ABSTRACT

Drying is simply removal of water from any solid substance by thermal means but
below the boiling point of temperature. Food drying is one of the oldest methods in
human civilization for prevention of food. Food industries are now one of the most
developing industries in India. Food preservation is key factor affecting the quality of
product and a long life product is the one desired by the manufacturers and the
consumers.

In this project we have fabricated a batch type tray dryer which is tested to dry
tomatoes and potatoes at varying temperatures such as 60, 70 and 80 degrees
centigrade at constant flow rate of air and at regular time intervals the weight of the
sample was recorded initially and the amount of initial sample was kept constant
which was 100grams.

We also compared drying kinetics of the material to be tested at varying temperature

conditions. Minor fluctuations in drying of potato were observed resulting in uneven
drying. The theoretical time requirement which was compared with experimental time
required for drying was compared. The efficiencies of dryer at temperature of 80
degree centigrade were calculated and were found to be in the range of 50-70%.

Keywords: Drying, Kinetic data, drying periods, Theoretical and experimental time
required, Moisture Ratio
 o CONTENTS

CHAPTERS PAGE NO.

Chapter 1:-
o Introduction 1
 Drying 2
 Drying Mechanism 2
 Methods of Drying 3
 Drying Kinetics 4
 Definitions 5
 Rate of Drying 6
 Project Objectives 10
Chapter 2:-
o Literature Review 11
Chapter 3:-
o Methodology 14
 Fabrication procedure 14
 Experimental Setup 18
 Experimental Steps 19
Chapter 4:-
o Observation 20
 For Tomato 20
 For Potato 21
Chapter 5:-
o Kinetics Of Drying 24

Chapter 6:-

o Results And Discussion 29

Chapter 7:-

o Conclusion 30

References 31
 List of Figures

Sr. No Figures Page No.

1 Drying Section 12
2 Heating Box with Coil 12
3 Valve and Pipe 13
4 Blower 14
5 Experimental Setup 15
6 Graph of drying rate vs moisture content 18
7 Graph of drying rate vs moisture content 20
8 Graph of Moisture ratio vs time 21
9 Graph of Moisture ratio vs time 22
10 Graph of Moisture ratio vs time 23
11 Dried Potato 25
12 Dried Tomato 26
CHAPTER 1: -
INTRODUCTION
Drying has remained one of the popular methods for preserving food for many years.
The drying process involves reducing water from the product to an acceptable level for
marketing storage or processing. Given the absence of sufficient water microorganisms are
unable to grow and multiply many of the enzymes that cause food spoilage cannot function
without water.

In order to increase the aggregate value of food products, research in the area of dehydration
has been widely extended to search products with few alterations in their nutritional
characteristics.

The drying rate is so small for biological materials compared with other materials that they
require a longer drying time. This long drying time induces to high drying cost. Therefore,
the understanding of the drying system, process and equipment, is essential for food
engineers to design an optimized drying system.

Drying is generally applied to removal of relatively small amount of water from solid
material to reduce the content of residual liquid to an acceptable low value.

Wide variety of dehydrated foods that are now available to the consumer (snacks, dry mixes
and soups, dried fruits etc.) and the increasing concern for meeting quality specification and
conserving energy emphasize the need for a thorough understanding of the drying operation
and the problems related to the design and operation of dryers.

In the case of dryers design has become an increasingly challenging problem aiming at the
evaluation of appropriate type of equipment, its associated flow sheet structure, its optimum
construction characteristics and operating conditions of each unit involved in the overall flow
sheet. Although the modelling of drying processes is well developed with adequate
comprehension of the process itself most models incorporate a large number of
thermophysical properties and transport conditions which in most cases are only in precisely
known producing inaccurate or erroneous results on large scale industrial applications.

Tray dryers constitute an important family of convective dryers where the drying medium is
hot air or combustion gases coming from a furnace. They are adaptable to the drying of
almost any material that can be put in a tray.

In general batch or semi-batch operation is used. In all cases design efforts in this field focus
on the determination of appropriate equipment configuration that is number of parallel
processor lines trucks and determination of lot sizing and corresponding operational
condition within each processor.
The solids to be dried may be in many different forms—flakes, crystals, powders, slabs or
continuous sheets and may have widely differing properties. The liquid to be vapourized
maybe on the surface of solid , as in drying salt crystals, it may be entirely in the solid, as in
solvent removal from sheet of polymer or it may be partly outside partly inside.

