metal.
Steel is tempered after being hardened to relieve the internal stresses and reduce its
brittleness. Tempering consists of heating the metal to a specified temperature and
then permitting the metal to cool. The rate of cooling usually has no effect on the
metal structure during tempering. Therefore, the metal is usually permitted to cool
in still air. Temperatures used for tempering are normally much lower than the
hardening temperatures. The higher the tempering temperature used, the softer the
metal becomes. High-speed steel is one of the few metals that becomes harder
instead of softer after it is tempered.
Institution Name
The temperatures are related to the function of the parts. Cutting tools are tempered
between 230 – 300 oC. If greater ductility and toughness are desired as in case of
shafts and high strength bolts, the steel is tempered in the range of 300 – 600 oC.
Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the cooler. Tempering

temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:
1. Low- temperature tempering (150 – 250 o C),

2. Medium – temperature tempering (350 – 450 o C),
3. High – temperature tempering (500 – 650 o C).
Fig 30 tempering colors of steel

ANNEALING
Metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make them more
ductile, and refine their grain structures. Metal is annealed by heating it to a
Institution Name
prescribed temperature, holding it at that temperature for the required time, and then
cooling it back to room temperature. The rate at which metal is cooled from the
annealing temperature varies greatly. Steel must be cooled very slowly to produce
maximum softness, This can be done by burying the hot part in sand, ashes, or some
other substance that does not conduct heat readily(packing), or by shutting off the
furnace and allowing the furnace and part to cool together (furnace cooling).
Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of materials from high temperature

to room temperature or even lower.
Fig 31 difference between annealed and hardened metals
NORMALIZING
Ferrous metals are normalized to relieve the internal stresses produced by

machining, forging, or welding. Normalized steels are harder and stronger than
annealed steels. Steel is much tougher in the normalized condition than in any other
condition. Parts that will be subjected to impact and parts that require maximum
toughness and resistance to external stresses are usually normalized. Normalizing
prior to hardening is beneficial in obtaining the desired hardness, provided the
Institution Name
hardening operation is performed correctly. Low carbon steels do not usually require
normalizing, but no harmful effects result if these steels are normalized. Normalizing
is achieved by heating the metal to a specified temperature (which is higher than
either the hardening or annealing temperatures), soaking the metal until it is
uniformly heated, and cooling it in still air.
Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except steel is generally cooled in still air
In some special cases, cooling rates can be controlled by either changing air
temperature or air volume. The grain size is finer in normalized structure than in
annealed structure. Normalized steels are generally stronger and harder than fully
annealed steels.
Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to achieve any one or

more of the objectives, namely:
 To refine the grain structure,

 To obtain uniform structure,
 To decrease residual stresses,
 To improve Machinability.
CASE HARDENING
Case hardening is an ideal heat treatment for parts which require a wear-resistant
surface and a tough core, such as gears, cams, cylinder sleeves, and so forth. The
most common case-hardening processes are carburizing and nitriding. During the
case-hardening process, a low-carbon steel (either straight carbon steel or low-
carbon alloy steel) is heated to a specific temperature in the presence of a material
(solid, liquid, or gas) which decomposes and deposits more carbon into the surface
Institution Name
of a steel. Then, when the part is cooled rapidly, the outer surface or case becomes
hard, leaving the, inside of the piece soft but very tough.
The addition of carbon to the outer skin is known as carburizing

Activity 11
Discuss briefly about the common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metals
4.3 REASONS OF HEAT TREATMENTS
The various purpose of these heat treatments is to:
1. Relieve internal stresses developed during solidification, machining, forging,

rolling or welding,
2. Improve or restore ductility and toughness,
3. Enhance Machinability,
4. Eliminate chemical non-uniformity,
5. Refrain grain size, &
6. Reduce the gaseous contents in steel.
7. To soften the metal.
8. To improve hardness of the metal surface.
9. To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, ductility and shock
resistance
10.To improve electrical and magnetic properties.
11.To increase the resistance to wear, tear, heat and corrosion, etc.

