EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND DRAWING – II TWO MARKS

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1. Name some tube arrangements used in Heat exchanger?
1)Triangular, 2)Square , 3)Rotated square.

2. Name some tube materials used in heat exchanger?

Aluminium, Brass, copper, nickel, cupronickel(10% of nickel), stainless steel, steel, titanium.

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of double pipe heat exchanger?

The advantages of a double pipe heat exchanger are:
1) It is simple in construction and can easily be assembled in a pipe fitting shop.
2) For smaller area of 10-20 m2 , it is economical.
3) A true counterflow is realised which makes the heat transfer more effective.
4) It has inherent flexibility.

The disadvantages of a double pipe heat exchanger are:

1) Heat transfer surface is limited.
2) Due to a lot of fittings used in the unit, the heat exchanger is leakage-prone.
3) To meet greater heat duty, a large number of hairpins with longer les will be required, which
results in greater head room and/or floor space.
4) Dismantling and cleaning of the exchanger periodically is time-consuming and costly.

4. Draw a temperature profile curve for counter flow arrangement?

Refer Book.

5. Write a short note on Baffle plates and Tie rods?

Tie rods : A small diameter rod which threads into the stationary end tubesheet. This rod ties the
baffles and spacers together.

Baffle plates: Also called support plate. A plate in which the tubes pass through for support.
Also provides a blocked path for the shellside medium. This blocked path forces the shellside
medium across the tubes providing better heat exchanger performance.

6. How will you classify heat exchangers based on fluid flow arrangement?
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FLOW ARRANGEMENTS:-
Single – pass :Counter flow, Parallel flow, Cross flow, Split-flow, Divided-flow.
Multipass : Extended surface, Cross- counter flow, Cross- parallel flow, Compound flow.
Shell-and-tube : 1) Parallel counter flow, m- shell passes, n- tube passes, 2) Split- flow,
3)Divided- flow,
Plate : Fluid 1 m passes , Fluid 2 n passes

7. What is the role of baffles in a heat exchanger?

1) To create turbulence and increase the shell side heat transfer coefficient
2) To provide support to the tube bundle.
3) To increase residence time for shell side fluid for effective heat transfer.
4) To reduce induced mechanical vibrations in the tubes.
8. What is the role of correction factor F in heat exchanger calculations?
F correction factor depends on the geometry of the heat exchanger and the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams. F for common cross-flow and shell-and-tube heat
exchanger configurations is given in the figure versus two temperature ratios P and R defined as
P = (t2 – t1 / T1 – t1) ; R = T1 – T2 / t2 – t1.
(The usual practice in the design of shell and tube exchangers is to estimate the “true temperature
difference” from the logarithmic mean temperature by applying a correction factor to allow for
the departure from true counter-current flow: ∆Tm = Ft ∆Tlm).

10) Define : Fouling .

The phenomenon of formation and development of scales and deposits over the heat transfer
surface diminishing the heat flux. The process of fouling will get indicated by the increase in
pressure drop.

11.Define Fouling Factor?

The reciprocal of heat transfer coefficient of the dirt formed in the heat exchange
process. Higher the factor lesser will be the overall heat transfer coefficient.

12) What is Effectiveness-NTU Method? When it is used?

The effectiveness – NTU method is a produce for evaluating the performance of heat exchangers,
which has the advantage that it does not require the evaluation of the mean temperature
differences.
NTU stands for the number of transfer units and in analogous with the use of transfer units in
mass transfer.
The principal use of this method is in the rating of an existing exchanger. It can be used to
determine the performance of the exchanger whose the heat transfer area and construction detects
are known. The method has an advantage over the use of the design produce outlined above, as an
unknown stream outlet temperature can be determined directly, without the need for interactive
calculation. It makes use of plats of the exchanger effectiveness versus NTU. The effectiveness is
the ratio of the actual rate of heat transfer to the maximum possible rate.

13) Define NTU? What is its significance?

The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat
transfer in heat exchangers (especially counter current exchangers) when there is insufficient
information to calculate the Log-Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD). In heat exchanger
analysis, if the fluid inlet and outlet temperatures are specified or can be determined by simple
energy balance, the LMTD method can be used; but when these temperatures are not
available The NTU or The Effectiveness method is used.

14) Define Capacity of evaporator.