DRYING
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by
evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final production
step before selling or packaging products.

To be considered "dried", the final product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet
(e.g., paper), long pieces (e.g., wood), particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn flakes) or powder
(e.g., sand, salt, washing powder, milk powder). A source of heat and an agent to remove the
vapor produced by the process are often involved. In bioproducts like food, grains, and
pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost invariably water.

In drying, relatively small amount of water or other liquid is removed from a solid or semi
solid material (using thermal energy) , whereas in evaporation relatively large amount of
water is removed from solutions. Drying involves the removal of water at a temperature
below the boiling point, while evaporation involves the removal of water as vapour at its
boiling point. Drying involves circulation of hot air or other gas over a solid material for
removal of water, whereas evaporation involves use of steam heat for removal of water. To
obtain dried product is the main aim of drying while to obtain concentrated solutions is the
main purpose of evaporation.

Drying operations are carried out for reasons given below:-

1. For reducing the transport cost,

2. To meet the market specifications of the product
3. For providing definite properties of material.
4. Sometimes it is essential part of process (e.g. drying of potato chips in food
industries).

DRYING MECHANISM
In some products having relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear reduction of
the average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a limited
time, often known as a "constant drying rate period". Usually, in this period, it is surface
moisture outside individual particles that is being removed. The drying rate during this period
is mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. Therefore, the
maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat-transfer limited. If drying is
continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep (falling rate period) and
eventually tends to nearly horizontal at very long times.
The product moisture content is then constant at the "equilibrium moisture content", where it
is, in practice, in equilibrium with the dehydrating medium. In the falling-rate period, water
migration from the product interior to the surface is mostly by molecular diffusion, i,e. the
water flux is proportional to the moisture content gradient. This means that water moves from
zones with higher moisture content to zones with lower values, a phenomenon explained by
the second law of thermodynamics. If water removal is considerable, the products usually
undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a well-designed freeze-drying process.

The drying rate in the falling-rate period is controlled by the rate of removal of moisture or
solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is referred to as being "mass-transfer
limited". This is widely noticed in hygroscopic products such as fruits and vegetables, where
drying occurs in the falling rate period with the constant drying rate period said to be
negligible.

METHODS OF DRYING
 Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior
to drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid
phase, below the melting point of the solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods,
beyond its already classical pharmaceutical or medical applications. It keeps
biological properties of proteins, and retains vitamins and bioactive compounds.
Pressure can be reduced by a high vacuum pump (though freeze drying at atmospheric
pressure is possible in dry air). If using a vacuum pump, the vapour produced by
sublimation is removed from the system by converting it into ice in a condenser,
operating at very low temperatures, outside the freeze drying chamber.
 Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products
containing water. This process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off,
and joined with the drying medium, increasing its flow. It is usually employed in
closed circuit and allows a proportion of latent heat to be recovered by recompression,
a feature which is not possible with conventional air drying, for instance. The process
has potential for use in foods if carried out at reduced pressure, to lower the boiling
point.
 Natural drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking
advantage of its natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent,
so a wise strategy "fan off-fan on" must be devised considering the following
conditions: Air temperature, relative humidity and moisture content and temperature
of the material being dried. Grains are increasingly dried with this technique, and the
total time (including fan off and on periods) may last from one week to various
months, if a winter rest can be tolerated in cold areas.
 Spray drying is a method of producing a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by
rapidly drying with a hot gas. This is the preferred method of drying of many
thermally-sensitive materials such as foods and pharmaceuticals. A consistent particle
size distribution is a reason for spray drying some industrial products such as
 catalysts. Air is the heated drying medium; however, if the liquid is a flammable
solvent such as ethanol or the product is oxygen-sensitive then nitrogen is used.
 Drum drying is a method used for drying out liquids from raw materials with drying
drum. In the drum-drying process, pureed raw ingredients are dried at relatively low
temperatures over rotating, high-capacity drums that produce sheets of drum-dried
product. This product is milled to a finished flake or powder form. Modern drum
drying techniques results in dried ingredients which reconstitute immediately and
retain much of their original flavour, colour and nutritional value.

