Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

Kingdom Fungi

According to McDougal, Kingdom Fungi encompasses a wide variety of living

organisms. Scientists estimate that there are hundreds of thousands of fungus species on

Earth. At one time, it was thought that fungi were simply primitive versions of plants.

However, further discoveries led to the realization that fungi were different enough to

belong to their very own kingdom. Members of the kingdom Fungi are eukaryotes,

meaning they have complex cells with a nucleus and organelles. Most are multicellular,

with the exception of single-celled yeast.

Pycnoporus sanguineus

Pycnoporus sanguineus is most notably characterized by its red color. Termed “red

fungus,” P. sanguineus is a plant pathogen most typically found at elevations ranging

from 0 – 8,704ft in tropical or subtropical regions of the world. Mainly growing on dead

or decaying wood, fruiting bodies may grow individually or clustered, sometimes

overlapping. The fruiting bodies of P. sanguineus contain both a cap and a stem. The

caps are characterized by a bright red/orange color and can vary in both diameter and

thickness. Normally, caps range from 3 – 14cm in diameter and can grow up to 5mm in

thickness. Some of the most distinguishing characteristics of the caps other than the color

are their texture. In general, caps appear to be smooth, leathery, or corky in appearance.
They also display fairly rigid edges transitioning in non – fading colors. On average,

stems range from 2 – 7cm but are sometimes absent depending on their location upon its

nutrient source. Located directly underneath the caps are the gills. Contained within the

gills are hyaline hyphae equipped with thin walled clamps and microscopic spores called

basidiospores. The basidiospores appear short, ovate, and smooth. The basidiospores are

responsible for the production of fruiting bodies and are distributed within the

environment by falling branches or other organic debris (Gryczka, 2009).

Inflammation

According to Zelman (2018), inflammation is a process by which the body's white blood

cells and substances they produce protect us from infection with foreign organisms, such as

bacteria and viruses. Szalay states that inflammation is a vital part of the immune system's

response to injury and infection. It is the body's way of signaling the immune system to

heal and repair damaged tissue, as well as defend itself against foreign invaders, such as

viruses and bacteria. Without inflammation as a physiological response, wounds would

fester, and infections could become deadly. However, if the inflammatory process goes

on for too long or if the inflammatory response occurs in places where it is not needed, it

can become problematic.. But a healthy diet and lifestyle can help keep inflammation

under control (2018).

Diabetes

Diabetes is a disease that occurs when your blood glucose, also called blood sugar,

is too high. Blood glucose is your main source of energy and comes from the food you

eat. Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps glucose from food get into your cells
to be used for energy. Sometimes your body doesn’t make enough—or any—insulin or

doesn’t use insulin well. Glucose then stays in your blood and doesn’t reach your cells.

Over time, having too much glucose in your blood can cause health problems. Although

diabetes has no cure, you can take steps to manage your diabetes and stay healthy (2016).

Anti- diabetic Agents

Diabetes mellitus is a life-threatening chronic metabolic disease caused by lack of

insulin and/or insulin dysfunction, characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood

(hyperglycemia). Millions worldwide suffer from diabetes and its complications.

Significantly, it has been recognized that type 2 diabetes is an important preventable

disease and can be avoided or delayed by lifestyle intervention. Presently, there are

many chemical and biochemical hypoglycemic agents (synthetic drugs), that are used in

treating diabetes and are effective in controlling hyperglycemia. Medicinal mushrooms

have been valued as a traditional source of natural bioactive compounds over many

centuries and have been targeted as potential hypoglycemic and anti-diabetic agents.

Bioactive metabolites including polysaccharides, proteins, dietary fibres, and many

other biomolecules isolated from medicinal mushrooms and their cultured mycelia have

been shown to be successful in diabetes treatment as biological anti-hyperglycemic

agents. The importance of medicinal mushrooms as agents of medical nutrition therapy

and how their metabolites can be used as supportive candidates for prevention and

control of diabetes is explored (De Silva et al. , 2012).

Related Foreign Studies

 According to the study conducted by Elsayed et al. (2014), for centuries, macrofungi

have been used as food and medicine in different parts of the world. This is mainly

attributed to their nutritional value as a potential source of carbohydrates, proteins, amino

acids, and minerals. In addition, they also include many bioactive metabolites which

make mushrooms and truffles common components in folk medicine. The reported

medicinal effects of mushrooms include anti-inflammatory effects, with anti-

inflammatory compounds of mushrooms comprising a highly diversified group in terms

of their chemical structure. They include polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolic

compounds, and many other low molecular weight molecules. The aims of this review

are to report the different types of bioactive metabolites and their relevant producers, as

well as the different mechanisms of action of mushroom compounds as potent anti-

inflammatory agents.

The aim of the study conducted by Chun (201)3 was to examine the inhibitory effects of

six medicinal mushrooms on key enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) related to

hyperglycemia; chemical profiles of bioactive extracts were also examined. The results

showed that the n-hexane extract of Coriolus versicolor had the strongest anti-α-amylase

activity, while the n-hexane extract of Grifola frondosa showed the most potent anti-α-

glucosidase activity. Compared with acarbose, the anti-α-amylase activity of all mushroom

extracts was weaker, however a stronger anti-α-glucosidase activity was noted. GC-

MS analysis showed that the magnitude of potency of inhibiting α-glucosidase activity varied

with the levels of oleic acid and linoleic acid present in the extracts. Taken together, this

study suggests that oleic acid and linoleic acid could have contributed to the potent anti-α-

glucosidase activity of selected medicinal mushrooms.

 According to the study conducted by Nian (1994), the fruit body of Grifola frondosa

(maitake), Basidiomycetes was confirmed to contain substances with anti-diabetic

activity. When 1g/d of powdered fruit body of maitake was given orally to a genetically

diabetic mouse , blood glucose reduction was observed, in contrast to the control group in

which the blood glucose increased with ageing. Moreover, levels of insulin and

triglyceride in plasma demonstrated a change similar to blood glucose with feeding of

maitake. Ether-ethanol-soluble and hot water-soluble fractions were prepared from the

fruit body and their hypoglycemic activity was examined. Blood glucose-lowering

activity was found when Ether-Ethanol-soluble -fraction or hot-Water-Soluble-50%

ethanol float (X) fraction was administered orally, but other WS-fractions were inactive.

These results suggest that the anti-diabetic activity was present not only in the ES-

fraction consisting of lipid but also in the X-fraction of peptidoglycan.

Alleged antidiabetic property of a folkioric prescription containing Bergenia ligulata

(Pakhan bed), Asteracantha longifolia (Tal Makhana), Cinnamomum cassia (Taj) and

Argyria cuneater (Samundar Sokh) has been evaluated in rabbits after its oral

administration. The indigenous drug prescription exerted a significant hypoglycaemic

effect in both normal and diabetic rabbits. In normal rabbits, oral administration of 1 and

2 g/kg body weight doses of the compound powder caused maximum decrease in blood

glucose level at 10 and 24 hour intervals after its administration. In addition the 2 g/kg

dose also produced a fall in blood sugar at 4 hours. In the alloxan treated diabetic rabbits,

the 2 g/kg dose only coul4 produce a significant decrease in blood glucose levels at 10

and 24 hours. The maximum decrease in blood glucose was observed at 24 hours at all

dosage levels in normal as well as diabetic rabbits. It is conceivable that this folk
medicine contains some hypoglycaemic principles which can reduce the blood glucose

levels of diabetics. The treated rabbits did not show any signs of acute toxicity which

encourages the possible use of this compound medicinal plant prescription by diabetic

patients (Akhtar et al., 1984).