Hydrostatic Pressure and effective circulation Density

The ability of the drilling fluid to control subsurface pressure is mainly dependent upon
hydrostatic pressure. How much hydrostatic pressure is exerted against the formation depends upon mud
density and the depth or the height of the fluid column.
Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated by formula 4-1.
Hydrostatic pressure (psi)= mud weight (lb./gal) ×(depth, ft.)×0.052 (Eq. 4-1)
This pressure is static pressure and only applies when the mud is not moving or circulating. If the mud is
being circulated, additional pressure, that the annular fluid friction, is also exerted against the formation.
The magnitude of the pressure will depend upon type of flow, properties of the fluid, and the geometry of
the system; for example, packed holes have larger pressure losses.
Generally, flow in the annulus is laminar flow. The annular pressure loss for the laminar flow can
be calculated as follows:
𝐷 𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑣 𝐷 𝑣
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑠𝑖) = + 1500(𝑑 2
225(𝑑1 −𝑑2 ) 1 −𝑑2 )

Where :

D: length or depth,feet

ty : yield point, lb/100 ft2

d1: hole diameter, in

d1: pipe outside diameter, in

pv: plastic viscosity,cp

V: annular velocity, ft/sec

The following sample problem demonstrate how these calculations are used to determine (1) hydrostatic
pressure,(2) pressure loss in the annulus,(3) bottom hole pressure,(4)equivalent circulating density (ECD).
The equivalent circulating density given here is one of several methods in use. In 1969 it is the most current
method but is recognized as approximation.

Given:

Hole size 9 7/8 in

Drill pipe 4 ½ in
Depth 10000 ft
Mud weight 14.0 lbs/gal
Plastic Viscosity 35 cp
Yield point 28 lb/100 ft2
Pumping out put 10 bbls/min=420 gpm
Annular velocity 2.24 ft/sec
Hydrostatic pressure = (depth)(mud weight)(0.052)

= (10000)(14.0)(0.052)

=7280psi

𝐷 𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑣 𝐷 𝑣
Pressure loss in annulus= + 1500(𝑑 2
225(𝑑1 −𝑑2 ) 1 −𝑑2 )

(10000)(28) (35)(10000)(2.24)
= 225(5.375)
+ 1500(5.375)2

= 232 + 18

=250 psi

Bottom-hole circulating pressure (BHCP) = (hydrostatic pressure)+(pressure loss)

= 7280+250

= 7530 psi

𝐵𝐻𝐶𝑃
Equivalent circulating density (ECD) =(𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ)(0.052)

7530
ECD at 10000 ft. = (10000)(0.052)

= 14.5 lb. /gal

This equivalent circulating density at 10000 ft is 14.5 lb/gal or 0.5 heavier than mud at the surface. If the
mud is the critical balance point to hold formation pressure at 10000 feet, then no formation fluids should
enter the wellbore since the fluid has an equivalent mud weight of 14.5 lb/gal.

When the pipe is pulled, dependent upon the pipe depth, the mud gel strength, the rate of the pulling, etc.,
swabbing can occur which will result in some pressure reduction in the hole. Cannon in 1934 showed that
at 5000ft when drill pipe was pulled in the high gel strength mud a bottom hole pressure reduction in the
range of 300-400 psi resulted. This is one explanation of why gas or salt water cut mud occurs so frequently
after trips.

If the mud weight in use is just equivalent to the bottom hole pressure, additional weight must be
added to overcome possible swabbing when pulling the pipe. For a proper trip mud weight margin, one rule
is to start with actual mud weight required to balance formation pressure, and add to this value a mud weight
equivalent of some arbitrary safety factor. A value of 0.3 lb/gal is frequently used. Other figures are 200-
400 psi bottom hole safety factor. In example problem, a 14.3 lb/gal mud would possess enough mud weight
trip margin for pipe withdrawal.

Examination of Equation 4-2 shows that the second part of the equation is relatively small value as
compared to the first part. Usually, it will be approximately 10 percent of the first part. The second part of
the equation becomes significant when the hydraulic diameter is small and/or the plastic viscosity is
abnormally high. The hydraulic diameter can become severely reduced when bits and drill collars are badly
balled.