DRYING KINETICS
Drying kinetics play a significant role in the selection of dryers. Apart from simply deciding
the residence time required, it limits the types of suitable dryers. Location of the moisture
(whether near surface or distributed in the material), nature of moisture (free or strongly
bound to solid), mechanisms of moisture transfer (rate-limiting step), physical size of
product, conditions of drying medium (e.g., temperature, humidity, flow rate of hot air for a
convective dryer), pressure in dryer (low for heat-sensitive products), etc., have a bearing on
the type of suitable dryer as well as the operating conditions. Most often, not more than one
dryer type will likely meet the specified selection criteria.

Wet Weight−Dry Weight

Moisture dry basis = 100 × Dry Weight

Wet Weight−Dry Weight

Moisture wet basis= 100 × Wet Weight

The above formula shows formula for calculating moisture content on dry and wet basis. This
formula was used to calculate the moisture content in this project.
 DEFINITIONS
In drying operations with various terms are used which are defined below containing of
substance and humidity relations with the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature

1. Bound moisture:- the moisture content by substance which exit equilibrium vapour
pressure less than that of pure liquid at the same temperature.
2. Unbound moisture:- it refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts
and equilibrium vapour pressure equal to that of pure liquid at same temperature
3. Free moisture:- free moisture is that moisture content by a substance in excess of
equilibrium moisture only the free moisture can be evaporated and free moisture
content of solid depends upon the vapour concentration in the air
4. Equilibrium moisture content:- it is the moisture content of a substance that is in
equilibrium with its vapour in the gas phase under the specified humidity and
temperature of the hot gas or air it represents the limiting moisture content to which or
given material be dried under constant drying conditions
5. Moisture content on wet basis: - the ratio of the weight of moisture to the weight of
the wet feed material.
6. Moisture content on dry basis: - The moisture of wet feed material on dry basis is
defined as the ratio of weight of the moisture weight of the solids present in the wet
feed material.
7. Critical moisture content: - it is the moisture content of a material at which the
constant rate period ends and the falling rate period starts.
8. Constant rate period: - it is the part of the drying process during which the rate of
drying expressed as the moisture evaporated per unit time per unit area of drying
surface remains constant.
9. Falling rate period:- it is that part of the drying process during which the rate of
drying varies with time and instantaneous drying rate period expressed as the amount
of moisture evaporated per unit time per unit area of drying surface continuously
decreases.
10. Relative humidity (RH):- is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour to
the equilibrium vapour pressure of water at a given temperature
11. Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the air. Water vapour is the
gaseous state of water and is invisible. It is the ration of the mass of water vapour to
the mass of dry air present in air-water vapour mixture under any given set of
conditions.
12. Saturation humidity (Hs):- it is the humidity of air when it is fully saturated with
water vapours.
13. Percentage humidity: - it is the ratio of humidity of air to the humidity of saturated
air.
14. Dry bulb temperature: - the temperature of air-water vapour mixture recorded by a
thermometer whose bulb is kept dry is called dry bulb temperature.
 15. Wet bulb temperature: - The temperature of air-water vapour mixture recorded by a
thermometer whose bulb is kept wet by wrapping a wet cloth in the open air is called
wet bulb temperature.
16. Dew point: - when the air water-vapour mixture is cooled and starts to condense is
known as the dew point temperature.

RATE OF DRYING
Drying periods
In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also
moisture from the interior of the material. If the change in moisture content for a material
is determined as a function of time, a smooth curve is obtained from which the rate of
drying at any given moisture content may be evaluated.
The form of the drying rate curve varies with the structure and type of material, and two
typical curves are shown in Figure . In curve 1, there are two well-defined zones: AB,
where the rate of drying is constant and BC, where there is a steady fall in the rate of
drying as the moisture content is reduced. The moisture content at the end of the constant
rate period is represented by point B, and this is known as the critical moisture content.
Curve 2 shows three stages, DE, EF and FC.

The stage DE represents a constant rate period, and EF and FC are falling rate periods. In
this case, the Section EF is a straight line, however, and only the portion FC is curved.
Section EF is known as the first falling rate period and the final stage, shown as FC, as
the second falling rate period.

Constant rate period

During the constant rate period, it is assumed that drying takes place from a saturated surface
of the material by diffusion of the water vapour through a stationary air film into the air
stream.

