CHAPTER 3

Modern Indian
Theatre
 Indian drama is of purely Indian Origin.
In every land, however, the earliest, its representation appears to be
associated with the religious observances of the people. In Greece, it derived its
origin from the hymns which were sung in the festivals of Bacchus in honour of
that deity, and tradition points out to its mythical origin, and this also is true of the
ancient Indian drama. The Hindus had also some thing more in the form of an
emblem of theatre. It is said that Brahma after the victory of the gods over the
enemies -

The Asuras-first composed a drama for the gratification ton of Indra, the king
of the god.

It is mentioned in the „„Sangita damodara‟‟;

Brahma being greeted by Shakra (Indra) for his satisfaction satisfaction

composed fifth Veda (from the four Vedas) which was called Natya Vada. Like the
Vedas, the sub-Vedas are also four in member. The self-born Brama learnt this
fifth of Gandharva Veda from Shiva and then taught it to the Sage Bharata, who
learnt that art and introduced it into the world at the command of his instructor
Brahma".1

Now who was this Bharatamuni or Sage Bharata Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti both
have mentioned Bharata-muni in connection of dramatic art, the former
havedescribed him as a play -wright and the stage-manager of gods and the latter4
called him as Taurya trika Sutra-kara or the earliest writer on triple symphony (i.e,
the union of song, dance and instrmental music).

1
The Indian Theatre by Hemendra Das gupta, Gian Publishing house, Delhi Page-2
 In this book, Bharata‟s „„Natyashastra‟‟, Jarjara or setting up of the Flag-
staff of Indra is the chief event concerning the sacred rites about the installation of
the stage, an incident absolutely absent in the Greek stage.

„„In that „flag-staff festival‟ that was held to celebrate the victory of Indra (over
the Asuras) and in which the jubilant gods gathered together, It first composed
Nandi (a benedictory verse) full of benedictions. It is wonderful in composition,
culled from the Vedas, and composed of eight subsidiary sentences. Thereafter, a
mimic repro-duction (anukriti) was added as to how the demons were defeated by
gods‟‟ 1

Jarjara, or the setting up the flag-staff of Indra was the chief event
concerning the sacred rites about the stage and henceforth it became the emblem of
Indra, and of the stage and the Drama. The flag-staff had to be erected in the
`evening of the theatre, sanctified with Mantras on the day preceding the festivity.
The day after the erection of the Flag-staff, i.e. on the day of the festivity, all the
deities and the „„Jarjara‟‟ itself were worshipped In the five knots, or rinds of the
staff Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Kartikeya and three greet serpents (Nagas-Shesha,
Vasuki and Takshaka) were supposed to preside. The first part of the staff was
wrapped in white lien, the second part in blue linen, the third part in yellow, the
fourth part in red, and the fifth in parti-coloured cloth. Different deities were
invoked with different Mantras. All these are to be found in the „„Natyashastra.‟‟

The Jarjara measured 108 angular or 81 inches and might be made of wood
preferably bamboo, so dramatic art originated in that part of India where bamboos
grow in abundance. * It used to be covered and decorated with cloths of different
colors and it was en-joined that neither deformed nor ugly nor diseased per-sons

1
Natya Shastra –Baroda Ed. Ist Chapter, Sloka 52-57
should be employed for its construction, nor beggars and monks are allowed to
come near it.

The belabouning of the Asuras was not agreeable to Bharata who prayed to
Brahma to give protection to the dramatic representation of plays. Brahma ordered

Visvakarman, the divine architect, to erect a pavilion for the purpose and assigned
to the task of different parts in such a way that no „vighnas‟(impediments) might
be henceforth created by the enemies. The Asuras too were invited by Brahma who
clearly explained to them the object of the new invention. It was made clear by him
that the amusement and instruction received from the performances were meant
for- all the Devas and Asuras alike and not exclusively for the DevdasPeople
suffer-ing from bereavement or miseries might have a relief: and piety, good sense
and intelligence might be learnt herc:

Indeed the Natya or acting is nothing is nothing but imitation of all events
happening in this word. The Asuras were then appeased and henceforth created no
further disturbance in the performance.1

The 'Natyashastra' of Bharata is a comprehensive work on dramaturgy. It

mainly describes three kinds of stage and auditorium (Prekshgriha)" that is, the
stage should be either Rectangular, square or mostly in the form of an Equilateral
triangle.