RECOGNIZING THE KICK:

The first positive warning of an impending blowout or kick is a gain in volume. Carful observations
of mud volume during all phases of drilling operation will be the best indicator of trouble. Methods of
observing volume changes will vary for each particular drilling rig. Some operators merely use a rope with
metal object tied on it, suspended at mud level to observe gains or increase in pit volume. Others, use the
more elaborate mechanical pit level indicators.

The amount of pressure on the casing during kick dependent upon the volume of the kick and the
geometry of the hole. For this reason, it is good practice to work with small volumes on the surface when
drilling small holes. By doing this, small volume changes can be noted and proper steps taken before too
much fluid inters the hole.

Well kicks while circulating. A kick while circulating is easily recognized. There is an increase in pit
volume coincident with kick. Just before the kick, and during the kick an increase in drilling rate is normally
experienced. A decrease in pump pressure and an increased pump speed will probably observed also.

Well Kicks When Pump Is Shut Down. Frequently there is no increase in pit volume while circulating,
but when the pump is shut down, there are returns at the flowline. This indicates formation fluid flow and
shows the need of additional mud weight safety margin. Since the flow occurs while the pump is off, this
shows that formation pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure. The formation fluid does not enter
to the wellbore during circulation because hydrostatic pressure plus the additional pressure derived from
the annulus pressure loss is greater than formation pressure.

Occasionally, a discharge at the flowline, when the pump is off, can be misleading. Sometimes,
after lost circulation occurs and mud weight has been reduced, the formation may give up some lost mud.
If this is known to be happening, no increase in mud density is needed.

Well Kicks When coming out of hole. Kicks very often occurs and mud while coming out of the hole.
When the pipe is being pulled, there may a pressure reduction due to balled bit or drill collars so that mud
pressure is reduced to a value less than formation pressure. This can cause formation fluids to be swabbed
into the wellbore. Such a condition can be recognized when the hole does not take the correct volume of
mud to compensate for pipe displacement.

Even with no balling of collars or bit, when the pipe is being pulled a pressure reduction takes place
which can reduce mud pressure below formation pressure.

If the hydrostatic pressure differential is inadequate, formation fluids will flow. This again shows
up when the hole is not taking the right volume of mud compensate for pipe displacement. Remedial action
should be taken to insure safe withdrawal of pipe. It is critical that the hole be kept full while pulling pipe.
;however, this in itself is not enough. The volume of the mud pumped into the hole must also be calculated
to make sure it corresponds to pipe displacement. Kicks while pulling pipe can be eliminated by having a
safety margin of the proper value and/or reducing the rate of pulling pipe when starting off bottom.

Well Kicks when going into hole. Occasionally, a kick may occur while the pipe is being lowered in the
hole. The danger here lies in rupturing the formation with pressure surge, resulting in lost circulation. In
certain tectonically relaxed formation, the following formula can be used to determine the approximate mud
weight at which formation will rupture:

𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 1/3 𝐷 (1 + 2𝑃𝑓 ) Eq.(4-4)

Changing frac pressure to mud weight gives :

Weight, lb/gal = 6.5(1+2Pf) Eq.(4-5)

Where: Pf = formation fluid pressure expressed as gradient, psi/ft

D: depth, feet

If lost circulation occurs while going in the hole, the height of the fluid column will fall, causing a decrease
in hydrostatic pressure. This may allow formation fluids to enter the wellbore. Recognizing when this is
happening is not difficult. Since it will be observed that mud is not being displaced by the drill pipe.

BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE REDUCTION FROM GAS EXPANSION

It should be understood that when formations containing gas are drilled, some gas will always show
up at the surface. There is no way of preventing this from happening, regardless of mud weight. The cuttings
contain gas,and as they near the surface, the gas analyzer, without noticeable gain in pit volume. This
situation does not require an increase in mud density.