Falling rate period

As the moisture content decreases the constant rate period ends at a definite moisture content
and during further drying, the rate decreases. The point terminating the constant rate period is
called critical point or critical moisture content. It is defined as average moisture content of
the material and the transition between two periods.

First falling-rate period

The points B and E in above figure represent conditions where the surface is no longer
capable of supplying sufficient free moisture to saturate the air in contact with it. Under these
conditions, the rate of drying depends very much on the mechanism by which the moisture
from inside the material is transferred to the surface. In general, the curves in above figure
will apply, although for a type 1 solid, a simplified expression for the rate of drying in this
period may be obtained.

Second falling-rate period

At the conclusion of the first falling rate period it may be assumed that the surface is dry and
that the plane of separation has moved into the solid. In this case, evaporation takes place
from within the solid and the vapour reaches the surface by molecular diffusion through the
material. The forces controlling the vapour diffusion determine the final rate of drying, and
these are largely independent of the conditions outside the material.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES
 To fabricate a tray dryer.
 To study and compare drying kinetics of the sample.
 To calculate and compare the theoretical time required for drying with the actual time
required.
 To calculate the efficiency of the fabricated dryer.
CHAPTER 2: -
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Faculty of engineering caritas university, amorji nike, emne, enugu state, Okoye
clara ogechukwu,he studied and designed a corn and cob tray dryer. The main
objective was to design a corn dryer for the farmers of particular region thus
protecting its quality and spoilage of corn. The study provided them a high rate of
drying which was further used for forming a design data.

2. Abiola Olufemi Ajayeoba, Samson Olusegun Fatukasi, Olawale Waliyi Awotunde,

Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Nigeria. They designed and developed a
biscuit tray dryer. Their objective was to develop a cabinet dryer which can give the
same efficiency that of the biscuit tray dryers imported from overseas.

3. C. T. Kiranoudis, Z. B. Marouliqa D. Marinos-Kouris and M. Tsamparlis studied A

mathematical model for the semi-batch operation of industrial dryers with trucks and
trays is presented and analysed. Design aspects are discussed concerning problems
involving both single dryer and systems of parallel dryers. In cases, optimum
flowsheet configuration and operation conditions arc sought and verified by
appropriate formulation of design and optimization strategies. The optimization
objective is the total annual cost of the plant, subjected to constraints imposed by the
operation of the dryer; thermodynamics, and construction reasoning. The decision
variables were the number of trucks and the drying air stream humidity for each dryer
involved, as well as the total number of dryers. The MINLP nature of the design
problem required mathematical programming techniques for its solution. The
optimization was carried out for a wide range of production capacities, and the
optimal points, where a new truck or a new dryer is introduced, were evaluated. The
effect of market economic figures on the design results is illustrated. The analysis
focused on the design of two commercial agricultural products - namely, raisins and
currants. A characteristic case study is presented in order to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the proposed approach.

4. L.Nageswara Rao, D.Kamalakar and P.Rohinikumar et.al........studied the effect of

inlet air temperature on the drying characteristics of beetroot pieces in microwave
oven drying system. The results were compared with samples of beetroot dried in a
tray dryer and microwave oven drying at the same temperatures. The inlet air
temperatures selected were 65°C, 70oC, 75°C and 80°C. Moisture content was
measured at 10 minutes interval. It was also observed that the beetroot samples
obtained from the microwave oven system had lower final moisture content than those
obtained from the tray dryer system.
5. Nabiha Hassan Abou El Hana et.al......... The drying kinetics of three tomatoes
varieties was studied at two levels of drying temperature ranges of (55 and 65 C°),
without pre-treatment and pre-treatments salt, sucrose and calcium lactate, and three
sizes of tomatoes parts. The kinetics of the osmotic dehydration of tomatoes in a
stationary system using selected osmotic active substances was analyzed. Also, the
ratio of the surface area and the volume was measured. Time evolution of measured
parameters were cross analyzed and presented in diagrams. Moisture content, drying
rates and relative moisture content are calculated and were also presented in diagrams.
Moisture content verse drying time data were collected. The resulted curves were
plotted in diagrams and graphically compared with experimental data. In the
experiments, optimum conditions for osmotic dehydration of tomato have been
established, as a pretreatment before drying.