(1) Rectangular (Bikrista or Brittabhaso)* Length

Larger than breadth. It may be (1) large 108

By 54 cubits, (2)Medium 64 cubits by 32 cubits, (3)

1
Pandit Hariparasad Shastri's article " The Origin of Indian Drama"-Journal of the Asiatic Society of Benga, New
series vol.1909, pp.351.
 Small 32 cubits by 16 cubits.

(2)Square (Chaturasra) length and breadth equal as

of a four-sided figure. It may be (1)large 108

cubits each side, (2) medium 64 cubits each side,

(3) small 32 cubits each side.

(3) Equilateral Triangle (Twasra), three sided figure,

each side being equal to the other. It may be

large, each side being 108 cubits or medium 64

cubits or small 32.

The stage and auditorium of the large size was meant for the gods (Devas)
and was called divine: the one of medium size was for the kings (Rajas)while the
small one was called private i. e. for the people. The medium-sized Rectangular
form was considered the best by Bharata."1

The following are the chief characteristies of the Sanskrit dramas in

general and Natakas in particular:-

(i) The Entire absence of tragedy:-

The Greek dramas are predominantly tragic; but tragedy, is totally

absent in sanskrit literature. The elaborate, technicalities of sanskrit Dramaturgy
intervened, and the result is the total absence of every kind of tragedy from
sanskrit. It is idle to suppose that a supreme artist like Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti
could not turn out a success-ful tragedy. Both Shakuntala and Uttararamacharita
1 nd th th
Natyashastra 2 chapter, 9 -11 slokas.
have carefully avoided being sombre tragedies. Bhasa‟s dramas too are anything
but tragic in spirit, except „„Urubhanga‟‟ which ends with death of Durjodhana.
This too is no exception to the general charactcr of sanskrit drama, for the death of
Durjodhana who was rightly served for his misdeeds does not produce any grief in
the minds of the audience.

(ii) Nothing indecent to be presented on the stage.

(iii) The famous classical rules of the Greek trinity i. e .unity of time, unity of
place and unity of action, was never observed in India. But there were
Panchasandhis or five essential knots or junctures in a Sanaskrt drama, absent in
Greek dramaturgy:- Mukham, Pratimukham, Garbha, Bimarsha and Upasanhara.

(iv) The dominant sentiment of the Nataka should be either Erotic or heroic.

All other sentiments found subordinate place in the Sanskrit Nataka.

(v) Abundance of lyrics and lyrical sentiments for which a drama sometimes
suffers from want of action. As the third Act of Bhavobhouti‟s Uttaram-Charita,
from the entire absence of dramatic action, appears more like a gorgeous poem
than drama, in the strict sense of the world, though of course it contains passages
of great beauty and poetry.

(vi) The Linguistic difference that we find in the employment of courtly sanskrit
for some persons and prakrit for women and men of inferior rank is a remark able
feature of the Sanskrit drama.

Besides the above mentioned points of difference, there are some

internal features which are absent in one, and present in the other. The famous of
the Greek drama, the CHORUS, is conspicuously absent from the Sanskrit drama.
Again Sutradhara, Nati, Nandi, Amukha etc. are not be found in a Greek play.1

Kalidas has been justly called the Shakespeare of India and his wonderful
knowledge of human nature in all its varied and profound phases is quite
Shakespearean. His imagination was not only a realising faculty, but it could easily
grasp the past, the present, and the future. He was a profound artist as well. The
activity and universality of his genius pervaded every subject he touched, and
clothed it in the most attractive garb and everything in his hands became instinct
with new life and redolent with poetical beauty."2

‘‘DISCOVERY OF BHASA’S DRAMAS .

Next in importance, though not in point of time, may be mentioned the well-known
dramas of Bhasa.