Capacity refers to evaporation capacity i.e the amount water evaporated per hour.

15) Define Economy of evaporator

Economy of evaporator is defined as number of kilograms of water evaporated per kilogram of
steam fed to the evaporator.
While it is less than one for single effect, the value increases with the increase of number of
effects.
16) Define relative volatility with formula and give condition for separation.

Relative volatility is a measure comparing the vapor pressures of the components in a liquid
mixture of chemicals. This quantity is widely used in designing large industrial
distillation processes. In effect, it indicates the ease or difficulty of using distillation to separate
the more volatile components from the less volatile components in a mixture. By convention,
relative volatility is usually denoted as α.
Relative volatilities are used in the design of all types of distillation processes as well as
other separation or absorption processes that involve the contacting of vapor and liquid phases in
a series of equilibrium stages.
α is a unitless quantity. When the volatilities of both key components are equal, α = 1 and
separation of the two by distillation would be impossible under the given conditions because the
compositions of the liquid and the vapor phase are the same (azeotrope). As the value of
α increases above 1, separation by distillation becomes progressively easier.
For a liquid mixture of two components (called a binary mixture) at a
given temperature and pressure, the relative volatility is defined as α = ( yA/xA) / (yB/xB).

17) What is evaporation ? Why it is practised in chemical process industries?

Evaporation is the removal of a volatile solvent from a solution or slurry by vapourizing it with
the help of a heating medium (mostly steam). Evaporation is mostly a preceding step before
obtaining the final product in chemical process industries. The product of an evaporator which is
a concentrated solution generally moves to a crystallizer (in case of a crystalline product) or at
times can be marketed as a thick liquor.

18) What is Boiling Point Rise (BPR) in Evaporation?

At a given temperature, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution is less than that of water. As a
result, at a given pressure, the boiling points of the aqueous solutions are higher than that of pure
water. This increase in boiling point over that of pure water is called ‘Boiling Point Rise’(B.P.R).
Though the B.P.R. values are small for dilute and organic colloids solutions, it is significant for
many inorganic salts specifically at high concentrations.

19) What is Duhring’s rule? What are Duhring’s lines?

Duhring’s rule states that, at a given pressure, the boiling point of a solution varies linearly with
the boiling point of water.
Duhring’s lines : when boiling point of a solution at different concentrations are plotted against
that of water over a range of pressures, a set of straight lines are obtained, which are called
Duhring’s lines.

20) What is ‘hydrostatic head effect’ in evaporation? What is its effect on evaporation?
When the depth of the liquid in an evaporator is appreciable, the boiling point corresponding to
the pressure in the vapour space is the boiling point of the surface layer liquid. In order to bring
the total column of liquid in the evaporator tube to boiling conditions, the additional pressure due
to liquid head is to be accounted and thus the boiling of the liquid is elevated. This is called
 ‘Hydrostatic head effect’ of boiling point rise which thus reduces the available temperature drop
in evaporation.

21) What is the difference between Capacity and Economy?

Capacity refers to evaporation capacity i.e the amount water evaporated per hour.
Economy of evaporator is defined as number of kilograms of water evaporated per kilogram of
steam fed to the evaporator.
While it is less than one for single effect, the value increases with the increase of number of
effects.

22) Give an expression for the calculation of packed height of an absorber when the
equilibrium relationship between the gas and the liquid is linear.
Packed height is given by,
HTUG * NTUG or HTUL * NTUL
Where, HTUG = GM / KGaPT . HTUL = LM / KLaCT

NTUG = y1 – y2 / (y - ye)ln = (y1 – y2) / ( (y1 - ye1) – (y2 - ye2)) / ln((y1 - ye1) / (y2 - ye2) )
NTUL = x1 – x2 / ( xe - x)ln = (x1 – x2) / ( ( xe1 - x1 ) – (xe2 – x2)) / ln((xe1 – x1) / (xe2– x2) )

23) What is HETP? How is it related to HTUG?

The performance of a continuous contactor (packed tower) can be compared with a stage
contactor (plate tower) with the help of HETP or Height equivalent of a theoretical plate. The
number of stages obtained for a specific mass transfer operation when multiplied by HETP gives
the height of a packed tower to perform the same operation.
The HETP is related to HTUG as under
HTUG = HETP ((mGM / LM) – 1) ln(mGM / LM) )
The relation holds for good for cases where both operating and equilibrium relations are linear.
When both the relations are linear and parallel, HTUG = HETP.