6. Abano E. E, Ma. H and W. Qu et.al........ The influence of different drying

temperatures on the drying kinetics and quality of tomato slices was studied. In
particular, the effect of hot air temperature on the lycopene content, non-enzymatic
browning, colour and flavour changes during drying at various temperatures in the
range of 50-80oC was investigated. Drying time reduced from 1140 mins to 540 mins
as the air temperature increased from 50 to 80oC. The non-enzymatic browning
increased with temperature from 0.485 to 1.40. The lycopene levels of the fresh
tomatoes significantly (p=0.05) increased from an initial value of 2.96 mg/100g to
61.23 mg/100g, 59.10 mg/100g, 60.88 mg/100g, and 65.28 mg/100g when dried at
50, 60, 70, and 80oC respectively.

Eleven out of the twelve sensors used in the electronic nose system indicated flavour
degradation of all dried samples compared with the fresh tomatoes. The values of the
hue angles recorded for the dried tomatoes ranged between 51.81o and 61.95o,
revealing that the dried tomatoes were yellow hued, thus indicating less browning.
The drying characteristics curves were evaluated against the Page, Henderson and
Pabis, and the Logarithmic mathematical models but the Page model best described
the drying of tomato slices. The effective moisture diffusivity coefficient increased
with increasing drying temperature and was found to be 5.13×10-10 m2s-1, 6.45×10-
10
m2s-1, 8.44×10-10 m2s-1, and 10.26 ×10-10 m2s-1 at respective hot air temperatures of
50, 60, 70, and 80oC with activation energy for moisture removal of 22.28 KJ/mol.

7. German Efremov et.al......studied application of experiment design method for

describing of generalized drying kinetics. Generalized kinetic equation for the first
drying period as the linear dependence of the material moisture content vs. drying
time and temperature is obtained. For determination of generalized kinetic equation
the limited number of experimental data (only two moisture contents of a material for
two temperatures of drying agent) is needed. The comparison of calculations of
generalized kinetic equation with experimental data for convection drying of sludge
and for convectional drying of cotton fabric in the first drying period are fulfilled. The
 mathematical modification of the two-period model of drying kinetics over the entire
drying process is obtained. This modified model permits to avoid of the determination
of a characteristic drying time. The comparison of drying kinetic calculations with
experimental data for convection drying of sludge in the first and second drying
periods for four temperatures using of experiment design method was fulfilled. As
follows from calculations, the experimental data of sludge correspond well to the lines
obtained through the factorial design which means that this method can successfully
be used to determine constant drying rates, total kinetics and the influence of
temperature in drying process.

8. Sana Ben Mariem, Salah Ben Mabrouk et.al......studied convective drying kinetics of
tomato slices was conducted in order to identify the characteristic parameters of such
high moisture content product and to establish mathematical models of the drying
kinetic for various range of temperatures typically encountered in industrial dryers.
The results allow the calculation of the effective diffusivity and the activation energy.
Drying experiments were conducted in Thermal Process Laboratory of the Research
and Technology Centre of Energy. The drying characteristics of tomato were studied
at 38°C, 44°C, 52°C, 57°C and 64°C with three air flow rates of 1ms-1, 2ms-1 and
3ms-1. The drying continues until samples' mass reaches a final moisture content of
11%. Some different mathematical models available in the literature (Newton, Page,
Henderson and Pabis, Two-term, modified Wang and Singh, Logarithmic ...) were
used and compared to estimate drying curves of tomatoes. The results indicated that to
reach a final moisture content of 11% at 38°C, 44°C, 50°C, 57°C and 64°C, the
drying time for 1 m/s, respectively, was 22.4h, 18.5h, 16.7h, 13.5h and 9.9h. For an
air flow rate of 1ms-1, 2ms-1 and 3ms-1, the drying time of tomato slices at 50°C were
16.7h, 14.2h and 11.7h, respectively. The effective diffusivity and activation energy
varied from in the temperature range (38°C - 64°C). Out of the considered
mathematical models, the drying curves were fitted to Logarithmic and Two-Term
equation.
CHAPTER 3: -
METHODOLGY
1. Fabrication procedure.
2. Experimental procedure.

FABRICATION PROCEDURE
The fabrication procedure provides the information about the dimensions, materials used and
specification required for fabrication of experimental setup.

1. Dryer: -

The body of the dryer is made-up of iron sheets of height 60cm and breadth
45 and 38cm. The frame of the dryer consists of 2mm thickness angle rod 40cm length which
is welded to the square pipes and 60cm distance i.e. along the height. The support for trays is
situated at 19cm and 36cm from the base.