A reduction in mud weight at the flowline due to gas cutting is not too serious unless accompanied
by a rapid increase in volume in the pits. Most of the expansion of gas occurs very near to the surface,
which does not alter the hydrostatic pressure appreciably. For example, a bubble of gas at 10,000 feet would
double its volume by the time it reached 5000 feet ; would be 16 times its original volume at 156 feet,etc.
the reduction of hydrostatic pressure is not direct function of mud weight, but it is related to it as shown by
this equation:

Δ𝑝 = n 2.3 Log10 P (Eq.4-6)

Δ𝑝: Reduction of bottom hydrostatic pressure in atmosphere (psi/15)

n: ratio of gas to mud

P: hydrostatic pressure in atmospheres

The term n may be determined in two ways. Using a 1000 cc mud cup, fill the cup to 1000 cc mark with
the gas cut mud sample. Stir the sample to allow the gas to escape, then measure the number of cc’s of mud
in the container. The term n can be calculated by dividing the volume of gas by the volume of mud after
the gas is released. A much easier method is to weight the gas cut mud and relate this to actual mud weight
of an equal volume before gas cutting. The term n can be calculated as following:

1−𝑋
𝑛= (Eq.4-7)
𝑋

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑑 /1000 𝑐𝑐

Where: 𝑋 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑑 /1000 𝑐𝑐
As long as the hole is open, the gas can expand. This is not the case when the well is shut-in. If the well is
shut-in and cubic foot bubble of gas has 5200 psi pressure at 10,000 feet, the bubble cannot expand as the
gas rises, and its pressure at the surface will be 5200 psi. When the gas bubble reaches the top of the hole
the pressure on bottom will be the hydrostatic pressure of the mud plus the 5200 psi. This pressure may
exceed the bursting pressure of the casing or cause the lost circulation to occur. For this reason, it is not
advisable to circulate a gas kick out of the hole while trying to maintain constant pit volume. The gas must
be allowed to expand. This will displace mud in the hole for a while at a faster rate than the circulation rate
resulting in a pit volume gain.

BLOWOUT PREVENTION PROCEDURE

When a driller discovers, usually by way sudden increase in pit volume, that the well has kicked,the
most direct way of determining the additional pressure required to kill the flow is to pick up the Kelly, stop
the pump, close the well in, and read the pressure on the stand pipe gage after stabilization. If there is a float
in the drill string, there will be no pressure on the drill pipe. To find the shut-in drill pipe pressure, slowly
start the pump and observe the buildup of pressure on the standpipe gage. Note the pressure at which flow
starts as the valve opens. From the stand pipe pressure obtained by either of these methods, the mud weight
necessary to provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to just balance formation pressure can be calculated.
This is illustrated in figure 4-6 and relate calculation as follow:

𝑃𝑝1
𝑊𝑟 = 𝑊1 + (Eq.4-8)
0.052 𝐷

It should be understood that the mud weight so calculated just balances the formation pressure. A safety
factor for sufficient overbalance must be add. The actual requires value depend upon annular clearness, gel
strength of the mud and rate of the pipe withdrawal. In most instances 0.3 ppg is sufficient.

This procedure assumes that the well can be closed in without annular pressure exceeding either
casing burst rating or formation pressure breakdown pressure. With short surface strings limitations are
necessary and one author has suggested that the surface annular pressure not be allowed to exceed 0.5 psi
per foot when a 10.0 ppg mud is in the hole. Higher surface pressure would must certainly cause the
formation to rupture, possibly to the surface.

Constant Bottom Hole Pressure Method. Assuming that the well can be closes in without exceeding
casing burst pressure or formation fracture limitations, the problem is to replace either immediately or after
well clean up, mud in the well with mud of sufficient density to balance the formation pressure. This should
be done without allowing the formation to flow or using more bottom hole pressure than necessary. O’Brien
and Goins proposed a system of controlling bottom hole pressure while killing a kick by controlling drill
pipe pressure and while maintaining constant circulating rate. They give ten steps to follow:

1. When it is found a blowout threatens, stop the pumps immediately. Check to see if the flowline is open
and that there is at least one open choke line. Close the blowout preventer, then the flowline valve and
finally the choke. This reduces fluid shock on the surface equipment when the how is shut off.

