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Mechanical Approaches
*Krishna Raj Adhikari
Pashchimanchal Campus, IOE/TU, Nepal
Department de Fisica Aplicada, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Spain
Email: adhikarikrishna@wrc.edu.np
Abstract: This article presents some review and annotations about classical electron and the quantum mechanical
approaches to describe the electrical conductivity of materials specially metals.
Keywords: Electrical conductivity; drift velocity; Drude model; velocity space; relaxation time
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Krishna Raj ... Electrical ...
in the direction opposite to the electric field which After removal of the electric field the electron is
results an electric current. supposed to move with a constant velocity. Usually it
does not happen so (1) due to the presence of resistance
caused by the interactions of drifting electrons with
2. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS lattice atoms, impurity and imperfections. Now as
De Broglie proposed the dual nature of particle to above consideration equation (1) is modified into
like energy, on his thesis entitled Research on dv
m + γ v = eE (2)
the Theory of Quanta in 1924, later awarded his dt
doctorate and won the Noble Prize in 1929 (5). An Where γ is a constant called resistive/damping
electron can have wave nature as well which is constant and γv is damping/resistive force.
known as matter wave.
Due to the interaction of elections and lattice atoms
Matter waves are believed to be scattered by lattice and electric field there is acceleration of electrons
atoms. When the lattice atoms absorb the energy of between two successive collisions and on the other
incident waves then they get oscillated as oscillators hand electrons impart energy to the lattice atoms.
and in turn reemit/scatter the radiation in all Finally the electron acquires a constant drift speed
directions. If these waves from two or more atoms v as a result the equation (2) reduces into
D
in a periodic crystal are in phase, they superpose γ vD = eE
and interfere constructively and the resulting wave
doesn’t suffer any change in intensity and direction eE
Or, γ =
i.e. matter waves do not lose energy but may be vD (3)
modified only in velocity (3). This type of coherent
scattering is observed in perfect or ideal crystal. From the equations (2) and (3), we have
dv eE
But in real crystal scattering centers are not m + v = eE
dt v D (4)
periodically arranged due to impurity, imperfections
and thermal agitations so that the reemitted waves It is an actual differential equation of motion for an
are not in same phase and the wave is said to be electron in the presence of resistive as well as the
incoherently scattered. The energy of incoherently electric fields. Solution of this differential equation
scattered waves gets diminished in forward is as given below:
direction. Thus, the intensity of the resultant wave eE
v = vD[1 − exp{−( )t ] (5)
after reinforce is significantly modified i.e., matter mv D
waves lose energy. It is the wave picture of origin of This relation shows that velocity, v of the electron
the electrical resistance & resistivity and at the same depends directly on external electric field and
time conductance and conductivity. inversely with resistive constant. Moreover the term
a. Classical Electron Approach of Conductivity mvD
h has the dimension of time called relaxation
eE
When an electric field E is applied to a conductor time, τ (Hummer, 1985) it is an average time
having free electron n in unit volume then the between two consecutive collisions.
electrons get accelerated and drifted by the force eE mv
i.e., τ = D (6)
towards positive ions/lattice sites. From Newton’s eE
second law, we have Rearranging above relation, we have
dv eEτ
m = e E (1) vD =
dt (7)
m
Where, m, e and v are mass, charge and velocity From general formula of current density, J and
respectively of the electron. microscopic view of Ohm’s law, we have
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The Himalayan Physics, Vol.5, No.5, Nov 2014
2 2
Figure (1). Velocity of electrons in two dimensional
space a) without electric field, and b) with the electric E = k
field, E. [Courtesy: Hummer, 1985] 2m (13)
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Krishna Raj ... Electrical ...
And next we have Similarly for the spherical Fermi surface, we have
1
p J = e2 n ( E ) Eτ vF 2 (19)
k= (14) 3
And we also have J = σ E
Where, p is momentum of the electron. Differentiating
equation (13) and using equation (14), we have From above relations, we have
2
e 2 v F 2 n (E) τ
dE
= k = vF (15)
dk m or, σ = (20)
3
And again differentiating equation (14), we have Thus, in quantum mechanical approach conductivity
depends on Fermi velocity, population density of
dE dE electrons, n(E) and the relaxation time. Moreover the
∆k = ∆t = τ (16)
equation (20) shows that not all free electrons but only
here Δt is time interval between two consecutive the free electrons near the Fermi surface contribute
collisions = τ, relaxation time. to the electrical conductivity. This equation better
explains the greater value of electrical conductivity
Now from the equations (11), (12), (15), & (16), we
of copper than that of magnesium even though
have
copper has less valence electron than in magnesium.
J= vF e n(E) E τ (17)
2 2 Also, in metal there are many energy levels near
Fermi energy and many electrons available to move
to contribute the electrical conduction consequently
metals have high electrical conductivity (4).
3. CONCLUSIONS
This article, a review, has presented a conception
on electrical conductivity, and formulations of
conductivity using classical electron & quantum
mechanical approaches. The first approach and
formulation in equation (9) assumes that all the
free electrons in a material drift in the presence
Figure (3). Projection of Fermi velocity along positive v(k)x of external electric field and all they contribute
direction. [Courtesy: Hummer, 1985] to the electrical conduction whereas in quantum
Only the component vF cosϴ contribute to the mechanical approach, in equation (20), only specific
electric current as shown in figure (3), so we have electrons drift with a high speed nearly the Fermi
velocity vF have supposed to contribute to the
electrical conductivity, σ. In metal there are many
energy levels near Fermi energy and many electrons
π
+ available to move to contribute the electrical
2 2 2 2 dθ
J = e n(E) E τ ∫ v F cos θ conduction therefore metals have high electrical
π π conductivity. Moreover, the quantum mechanical
-
2 approach is more rational and accurate to explain and
1 2
or, J = e n( E ) Eτ vF 2 (18) determine the electrical conductivity and hence it is
2 believed to be superior over the classical approach.
(for two dimensional space)
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The Himalayan Physics, Vol.5, No.5, Nov 2014
(1) Hummer, R. E., “Electronic Properties of (7) Murugeshan, R., “Modern Physics”, S. Chand
Materials”, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg & Company (Pvt.) Ltd, New Delhi, India,
GmbH, Germany, 1985. 1986.
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