The converging section that connects the body and chimney is made up of
metal sheet of 2mm of thickness and converging angle is 40 to 50O.

The chimney is made up of metal sheet of 2mm of thickness, the length and
breadth of the chimney is 13.5 cm and height is 11cm. One end of the chimney this joint to
the converging section.

The inner surface of the whole dryer is insulated by two layers 20mm thick
thermocol. The door is of dimensions 60*45cm and is made up of the same material that of
dryer body. The door is provided with two locks that completely seal the dryer.

For mobility of the dryer 4 wheels are attached to the base on the corners
with the help of screws, the height of the wheels is 7.5cm thus increasing the height of dryer
and making it to a total of 100cm height.
 Fig 1: - Drying Section

2. Heater Box: -
Heater box is the box consisting the heating element (nichrome
coil) fixed on a hot plate made from clay. The power rating of heating coil is 1500W. The
diameter of the heating plate is 17.8cm.

To control the temperature of coil, on off controller this

was connected to a thermocouple and the heating coil. The thermocouple is placed near the
coil by drilling a hole in the heater box lid.

The heater box is made up of 2 mm metal sheet having

dimensions 9 *9 * 6 inch. The base of the heater box is covered with 4 centimetre thick POP
layer on which the heating plate is placed; the walls of the heater box are covered by glass
and glass wool for heating insulation. On one side of the heater box expander is welded at
height of 3 inch and on the opposite side another reducer is welded at a height of 4 inch for
the inlet and outlet of air.

Fig 2: - Heating Box with Coil

 3. Frame: -
The frame of the assembly on which heater box and blower is placed
is made up of 2 mm thickness angle rod of dimension 120 cm length 38 cm of breadth and 8
cm height. On one end of the assembly frame blower is attached; from the blower the heater
box is placed on the assembly at a distance of 1.5 feet for better support to iron rods are
welded along the whole length of the assembly in the middle.

4. Pipes and joints: -

UPVC pipe of diameter 0.75 inch is attached to a blower and heater box
from the heater box, for controlling the flow rate of air a Ball valve is employed in between
heater box and blower of same diameter. In the dryer the outlet pipe is situated at 8
centimetre height and 19 CM length.

Fig 3: - Valve and Pipe

5. Blower: -
The properties of blower are as follows

Power 500W
Speed of impeller 13000 rpm
Air flow rate 0.88m3/min
Material of construction HDPE
Fig 4: - Blower
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Fig 5: - Experimental Setup

 EXPERIMENTAL STEPS
 Take a known amount of solid.
 Place the solid material into the trays.
 Start the blower and control the flow rate of air by speed regulator.
 Control the flow rate of air by regulating the valve opening.
 Set the temperature of coil by on-off controller.
 Placed the trays inside the dryer.
 At specific time intervals i.e. 10 minutes record the weight of solids to be dried.
 Repeat the procedure till constant weight of solids in the tray is observed.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR TOMATOES

 Selected fresh tomatoes (100 grams) were processed in a tray dryer and the tomatoes
were dried under controlled temperature until constant weight. The water removed
during the drying process was determined by periodic weighing of the samples using
an electronic balance.
 The weight loss was evaluated in each experiment separately and its value correlated
with drying air temperature.
 The drying tests were conducted at temperatures of 60, 70 and 80oC.
 The same procedure was followed for potato sample of same weight and if the
experiment is tested for any other food material then same procedure can be followed.
 CHAPTER 4: -
OBSERVATIONS
1. FOR TOMATO AT TEMP. 80OC