The names of the drama which are so many rare treasures are as follows:-

1. Svapnavasavadatta, 2. Pratinjna-Jaugandharayana

3. Pancharatra, 4. Charudatta, 5. Dutta-ghatotkacha,

6. Avimaraka, 7.Balacharitra, 8. Madhyamavyaoga,

9. karnabhara, 10Urubhanga."3

MODERN NATYASHASTRA BY BHARATENDU

Bharatendu‟s long essay in Hindi was titled as „Nalak Athwa Drishyakvya

Siddhanta Vivechan‟, running into 25 pages, it was published in 1883. In a sense,

1
The Indian Theatre; Hemindra das gupta, gian Publishing house, Page-50.
2
The Indian Theatre; Hemindra das gupta, gian Publishing house, Page-50.
3
Ibid, page-64
Bharatendu‟s importance is even greater than that of Bharata since Bharata did not
write any play. In addition, there is no mention in the Natyashastra of any
experiment done by Bharatandu during his time. In contrast, Bharatendu not only
propounds a theory, but explains repeatedly how the theory could be applied while
experimenting on plays. The most important factor is that Bharatendu paid a strong
foundation in his essay 118 years ago on the contemporary Indian theatre‟s quest
for a fresh Indian expression through the combination of the traditions and styles of
ancient and modern theatrical trends of the East and west”1

BHASA’S TIME

From the above and various other sources pandit Kashiprasad ascertains that Bhasa
flourished in the first century B. C. being the court Pandit of King Narayana of the
Kanva Dyansty. Pandit Ganpat Shastri however places him before Chanakya (i. e.
4th century B. C.)

BHASA’S TIME

From the above and various other sources Pandit Kashiprsad ascertains that Bhasa
flourished in the first century B. C. being the court Pandit of King Narayana of the
Kanva Dyansty. Pandit Ganpat Shastri however places him before Chanakya (i, e.
4th century B. C.) elite nationalist models of theatre. In fact the call reveals two
central themes of the nationalist theatre imagination very clearly - firstly an
aesthenc search for a theatre idiom which would represent the model of modern
and secular Indian theatre and secondly a demand to have „national‟ organizations
to nurture such ideals. In Karnataka and outside, the dream of the nation in theatre

1
Book – The Natayashastra by Devanada Raj Ankur – published in theatre India – National school of Drama’s
theatre journal -12
can be traced in these two separat but interrelated developments- one, aesthetic and
the other organizational.

Alkazi, represents the classic search for the nationalist idiom in theatre
practice. Alkazi is perhaps the Nehru of Indian Theatre and his production of
Tughioq as the Purana Quila can be regarded as a metaphorical equivalent to the
Bhakra Nangad dam, the modern , secular tempe of India. Here, in Alkazi‟s word
is how he conceived and built the National School of Drama:

Without making tall claims. I do believe have established the

beginnings of a truly representative Indian theatre. Through the translations, study
and productions of the school, regional playwrights have acquired a national
stature. Traditional forms like the Bhavai. Tamasha, Yakshagana and Nautanki
have acquired meaning and significance in the contemporary context.... Continuous
public performances helped mould the taste of the public: the have aroused a live
interest in the theatre as a provoke or thought not a means of wulgar entertainment
. . . . The School has brought dignity, grace and a sense of high purpose to a
profession which was looked down upon and regarded socially as being beyond the
pale. All in all, the school has done more for the cultural and emotional integration
of the country than any other single body.

For this modern/ secular nationalism, the „traditional‟ became problems which had
to be solved. Alkazi echoes that

Our present predicament has nothing to do with what we consider to

be „Indian and what „western‟, though we seem to be obsessed with problems of
cultural identity. We should essentially be concerned with what is feudalistic,
backward looking, reactionary, on the hand, and that which is rational, egalitarian,
reaching out to the future, on the other. We should be much more exerused over
our basic ieemanitly tham over the iccelomf indianess

Alkazi did not ...........................................................................

of his speches he almost identifies himself with Le Corbousien the architect

Clearly, out of all this, an international style or styles is bound to emerge,

just as it has in architecture, painting, music, sculpture and particularly the applied
arts, with superficial national deviations and idiosyncrasies . It is no accident of

Hayavadana is an enigmatic play. Critical opinion is ivided about what

its main theme is. Kirtinath Kurtkoti who wrote a brief introduction to the English
translation published in 1975 says:

The original play poses a moral problem while Mann uses it

to ridicule the mechanical conception of life which differen-

tiates between body and soul. He ridicules the philosophy,

which holds the head superior to the body. The human body,

Mann argues, is a fit instrument for the fulfilmcnt of human

destiny.