2. Read drill pipe and annulus gauge pressures (Pp1, Pa); then note the increase in pit volume (Q) that has
occurred.

3. Immediately open the well on a choke and resume pumping. Adjust choke opening and pumping rate
quickly to give a choke pressure approximately 100 psi in excess of the initial closed-in annular gauge
pressure (Pa)·
4. Immediately upon establishing the desired choke pressure, note the pumping rate (strokes per minute)
and the first circulating pressure Ptcwl which will be equal to Pp1 + Pcwl + 100. Hold this constant until the
well is circulated free of foreign fluids.

5. Regardless of the readings on the annulus pressure gauge, open or close the choke as required to hold
drill pipe pressure, Ptcw1, at the starting pumping rate until the well is free of foreign fluid and the heavier
mud has reached the surface. The mud weight does not need to be increased until after uncut mud reaches
the surface. If the weight is not increased, hold the drill pipe circulating pressure constant at thevalue Ptcwl·
However, immediately after uncut mud returns, weight should be increased; this makes it necessary to
correct Ptcwl downward as average density in the drill pipe changes.

6. As soon as possible, calculate the mud weight needed to kill the well by Equation 4-8. Figure mud friction
circulating pressure Pcw1 by Equation 4-11.

7. Use Equation 4-10 to calculate drill pipe pressure to be used at various mud densities in the drill pipe.
This drill pipe pressure is always obtained by varying the annulus (choke) pressure through changes in the
choke opening; circulating rate is held constant at the value established in Step 4.

8. Calculate the density of formation fluid in the well at the time it is closed in from Equation 4-12. This
information is a guide in killing the well. However, the density figure will be somewhat in error if the mud
in the pit is badly cut with gas.

9. Calculate the capacity of the annulus, steady rate of pumping, circulating time from bottom, and
complete circulation time. From these, one can calculate the time for return of ·uncut and weighted mud.
When the required high-density mud reaches the surface, choke pressure will automatically have fallen to
near zero. The well can be completely opened, circulation stopped, and the well checked to see that it is
dead. The method applies equally to salt water and gas flows, although the changes in choke pressure will
be entirely different.

10. As the well is being killed, the operator will want to check the pressures being used, the final mud
density necessary, or the weight of the foreign fluid. Do this by simply closing in the well and repeating the
steps from No. I on.

Required Calculations:

Mud density required to kill the well:

𝑃𝑝 1 (Eq.4-8)
𝑊𝑟 = + 𝑊1
0.052𝐷

Or

20 𝑃𝑝1 (Eq.4-8A)
𝑊𝑟 = + 𝑊1
𝐷
Total initial circulating pressure:

Ptcw1= Pp1+Pcw1+Annulus Safety Pressure (Eq.4-9)

Total circulating pressure necessary as mud density is increased:

𝑊2 𝑊𝑟 − 𝑊2 (Eq.4-10)
𝑃𝑡𝑐𝑤2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑤1 ( ) + 𝑃𝑝1 ( ) + 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑊1 𝑊𝑟 − 𝑊1

Initial circulation pressure; fluid friction alone:

Pcwl = Ptcwl – Pp1 - Safety Pressure (Eq.4-11)

Density of foreign fluid:

Wf=W1 - [Qa/0.052Q] (Pa-Pp1) (Eq.4-12)

If Wt= 9 to 10 lb/gal= salt water

Wt= 1 to 3 lb/gal= gas

Equation Symbols:

D -Depth of drill pipe, ft.

Pcwl -Pressure required to circulate, psi with initial mud weight W1. Does not include Pp1 or safety factor.

Ptcw2- Total circulating pressure with mud density increased over W1.

Pp1 -Closed-in drill pipe top-hole pressure, psi.

Ptcw1- Drill pipe pressure gauge reading when constant circulating rate is established at choke pressure Pa,
psi. Pa includes safety factor, if any.

Q -Pit volume increase, bbl.