 Weight of sample to be dried = 99.19gm

 Area of pan = 0.0775 m2

 Weight of moisture = 89.85gm

Sr . no Total Weight of Moisture Time ( in dW Dt dw/dt Rate Moist Aver

weight( moisture removed sec) of ure age
gm) inside the from drying conte mois
system (gm) system nt ture
(gm) cont
ent
1 99.19 89.85 0 0 16.10 600 0.026 0.345 9.62 8.75
2 83.09 73.75 16.10 600 11.73 600 0.019 0.25 7.89 7.26
3 71.35 62.01 27.83 1200 12.12 600 0.020 0.260 6.63 5.98
4 59.22 49.88 39.96 1800 10.75 600 0.017 0.245 5.34 4.76
5 48.47 39.13 50.72 2400 9.72 600 0.016 0.209 4.18 3.66
6 38.74 29.40 60.44 3000 8.85 600 0.014 0.190 3.14 2.67
7 29.88 20.54 69.30 3600 5.46 600 0.009 0.116 2.2 1.90
8 24.46 15.08 74.76 4200 5.26 600 0.008 0.103 1.61 1.33
9 19.16 9.82 80.03 4800 2.84 600 0.004 0.051 1.05 0.89
10 16.32 6.98 82.87 5400 3.55 600 0.005 0.064 0.74 0.55
11 12.77 3.43 86.42 6000 2.57 600 0.004 0.051 0.36 0.22
12 10.2 0.86 88.99 6600 0.86 600 0.001 0.012 0.09 0.04
13 9.34 0 89.85 7200 0 600 0 0 0 0
 0.3

0.25

0.2
Rate of drying

0.15
Rate of drying
0.1

0.05

0
0 0.04 0.22 0.89 1.33 2.67 4.76 5.98 7.26
Average moisture content

Fig 6: - Drying rate vs average moisture content for tomato at temperature 80OC

Result: -
1. Critical moisture content (Xc) =4.76
2. Equilibrium moisture content (Xe) =0.04
3. Time required for drying (experimental) =7200 seconds
 2. FOR POTATO AT TEMP. 80OC

 Weight of sample to be dried = 97.73gm

 Area of pan = 0.0775 m2

 Weight of moisture = 70.40gm

Sr . Total Weight of Moistur Time ( dW dt dw/dt Rate Moist Ave

no weight moisture e in sec) of ure rage
(gm) inside the removed dryin conte moi
system from g nt stur
(gm) system e
(gm) cont
ent
1 97.73 70.40 0 0 12.09 600 0.02 0.26 2.57 2.35
2 85.63 58.30 12.09 600 10.92 600 0.018 0.23 2.13 1.93
3 74.71 47.37 23.02 1200 9.25 600 0.015 0.19 1.73 1.36
4 65.45 38.12 32.27 1800 8.05 600 0.013 0.17 1.394 1.24
5 57.4 30.06 40.33 2400 8.01 600 0.013 0.17 1.1 0.95
6 49.39 22.05 48.34 3000 5.93 600 0.0098 0.12 0.807 0.69
7 43.43 16.12 54.27 3600 5.64 600 0.0094 0.12 0.589 0.48
8 37.1 10.48 59.91 4200 3.94 600 0.006 0.08 0.383 0.35
9 33.87 6.54 63.86 4800 3.58 600 0.005 0.07 0.239 0.17
10 30.287 2.95 67.44 5400 2.36 600 0.003 0.05 0.108 0.06
11 27.89 0.55 69.84 6000 0.55 600 0.0009 0.01 0.02 0.01
12 27.33 0 70.40 6600 0 600 0 0 0 0
 0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Drying Rtae

0.1

0.08 drying rate

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.01 0.06 0.17 0.48 0.69 0.95 1.24 1.36

Average Moisture Content

Fig 7: - Drying rate vs average moisture content for potato at temperature 80OC

Result:-
1. Critical moisture content (Xc)= 0.48
2. Equilibrium moisture content(Xe)= 0.01
3. Time required for drying (experimental)= 6600 seconds
CHAPTER 5: -
KINETICS OF DRYING
Moisture content versus time graphs shows that moisture content decreases with increase in
time period for different temperatures of 60, 70 and 80°C. The figure portraits a negative
slope behavior at beginning and constant behavior later on where it is concluded that
moisture content could not be removed (bound moisture) further with increase in time period.

1. Comparison of drying kinetics for potato and tomato at

temperature of 80OC.