Kamad‟s play poses a different problem, that of human of identity in a world of

tangled relatinships.

Another critic U. R. Anantha Murthy in his „„A Note of Karnad‟s

Hayavadana‟‟ has this to say about theme: „„The play exposes the audience to a
significant theme like „incompleteness‟ in a comic mode.‟‟ A few paragraphs later
he says, „„The play tries to create an illusion in us that the head determines the
being of man.‟‟

R. S. Sharma in a lively note says:

That completeness is a humanly impossible ideal is suggested

first in the story of Hayavadana and later in the transposition

of heads. By showing the absurdity of the ideal of complete-

ness the play finally achieves its aesthetic goal. It implicitly

asserts the value and significance of human imperfection

which makes any upward movement possible.

Tome, the theme of the play has two aspects, a socio-cultural aspect and a
metaphysical one. At both levels it shows the conflict between two polarities
(namely Appollonian and Dionysian)as the vital truth of human existence. How
does one define „„complete-ness‟‟ or „„perfection?‟‟ If perfection or completeness
means fusion of the two extreme polarities (at the metaphysical level), the play
suggests that such fusion is not possible and this is for the simple reason that if the
cycle of nature must continue, it will do so only through a dialectical relationship
between Apollonian and Di- that the Apollonian always asserts itself and subdues
the Dionysian in our socio-cultural life. So the co-existence of the two is ruled out
(this point is proved later)physically as well morally. Human society is made
possible only through submission to the Apollonian principle. The collective
wisdom of society flouts passion (represented in the play by the judgement of the
Rishi and padmini‟s passion for Kapila respectively).It will bring about the
destruction of the individuals who defy order in society. Padmini‟ predicament is
the predicament of a modem, emancipated women in our society who torn between
two polarities, a woman who loves her her husband as well as someone else for
two different aspects of their personali-ties. A civilized Apollonian society and its
moral code will not accept such a woman. The two men will not accept each other
when it comes to sharing a woman and all the three will destroy them -selves in the
process.

Devadatta and Kapila‟s friendship obviously evolves out of their fascination

for the aspect which each one of them lacks. They are thus complementary to each
other. But the woman whom both of them love is fascinated by both of them and
this creates the probem.

Anantha Murthy points out that it is significant that Kapila is a blcksmith- a

lower caste in the Hindu caste system while Devadatta is a brahmin. That is why
Padmini ‟s fascination for both of them at the same time would be all the more
unacceptable to the society in which they live. But this is surely an incidental
complication. The real crux of the problem is that society in its present from would
not accept a woman living with two men.

Devadatta, the Brahmin and husband , Padmini his wife; and Kapila the low
caste, Devadatta‟s friend but almost like his „„dasa,‟‟ always willing to serve
Devadatta and Padmini: this represents the Also like a lotus she is more rooted in
the earth and, there fore, has greater affinity for the Dionysian aspect of life
manifest in kapila. Their dilemma has implications for the present-day audience
irrespective of their socio- cultural station in life. This device of giving his
characters generic names also helps Karnad to dovetail the characters into the
Bhagavata‟s narration, for stories in their oral, narrative style are mostly-since they
are designed to drive home a moral-about representative characters. But quite soon
we realize that Kamad is intent on endowing them with striking individuality
which alone could make their dilemma emotionally, that is to say aesthetically,
appealing. Anantha Murthy feels dissatisfied with the play because the playwright,
he feels, has not been able to „„show‟‟ certain facets of the main characters,
especially that of Devadatta. He, however, overlooks the facts that Kamad has used
a form in which narrative „„telling‟‟ is vastly more important than it is in a realistic,
psychological play. Indeed in this tradition the playwright need nit „„show ‟‟ the
facts „„told‟‟ by the narrator, the Bhagavata, as they carry enough weight for the
audience not to demand further „„showing.‟‟ But even as the Bhagavata proceeds to
„„tell‟‟ the story the characters as it were insist on coming into their own, insist,
that is to say, on living their own lives, and making their own decision. It is like the
puppets in a puppet-dance suddenly insisting on dancing to their own impulses. it
is in these parts of the play that Karnad succeeds in making them individuals and
since his intention is just to stretch the narrative form that he is using he is using he
does not care-indeed he would seriously damage the design of his play if he did-to
follow the device to the end try to „„show‟‟ the characters unfolding themselves.