24) What is minimum irrigation rate.(MIR)?

Minimum Irrigation Rate is the amount of solvent (absorbing liquid) required for a given
separation to be achieved in a packed tower of infinite height. The actual amount of liquid used is
always higher than that of MIR, so that the packed height is finite.

25) Give a few desirable characteristics for liquid to be used in gas absorption.
A few important characteristics for the liquid to be used in gas absorption include
1)Low volatility,
2)high solubility with respect to the solute gas,
3)Low viscosity (reduces pressure drop and increases absorption rate).
4) Non – corrosive, Non – toxic and Non – flammable.

27)What is relative volatility?

Relative volatility is a measure of the degree of separability. It is expressed as the ratio of the
vapour to liquid composition of the more volatile component to that of the less volatile one in a
binary liquid mixture.
26) What is significance of Relative volatility in binary distillation?
Higher the value of relative volatility over one (1.0), better is the separation by distillation.
Separation becomes difficult when the value approaches one and no separation is possible when it
is equal to one.

27) What are the methods available for the calculation of Number of Ideal stages in case of binary
distillation?
Two methods are available for the calculation of number of ideal stages:
1) Analytical method (also known as Sorel – lewis method)
2) Graphical methods (a) Mc-Cabe-Thiele’s method, (b) Ponchon-Savarit method.

28) What assumptions are made while calculating number of ideal stages by Mc-Cabe Thiele
method?
The assumptions made are
1) Molar flow of vapour and liquid in the two sections viz. the rectifying and the stripping
sections remains constant.
2) Molar latent heat of the two components are taken to be equal.
3) Heat of mixing of normal liquid is taken to be negligible.
4) Sensible heat change of liquid and vapour is neglected.
5) Reflux is a saturated liquid.

29) What is Reflux ratio?

It is the ratio of the amount of the reflux liquid (the liquid sent back to the top plate/stage of the
distillation column) to that of the amount of the distillate product.

30) What is the significance of reflux ratio in binary distillation?

For a given separation, the number of ideal stages increase with decrease in reflux ratio values.

31) What is minimum reflux ratio?

Minimum reflux ratio is a condition for which infinite number of ideal stages are required for a
given separation. A distillation column operates at s reflux ratio higher than the minimum.

32) What is total reflux?

Total reflux refers to a condition when no product (either distillate or bottom product)is taken out
from a distillation column. The number of ideal (equilibrium)stages required for this condition is
minimum.

33) Write the equation for operating line for the rectifying section.
The operating line equation is,
Y = RD / RD + 1) x + xD / RD +1
Where, RD = reflux ratio
xD = mole fraction of the more volatile component in distillate
y, x = vapour and liquid compositions respectively.
34) What is the q-line (or) Feed line? Write the equation for it.
In the Mc-cabe Thiele’s method of calculation of number of ideal stages, q-line is the locus of the
intersection points of the two operating lines (i.e., the operating lines for the rectifying and
stripping sections). The equation for q-line is
Y= (q / q-1)x - xF / q-1
Where, xF is mole fraction of more volatile component in feed heat required to convert one mole
q = heat required to convert one mole of feed to saturate vapour / molar latent heat

35) When is Steam distillation recommended?

Steam distillation is recommended when (i) the normal boiling point of the substance is quite
high so that it is likely to decompose.
(ii) the vaporization temperature is so high that it cannot be reached by steam heat.
(iii) direct fire is injurious to the quality of the substance.

36) What is Vacuum distillation?

When the vaporization is carried out under vacuum, the normal boiling point can be reduced and
the process is called vacuum distillation. It can be carried out for the systems where steam
distillation is recommended.

37) What are Azeotropes?

Azeotropes are constant boiling mixtures. For such a system, complete separation into its
components by normal fractional distillationis not possible. At a particular temp, the liquid and
vapour compositions become equal with a value less than one.

38) What is the function of Entrainer in Azeotropic distillation? Name two entrainers.
To break the azeotrope with a view to get complete separation of the component, a solvent is
added in azeotropic distillation which is called entrainer. Examples,
System entrainer
Ethanol-water benzene
Glacial acetic acid-water butyl acetate

39) What are the advantage of Double pipe heat exchanger?