W1 -Initial mud density, lb/gal.

W2 -Average mud density other than W1, lb/gal.

Wf -Density of foreign fluid in annulus, lb/gal.

Wr -Mud density required to kill well, lb/gal.

Oa -Capacity of annulus, bbl. /ft

Pa -Annulus surface pressure, psi.

Based on the principles of constant bottom hole pressure maintained by drill pipe and casing annulus
pressure control presented there are several choices in procedure after the well has been closed in and the
drill pipe and casing pressures measured.

1. Begin circulation and addition of weight material immediately.

2. Build required mud weight in pits and then circulate well.

3. Circulate well clean of invading fluids, then build mud weight in pits before continuing circulation.

4. Circulate well clean of invading fluids and build mud weight while circulating. The first is most desirable
as it accomplishes complete control in the shortest length of time and avoids the danger of stuck pipe
associated with not circulating while building mud weight. However, the third can be done without the use
of most of the calculations and graphs necessary with the first method, making use by rig crews much
easier. The procedure is not as dangerous as leaving salt water or hydrocarbon in the hole for a period
without circulation, and does not hinder applying the first procedure at any time should someone more
expert become available. For these reasons the third procedure is presented. It was taught in an industry
wide series of schools sponsored by the AAODC and has been named the

Drillers Method:

Drillers Method. The Drillers Method is carried out through the use of a work sheet shown as Figure 4-7.
This sheet is designed to permit following the procedure step by step in 7 steps. Along with a discussion of
the procedure an example problem will be followed. The use of a graphical procedure using the charts of
Figure 4-8 is also followed to some extent although they are not necessary to the Drillers Method as
discussed here. The data known for the example well are:

Depth 10,000 ft
Drill pipe size 5 ½ in
Surface casing 13 3/8 in at 2500 ft
Surface casing burst 3090 psi
pressure
Mud weight 10 lb/gal
Pump pressure and rate 2000 psi at 60 stk/min
Pumping out put 7.0 gal/stk
Predetermined slow 540 psi at 30 stk/min
rate circulating
pressure

Section I. Recorded Information.

The data called for are directly obtainable on the rig floor and are recorded directly into Section 1 of the
work sheet, Figure 4-7. In addition to the directly entered data, item B places maximum surface pressure
limitations allowed for the casing. For surface casing the maximum surface pressure limitation is equal to
50% of the casing length expressed as psi. For the case in question this becomes 50% of 2500 feet or 1250
psi. Eighty percent of the burst pressure of 3090 psi is 2472 psi. Since 1250 psi is less than 24 72, it will be
taken as the limiting pressure allowed on the annulus. A limitation of frac pressure of 0.9 to 1.0 pound per
foot at the casing seat must be observed for all casing strings including the surface pipe to prevent fracturing
the formation while killing the well. In addition to recording the circulating pressure and pwnp stroke rate,
some drillers like to experimentally determine the circulating pressure at a reduced pumping rate to be used
for killing a kick if it occurs. If not prerecorded, this data can be calculated as shown later.

Section 2. Stop Pump and Close Well for Pressures to Stabilize.

While drilling at 10, 000 feet with the 10 lb per gal mud, the well kicks and the mud pit volume shows
a rapid increase. The BOP is closed, the well put on a variable choke and the choke closed observing
standpipe and choke pressures. If the choke pressure does not exceed the 1250 psi allowed, the well may
be completely closed in. The pressure data after 5 minutes are:

Shut-in drill pipe pressure, Pp1= 400 psi

Shut-in casing pressure, Pa= 525 psi

These data are recorded in A and B and the mud weight and pipe length in C and D.

Section 3. Set Circulation Rate and Pressure to Clean the Well.