Immediately after he sees Padmini, Kapila says to himself, „„What she needs
is aman of steet.‟‟ That he is a blacksmith should make it easy for us to discem
what Kapila feels about Padmini but he quickly subjugates his feelings to his more
representative role; that of a loyal friend who is almost like a dasa to Devadatta.
Later on when Devadatta decides against going to picnic, Kapila ‟s individual
feelings surface, only to be submerged in the role that he has accepted to play;

grew up as children in their middle class homes in the 1940-50 period on the one
hand, and the new norms of unscrupulousness that they were required to follow in
their youth to survive in the commercial world of the 1960 8 on the other. Here they
had to come to terms with bribery, nepotism, and various other forms of
corruption. Those who could not cope with these, came to feel that they were
unnecessary, unwanted and useless-whether in their homes, or in their careers, or
in their perso fal relationships. A sense of utter loneliness and inexplicable
alienation gripped them. Yet, their hopes and desires were still glowing like dying
embers.

It was this generation that discovered in Badal sircar‟s Ebong Indrajit an

indigenously designed experimental drama that gave voice to their inarticulate
cries, and a certain shape to their confused ideas. Indrajit and his friends pass
through various stages of life-from classrooms to office corridors. For Amal,
Bimal, Kamal and others, thers is safety only in conformity and obedience, in
comfortable jobs and commonplace marriages. They are caught in the web of
defined roles, where they accept everything- from consumerism to corruption-
without questioning their dehumanizing effects. Indrajit cannot fit himself into
their roles. Unlike the heroes of romantic drama, or political agit-prop plays,
Indrajit does not convert Amal, Bmal and others to his views. He remains an
individual rebel who struggles against obedience and conformity and wants to pass
beyond the circle of routine. In the course of this unequal struggle between himself
and the hostile environment , Indrajit himself changes. In the end, he emerges a
more discerning intellectual and undaunted human being. Though he may never
see his dream of a world made after man‟s desires, he rides on his dream. He
ascends for the sheer exhilaration of the ride, not for reaching the destination. The
playwright, who is a character in Ebong Indrajit, and as Indrajit ‟s alter-ego while
writing a play about him,6 ends by defining the role for the hero: „„Remember- it is
not the pilgrimage, but the road to the pilgrimage which is our destiny.‟‟

The appeal of Badal Sircat‟s plays of this period among the perceptive
sections of the Indian urban middle class audience lay in his ability to rescue some
pattern and signficance for human life out of the utterly dismal scene of
disillusionment and failure that surrounded that audience. The adventure of self-
discovery through confrontation with the grim reality, and defiance of it at every
stage, was projected by Sircar as the individual rebel‟s only way of triumphing
over the hurdles created by society.

We meet such a war-worn rebel in the old man in Sara Rattir (1963). He has
faced human destiny at its worst, challenged its malevolence, and gazed steadily at
the heart of the pain. In his own words: „All through the night, I have remained
awake, have watched, have learnt. .I have sharpened my two eyes on the whetstone
[of expenences] and made them razor-edged. Being on my guard against dreams, I
have remained alert, awake all night with my two sharp eyes open.‟ In his isolated
house there arrive a young married couple during a stormy night, seeking shelter
from the rain. The two are tied together, yet kept apart by their different versions of
love and freedom, and isolated by moral emptiness. The old man‟s razor-sharp
probe cuts through the facade of their domestic peace. Under his sad and relentless
questioning, the two discover each other