Institution Name
Self-checking
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Choose the correct answer by writing the correct letter in the provided blank space.
-----1. In Annealing cooling is done in which of the following medium?
A. Air
B. Water
C. Oil
D. Furnace
-----2. In Normalizing cooling is done in which of the following medium?
A. Air
B. Water
C. Oil
D. Furnace
-----3. Mild steel can be converted into high carbon steel by using which of the
following process?
A. Annealing
B. Normalizing
C. Case hardening
D. None of the mentioned

Institution Name
-----4. Alloy of copper and zinc is known as:
A. Brass
B. Bronze
C. Duralium
D. Nichrome
-----5. Steel ball is used as indentor in which of the following test?
A. Brinell hardness test
B. Rockwell harness test
C. Vickers hardness test
D. All of the mentioned
-----6. Pig iron can be easily obtained by processing of iron ore in:
A. Cupola
B. Bessemer converter
C. Open hearth furnace
D. Blast furnace
-----7 hot hardness of cutting of cutting tool should be
a. Large
b. Small
c. Very small

Institution Name
d. None of the mentioned
-----8. Wearing resistance of cutting tool must be
a. High
b. Low
c. Very low
d. None of the mentioned
-----9. One of the following is not ferrous metals
A. a) Cast iron, c) the various steel alloys,
B. b) Steel, d) Aluminum
-----10. Metals can be classified
A. Carbon steel and non-carbon steel
B. Ferrous and non-ferrous
C. All are correct
D. None of the above
-----11. Which one of the following is odd?
A. Lead
B. Zinc
C. Tin

Institution Name
-----12. Which metal is mostly used in the electrical industry in the form of wire?
A. Aluminum
B. Steel
C. Tin
D. Copper
-----13. Which one of the following is very strong?
A. Cast steel
B. Tin
C. Copper
D. Carbon steel
-----14. Which one of the following is not true about ferrous metal?
A. Contain iron
B. Can be corrode easily
C. Very strong and rigid
-----15. Which one of the following is not ferrous metals?
A. Steel
B. Alloy steel
C. Zinc

Institution Name
-----16. Malleability means that
A. property by which a metal retains its deformation permanently, when the

external force applied on it is released
B. Property by which a metal can be rolled into thin sheets.
C. property by which a metal can be drawn into thin wires
D. answer is not given
-----17. Why are metals tested?
A. To know properties of metals
B. To change the property of metals
C. To Prevent failure in use
D. A and C
-----18 which one of the following is odd
A. Brinell hardness test
B. Vickers hardness test
C. Rockwell hardness tests
D. Charpy impact test
-----19. Which one is correct
A. Stone → Bronze → Iron → Advanced materials
B. Bronze → Stone → Iron → Advanced materials

Institution Name
C. Bronze → Stone → Iron → Advanced materials
D. Stone → Iron → Bronze → Advanced materials
-----20. Which one of the following is correct order?
A. Pig iron → steel → iron ore
B. Iron ore → pig iron → steel
C. Steel → pig iron → iron ore

TVET Program (Property of Metals)

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

TVET Program (Property of Metals)

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Institution Name

Addis Ababa Tegbareid poly Technique College

TVET Program Title: Basic Metal Works Level I

Unit of Competence: Identify Properties of Metals

Nominal Duration: 30 hrs.

LO1. CLASSIFY COMMON FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS

Materials are physical substances used in production or manufacturing. Materials

Fig 1:- classification of materials

Page | 1 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Page | 2 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

1. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS

FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements.

Alloying element: substance added to a base substance to improve specific

These alloying elements are added for several reasons:

 To improve mechanical properties.

Fig 2:- example of ferrous metals

Page | 4 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

Steels Cast Irons

Plain carbon steels Grey Iron

Low carbon steels White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons

High carbon steels

Low alloy steels

High alloy steels

Page | 5 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Steel is usually classified as either plain carbon steel or alloy steel.

Page | 6 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

 To improve mechanical properties.

Page | 7 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Table 2 effect of alloying elements on steel.

Page | 8 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

NONFERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others antimony and Others

Table 3 example of ferrous and nonferrous metals

Copper is ductile and malleable. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

Page | 9 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Table 4 the amount of zinc in brass

Page | 10 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Antimony is a hard, brittle metal that resembles tin. It is an elementary substance

Page | 11 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

battery plates, and is used in manufacturing semiconductors, paint, and flame

Antimony: A hard, brittle nonferrous metal that resembles tin.

Page | 13 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Page | 14 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

1.2. PROPERTIES OF METALS

Properties: The characteristics or qualities of a material when that material is

Materials have three basic properties: mechanical, physical, and chemical.

Page | 15 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Strength: A material’s ability to resist stress.

Stress: The result of a force or load applied to a material.

Tensile strength: A material’s ability to resist pulling forces.

Page | 16 Prepared by SOLOMON T.

Compressive strength resists the force created by materials pressing together or

Compressive strength: A material’s ability to resist the force created by opposite