Psychology Essay Questions 1

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Psychology Essay Questions

Psychology 2

Psychology Essay Questions

In what ways are Piaget and Kohlberg's views of moral development comparable?

Discuss the available evidence.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a renowned biologist. The initial studies show that

Jean was much more interested in mollusc. Jean was a born intellectual this can be

proven with the record of his publications. By the age of twenty one he was the author

of twenty scientific research papers. Later he altered his field of research and focused

on methodologies associated with the children's development. His research works are

very comprehensive which show that he spent longer time observing, talking, reading,

listening and evaluating the results of the exercises which he set for them. The main

purpose of the data acquisition was to understand several stages involved in the child's

mental development.

Jean's work about the child development is unique and influential. He

categorized the mental development into stages. His research results show that child

learning process is directly connected to their ages. With the physical maturation, the

ability to learn and explore things also increases. He mentioned the ages of 18 months,

7 years and 12 years. He categorized the developmental stages and linked them to the

ages. According to the Piaget's developmental theory no matter how bright a child is, he

cannot learn more than their age. These new researches were very useful in the

educational reforms of those times. He strongly suggested that the syllabus of the

schools should be based on the developmental levels proved by the research.

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Based on the cognitive development among the children, he categorized the

development into four stages. Among them, the first stage is called Sensori-motor

stage. During this stage of development the child gains basic developing elements.

Among them are the abilities to differentiate from other material objects. This stage also

develops intentional sense. Which shows that child with his will and intention can create

sound, can laugh or can apply force with some purpose.

The second phase is called Pre-operational. This phase ranges from 2 to 7

years. During this cognitive stage child starts learning words and remembering objects.

In this stage it is hard for a child to figure out the things. However, classification based

skills start developing. For instance, a child can collect things of same design, shape or

color.

The third stage is called Concrete-operational. This phase ranges from 7 to 11

years. Logics get enhanced and the practical application of logics is done in this phase

of mental development. Classification based on any particular feature can be done. For

instance, during this phase if a child is told to pick yellow lemons from the plant, he will

only pick lemons of yellow color and leave the green.

Formal-operational stage is the last stage of cognitive development. This phase

is categorized by the ability to resolve the issues. This age group starts from seven

years and go on. The logical reasoning, arguments for, or against is some features of

this distinctive stage.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development can be considered as an extended

version of the Jean's developmental theory. This elaborated version of the Pigget's

theory of child's cognitive development was further enhanced by Kohlberg, a

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postgraduate student at the university of Chicago and surfed whole life in expanding

and elaborating the theory suggested by Pigget. Kohlberg was of the view that moral

reasoning and the ethical behaviors are also associated with the developmental stages.

Therefore, he classified these stages into six distinct categories. Each class was more

decent at reacting to moral quandaries than its predecessor. As stated by Pigget the

development is done in phases. Which suggest, that moral values and other ethical

norms much be in any connection with the developmental stages as proposed by

Pigget? Therefore, he started organizing the developmental stages based on ethics and

morality development. Moreover, Kohlberg stated that the moral and ethical

developments are deeply associated with the cognitive development phases. He also

suggested that the development in these stages is ever increasing. It is not a factor

which can be restrained in any domain.

Kohlberg started a research involving several ethical dilemmas and asked

students to respond and argue about them. Instead of gathering conclusions, he

categorized the levels of moral values, justice and development. Basing on the

statistical data he classified the moral developmental stages into six categories.

The first category was called obedience and punishment orientation. Like the first

development stage of Pigget, this stage also showed a deep level of obedience for the

law. The children after the unethical case study showed that the criminal or defaulters

much be sent to prison. The subsequent stage was called individualism and exchange.

This stage proved returning actions. For example, if somebody steals from me, than it is

right to steal my things back from him. It is noticeable that the individuals in the second

levels were giving their argument on the personal level not as a part of society.
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Alternately, we can state that in both the mentioned stages, the individuals were

somehow in favor of punishment. No matter how, but they were strongly suggesting that

the offender should be penalized or sent to prison.

The third level was called conventional morality. The targeted age groups for this

test were teenagers. Most of them were of the view that collective living and being

influential member of the sociality by doing good deeds is the right thing to do. The

evaluated their thoughts on the basis of motifs and nature of individuals. The fourth

phase called maintaining the social order, suggests that every ethical and justified

reforms are required to maintain the social order with the intention of integrating the

social circle. Fifth stage called, social contracts and individual rights suggest the

application of ethical and social rights. And in the sixth stage called universal principles,

show alternates for resolving any unjust or unethical issue. This developmental stage

states that more than one opinion must be there and analyzed for the better justice and

solving unethical issues prevailing in the society.

These theories seem steps to each others. The theories presented by Kohlberg

and Pigget both are induced from came central ideas. Both of them talk about the

cognitive development and use of logics and justice. However, in Pigget's theory the

main emphasis is on the developmental stages and only the last two stages talk about

arguments and justice along with an appropriate reasoning. However, the theory of

Kohlberg is much more about the moral principles and social laws. The foundations of

developments are same therefore, it can be stated that both theories much look like the

same work from coauthors determining the cognitive behaviors with the development of

ethical and moral awareness based on the classification of age group. A deep
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inspiration and thoughts of Pigget are present in the work of Kohlberg. Therefore, it is

not right to say that the theory of Kohlberg is the filling to empty space left in the theory

of cognitive development by Pigget.