The pump is now started at a steady but reduced rate from the 60 strokes per minute previously used and
the choke opened simultaneously. The circulating rate used can be at the predetermined 30 strokes per
minute. The prerecorded data show that this was experimentally determined to require 540 psi at 30
stk/min. If a prerecorded slow rate had not been determined the
circulating pressure at the 30, or other, strokes per minute could be calculated from Chart 1 of Figure 4-8.
Plot the point of 2000 psi and 60 strokes per minute and draw a parallel line as indicated to 30 strokes per
minute. The resulting circulating pressure is shown to be 540 psi, a check on the experimentally determined value.
The circulating pressure to pump the 10 pound mud at 30 strokes/min to clean the well becomes from
the general formula;

Ptcwl = Pp1 +Pcw1 +Safety Factor or

Ptcwl = 400 + 540 + 100 = 1040 psi

Pumping is thus started at 30 stk/min and the choke opened until its pressure is its original closed-in value
of 525 psi + 100 psi safety factor or 625 psi. The stand pipe pressure should read 1040 psi. The drill pipe
pressure· should now be retained at 1040 psi and pumping continued at 30 strokes/min. Knowing the
pumping rate the position of any portion of the mud in the well can be calculated for any time. As pumping
proceeds, if the drill pipe pressure tends to rise or fall below 1040 psi, its pressure must be corrected back
to 1040 by opening the choke if the pressure rises and closing the choke if the pressure falls. If this is not
done, either the bottom hole pressure will rise and perhaps result in lost circulation or it will fall and permit
the formation to kick again. Circulation should be continued until the gas or salt water from the formation
is circulated out of the well as shown by the arrival of clean mud. When this happens the well should be
closed in and the stand pipe and casing pressures noted. They should be approximately equal to the original
400 psi on the shut-in drill pipe plus 100 psi safety factor or 500 psi. The well is not killed at this time. It
has only been circulated free of entry fluids and is held under control by the annulus and drill pipe top hole
pressures.
Section 4. Density To Kill Well.

The mud weight increase necessary to kill the well is

that added weight equivalent to the initial shut-in drill

pipe pressure Ppl or

20 𝑃𝑝1
∆𝑊 = 𝐷
(Eq. 4-8A)

This becomes:

(20)(400)
∆𝑊 = 10,000
= 0.8 𝐼𝑏/𝑔𝑎𝑙

It is advisable to add a safety factor to the mud weight and 0.3 lb/gal is arbitrarily chosen. The mud
weight to be used then becomes:

𝑊𝑟 = 𝑊1 + ∆𝑊 + 0.3
=10.0 +0.8 + 0.3 =11.1 lb/gal

Section 5. Increase Surface Mud System to Required Density.

The surface mud is now raised to 11.1 lb/gal in the usual manner. The well is kept closed in while
this is being done, but the pipe should be kept in motion to prevent sticking. On some rigs a pit separate
from those being circulated can be weighted. If so, weighting should be done while cleaning the well,
Section 3.

Section 6. Determine Circulating Rate and Pressure To Kill Well.

With sufficient mud built in the pits to 11.1 lb/gal to circulate the hole, pumping can now be started to pump
the mud around and kill the kick. Pumping should start at the 30 strokes/min rate used previously, and if
so, the "stand pipe pressure will start at the 1040 psi with the annulus choke opened to the 500 psi, the
circulating pressures in effect just before the well was closed in after cleaning. As the weighted mud is
pumped in at constant rate, the drill pipe pressure will fall as the result of heavier mud in the hole. Control
of pumping pressures is now made by adjusting the variable choke to maintain it at the constant value of
approximately 500 psi. This pressure is maintained until the heavier mud reaches the drill pipe bottom. The
time for the mud to reach bottom can be calculated from Chart 3 of Figure 4-8. The pump rate is 7 gallons
per stroke or 210 gpm. Chart 3 shows the time required is 45 minutes. At this time when the 11.1 lb/gal
mud reaches bottom the pumping pressure will have fallen by something approximating the original 400
psi stand pipe pressure. When the heavy mud reaches bottom the exact drill pipe pumping pressure is noted.
This pressure is now maintained while circulation at the 30 stk/min rate and the heavy mud moves up the
annulus. As this occurs, constantly reduced pressure on the casing is necessary. The casing pressure is
reduced from 500 psi by reducing it to keep the stand pipe pressure equal to its value when the heavy mud
rounded bottom. When the heavy mud reaches the surface the annulus pressure should be down to the 100
psi safety factor. The well has now been killed, the pumps can be stopped and the casing opened to check
for flow. The final circulating pressure plus the 100 pound safety factor on the casing can be calculated by:

𝑊2
𝑃𝑡𝑐𝑤2 = 𝑃𝑐𝑤1 ( )+ 100 (Eq. 4-13)
𝑊1
 11.1
= 540 ( 10.0) + 100 = 699

CORROSION

Corrosion of the drill string or casing can take place during drilling operations particularly where clear
brackish or salt fluids are used or where any type of fluid is used and hydrogen sulfide contamination
occurs. Oxygen. As the fluid passes through the shaker screens, mud gun and hopper discharge, it absorbs
oxygen from the air. Clear, low solids fluids absorb air readily. Viscous, high gel muds absorb air less
readily but it is more difficult to remove. Unless removal can be accomplished, as by a degasser, oxygen
corrosion is difficult to combat. Methods which are tried with some degree of success are:

1. Use of internally plastic coated pipe.

2. Coating the drill pipe inside and outside with liquid inhibitor can aid if applied correctly.

3. Lignosulfonate or quebracho treatments tend to react with oxygen to some extent.

4. Maintenance of alkalinity to pH above 9 .5 will be of some aid.

5. Complete removal of oxygen is sometimes possible using a degasser. Corrosion will be prevented
proportional to the oxygen removed. Oxygen scavengers, such as sodium sulfite, are sometimes used but
the constant aeration of the circulating mud may make the cost prohibitive.

Carbon Dioxide. Some formation gases contain large amounts of carbon dioxide, which reacts with water
to form carbonic acid, which in turn reacts with the mud alkalinity to form bicarbonate. An influx of carbon
dioxide will greatly reduce or completely eliminate the drilling fluid alkalinity. This contaminant is treated
by adding sufficient lime, calcium hydroxide, to react with any acid formed, and additional caustic soda to
maintain desirable pH and flow properties in the fluid. If the pH is allowed to drop too low, the carbonic
acid can react with iron to form iron carbonate.

Hydrogen Sulfide. Gas kicks containing hydrogen sulfide are one of the most severe problems
encountered in drilling operations. This gas is harmful to both tubular goods and rig personnel. Higher
strength steels are particularly susceptible to hydrogen sulfide corrosion and sulfide stress corrosion
cracking. As hydrogen sulfide is acidic it also reacts immediately with the alkalinity of the mud and is
converted to soluble alkaline sulfide. Large amounts of caustic soda may be required to keep the mud
alkaline as 2.35 pounds of caustic soda are needed to neutralize 1 pound of hydrogen sulfide. When
hydrogen sulfide enters a mud stream its corrosion reactions start immediately so whatever corrosion
preventative measures are to be applied should be initiated without delay. The greatest corrosion attack
from hydrogen sulfide will occur when the hydrogen sulfide is present as H2 S and not as the alkaline
sodium sulfide or .sodium bisulfide. Hydrogen sulfide can exist when the mud has a pH of 7 .0 or less.
When caustic is added to increase the pH to 9.5 or greater, H2S is converted to the alkaline form and
corrosion is de· creased but not eliminated. Steps taken to reduce sulfide corrosion are:

1. If mud is acidic, use degasser to pull H, S out. This is particularly indicated for clear water or brine fluids.
Any H2S gas removed by degasser must be burned to protect the crew.

2. Heavy caustic treatments can be used to raise pH to 9.5.

3. Copper carbonate can be added to the mud to precipitate hydrogen sulfide as copper sulfide.

4. A filming amine corrosion inhibitor can be tried to protect the drill pipe. The inhibitor should be applied
directly to the exterior and interior of the pipe as though a paint. It must preferentially wet the steel and
have strong adhesive as well as on life filming properties. Amine inhibitors tend to adsorb out on clay
particles as well as on steel and this must be remembered when judging results.

5. Use of internally plastic coated pipe.