1.2

0.8

Moisture ratio for potato

0.6

Moisture ratio for

tomato
0.4

0.2

0
600

4800
time

1200
1800
2400
3000
3600
4200

5400
6000
6600
7200
0

Fig 8: - Moisture ratio vs Time at temperature 80oC

2. Comparison of drying kinetics for tomato and potato at
temperature of 70OC

1.2

0.8

0.6 moisture ratio for potato

moisture ratio for tomato

0.4

0.2

0
time 0 600 1200 1800 2400

Fig 9: - Moisture ratio vs Time at temperature 70oC

3. Comparison of drying kinetics of potato and tomato at
temperature of 60OC
1.2

0.8

0.6 moisture ratio for potato

moist ratio for tomato

0.4

0.2

0
time 0 600 1200 1800 2400

Fig 10: - Moisture ratio vs Time at temperature 60oC

From the above graphs it is observed that a smooth curve is obtained when tomato is
being dried giving a steady reduction in moisture. While in case of potato sudden
minor fluctuations are observed in each curve due to presence of more bound
moisture.
CHAPTER 6: -
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 Calculation of theoretical time for Tomato at 80OC

Theoretical time required

𝑊 𝑊 𝑋𝑐−𝑋𝑒
T = tc + tf = 𝐴𝑅𝑐 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2) + 𝐴𝑅𝑐 (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝑒) ∗ ln(𝑋2−𝑋𝑒)

Where,

W= mass of dry solids in kg

Rc = rate in kg/ (m2.h)

A= area of drying surface in m2

X1 = initial moisture content of wet solids

X2 = final moisture content in wet solids

Xc = critical moisture content

Xe = equilibrium moisture content

9.34 9.34 4.76−0.245

T= (5.98 − 1.90) + (4.76 − 0.245)ln( )
0.0775∗0.245 0.0775∗0.245 1.90−0.245

T= 2007 +2321.78* 0.93

T= 4166 seconds
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
 Efficiency of Dryer = × 100
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

4166
= × 100
7200

= 57.86%
  Calculation of theoretical time for Potato at 80OC

Theoretical time required

𝑊 𝑊 𝑋𝑐−𝑋𝑒
T = tc + tf = 𝐴𝑅𝑐 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2) + 𝐴𝑅𝑐 (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝑒) ∗ ln(𝑋2−𝑋𝑒)
27.33 27.33 0.48−0.01
T= (1.93 − 0.69) + (0.48 − 0.01)ln( )
0.0775∗0.12 0.0775∗0.12 0.69−0.48

T = 3644 + 1112

T = 4757 seconds
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
 Efficiency of Dryer = × 100
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

4757
= 6600 × 100

= 72.07%

 DRIED PRODUCT
a. Dried potato at temp. 80OC

Fig 11

b. Dried tomato at temp. 80OC

 Fig 12

 DISCUSSION
o As per efficiencies calculated above it is observed that the dryer fabricated by
us gives more efficiency in case of potato compared with tomato.
o The graphical representation of drying rate versus average moisture content is
more stable in case of tomato.
o Kinetic data curves of drying of each temperature are approximately overlap
each other.
CHAPTER 7: -
CONCLUSION
 Hence we conclude that the dryer fabricated by us gives optimal efficiency that is 50-
70%. We successfully completed experimental runs at varying temperatures that are
60, 70 and 80 degree centigrade at fixed flow rate of air and at regular time interval.
 This project helped us to know about drying kinetics and how they can be
implemented. It also helped us to acquire thorough knowledge about the drying
period, time required for drying i.e. theoretically and experimentally.
 We also compared the drying kinetics of the sample at various temperatures. There
are also some fluctuations observed during drying of potatoes due to presence more
bound moisture which is difficult to remove. The drying rate decreases with decrease
in moisture content due to absence of free or unbound moisture. Dried tomato is of
less weight compared to dried potatoes due to more moisture in it.
 REFERENCES
1. Design and development of corn cob try dryers BY Okoye clara ogechukwu

2. Design and Development of a Domestic Biscuit Cabinet Tray Dryer , Ladoke

Akintola University of Technology Nigeria

3. Mass transfer operations by Robert E. Traybel

4. Unit operations of chemical engineering Warren McCabe, Julin Smith and Peter
Harriot

5. Comparative Studies of Micro Wave Oven and Tray Drying on Beetroot by

L.Nageswara Rao , D.Kamalakar and P.Rohinikumar.

6. Drying kinetics of osmotically-treated tomatoes by Nabiha Hassan Abou El Hana

7. Influence of Air Temperature on the Drying Kinetics and Quality of Tomato Slices by
Abano E. E1, Ma. H1, and W. Qu.

8. Describing of generalized drying kinetics with application of experiment design

method by German Efremov.

9. Handbook of industial drying by Arun Mujumdar

10. The Determination of drying Kinetics and Equilibrium Characterisation at low

Moisture Contents by Andrew M. Keech

11.