What is signal detection theory? Discuss how the sensory system attempts to detect

signal from noise on a daily basis.

Signal detection theory can be simply considered as a stat based methodology

which is used with the objective to locate a signal from the background noise. Human

body comprises of several sensory organs. These organs are composed of stimuli. The

background stimulus is commonly called noise and the useful informative stimuli are

known as signal. The statistical functions ongoing in the mind continuously filter and

distinguish noise and signals. These signals are further used by several sensatory

organs in different physiological concepts. The signal detection programs naturally,

installed in the brain depends on several factors. Among them, the most influential are

the evolutionary stages and the concept of natural selection. Both of the mentioned

factors are responsible for measuring the intensity to differ signals from noise.

The signal detection theory is very simple and is based on either presence or

absence of the signal. For instance, there may be a signal present or the signal may not

be present. Furthermore, the possibilities may arise that if the signal is present and the

receiver catches it. Or there may be a possibility that the signal was there but the

receiver or sensory organ missed it. There can be one other possibility which suggests

that the signal was not present and the receiver by fault grabbed it or the signal was not

present nor was grabbed by the receiver. This making the list of possibilities human
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mind makes decisions. Or in other words, we can state that the natural phenomenon

which differentiates signals from noise, leading to possibilities is a raw material for

decision making processes.

The vital goal in decision making process with reference to the signal detection

theory is to hit on the right signal and miss the wrong one or noise. However, this is an

absolute case and this does not often happen in nature. We often remain unsuccessful

in achieving the right hits (signals) and missing the wrong hits (noises). Instead it can be

stated that picking the right signal and ignoring the wrong is just like walking in opposite

direction at a same time. Our human mind is designed to take decisions which it

considers right. For instance, it may consider noise a signal or any signal a noise. It

depends, open the acquisition of data. The greater information always enhances the

rates of hitting right signals and filtering noise. The decision is always associated with

alternatives and we select one from them according to our mental abilities and the

provided information. This may or may not be right result as a mind may miss or hit the

signal. The decision could be right or wrong.

One more important concept in human signal detection is variation and

inconsistency in the stimulation. The altering level of stimulation level among the

humans is due to their natural selection and evolutionary backgrounds. For instance,

our sensatory organs may not notice the smell of fried chicken in a restaurant but may

smell it at once when alone at home. In both the cases the signal and noise ratio was

same, it was our stimulation level which kept the signal un-noticed based on the

information already stored in the mind. There can be another illustration. Looking at the

parade during the wartimes may miss a signal as our mind conceives it an obvious
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event. However, if we see a parade on the Christmas Eve we will for sure gain the

signal that there is something uncertain. Thus the level of human certainty and

uncertainty alters and this influential factor is responsible for decision making.

It is human nature that he tries not to miss a signal no matter, how much effort is

required to filter the noise. For instance, if we are at a railway station and we want to

travel to our native town, we will be much more impatient and excited. Even after

knowing that we are earlier than time, we will filter every single piece of noise. A whistle

from a station master, for the departure of a train already standing there can act like a

fake signal but we will consider filtering it. Similarly, if there is announcement for some

missing bag or luggage, we will take that noise as a filtering material for grabbing our

useful piece of signal. Thus it can be stated that the level of certainty determines our

stimulations and ultimately ask us to filter noise for grabbing the right signal.

From a physiological perspective, cutting down the noise is very important for

right decision making process. However, there are many influential factors involved.

Appropriate information and the hypothetical experience also play a vital role in decision

making process. For instance, if there is a patient in a hospital for the diagnosis of tumor

and the doctor checks it, than there are two possibilities. Either the tumor is present or

tumor is not present in the report. Based on the information and the naturally enhanced

level of consciousness doctor examines the reports to diagnose the presence of tumor.

Subsequently, the options get spread. There may be a possibility that the tumor is

present and the doctor is not able to diagnose it, or the tumor is not present and

therefore, the doctor is suggesting that reports are clean. Another option could be more

complex. There can be a chance that tumor was present and doctor missed a signal, or
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there was no tumor and doctor considered noise as a signal due to the enhanced level

of consciousness. This is the decision making phase. At this stage information is

gathered. Several tests may be suggested getting a second opinion about the tumor.

However still there is one hypothetical stage left which nature has assigned to humans.

This hypothetical datum will consider the experiences and the information about the

particular issue. Subsequent to this, results are deduced which may be either similar to

the reports or totally different from all the gathered information. The common illustration

of this practice is altering decision of two doctors on one case with same reports.

Conclusively, psychological grounds are mounted on hypothetical and signals.

The ability to cut down the noise always comes in the form of some new research. The

information after processing leads to theories which are further applied as principles.

Apart from this, the decision making process is naturally designed by the actions taken

by human brain. The ability of the brain to differentiate between signals and noise leads

to right decisions. Thus, the importance of signal detection theory cannot be ignored as

it has practical application in every field of life.