(i) It is simple in construction and can easily be assembled in a pipe fitting shop.
(ii) For smaller area of 10-20 m2 , it is economical.
(iii) A true counterflow is realished which makes the heat transfer more effective.
(iv) It has inherent flexibility.

40) What are the main drawbacks in using DPHE in industrial practice?
(i) Heat transfer surface is limited.
(ii) Due to a lot of fittings used in the unit, the heat exchanger is leakage- prone
(iii) To meet greater heat duty, a large number of hairpin with no longer legs will be required,
which results in greater head room and/or floor space.
(iv) Dismantling and cleaning of the exchanger periodically is time-consuming and costly.
41) Specify the route of the fluid (Shell side/Tube side) in the following cases.
1) Corrosive liquid 2) Low flow rate liquid 3) Untreated river water used as coolant.
Ans,
(i) Tube side – only tubes are corroded
(ii) Shell side – creation of turbulence is easy in the shell side
(iii) Tube side – tube side cleaning is easier than the shell side

42) What are the advantages of triangular pitch arrangement in the STHE.
(i) High turbulence is created in the shell side which contributes to high heat transfer
coefficient
(ii) More number of tubes (compared to square pitch) can be accommodated in agiven shell.

43) What are the Drawbacks of using Triangular Pitch?

(i) Shell side pressure drop is high
(ii) Shell side cleaning is difficult and hence unsuitable to handle fluids with high dirt factor
in the shell side.

44) Why baffles are provided on the shell side of the STHE?
Baffles are provided on the shell side:
1) To create turbulence and increase the shell side heat transfer coefficient
2) To provide support to the tube bundle.
3) To increase residence time for shell side fluid for effective heat transfer.
4) To reduce induced mechanical vibrations in the tubes.

45) What is the recommended value of baffle spacing?

The recommended value of baffle spacing is one-fifth of I.D to I.D., where I.D is shell diameter
of the exchanger. However, the minimum value of baffle spacing is 5cm.

46) What are the different types of baffles used in exchanger?

The various types of baffles used are:
a) Segmental baffles (widely used)
b) Orifice baffles
c) Disk and doughnut type baffles

47) How fouling factor of fluids affect the HE design?

Fouling fluids create dirt films inside and/or outside of the tube and inside of the shell surface.
These films add resistance to transfer and hence increased heat transfer area will be required for
the heat exchanger handling fluids with relatively high values of fouling factor.

48) What is the effect of fouling factor on the performance of HE?

Heat exchangers handling fluids with high values of fouling factor have to be cleaned
intermittently for smooth functioning. This results in high performance cost and loss of
throughput.
49) Give the factors which influence the dirt factor value for water.
Dirt (fouling) factor value for water will depend on:
1) The source of water
2) The velocity of water
3) The temperature of the hot stream (which is cooled) and that of water.

50) Why vacuum is used in evaporator?

The advantages of using vacuum in evaporators are,
1) Liquid boils at a lower temperature and thereby a high value of temperature difference (∆T)
driving force is obtained so that heat transfer area can be reduced.
2) The quality of heat sensitive liquid can be protected by lowering its boiling point in the
vacuum.
3) Low pressure steam can be used in the steam chest when boiling point of liquid is lowered in
the vacuum.

51) Why multiple effects are used in evaporation?

To increase steam economy (i.e., kgs. of water evaporated per kg. Of steam used) multiple effects
are used. In this case, steam is used only in the first effect and the vapour generated from one
effect is used as heating medium in the succeeding effect.

52) What are the different methods of feeding adopted in multiple effect evaporation system?
The different methods of feeding for multiple effect evaporator systems are:
1) Forward feeding – Feed is admitted to the first effect. Flow of liquor and of vapour is parallel
in this system.
2) Backward feeding – Feed is admitted to the last effect. Flow of liquor and vapour is counter
current in this system.
3) Mixed feeding – Feed is admitted to an intermediate effect. Flow of liquor and vapour is a
mixed one i.e., part parallel and part countercurrent.

53) Name a few tower packing used in gas absorption.

1) Rasching rings , lessing rings, cross partition rings and pall rings.
2) Berl saddles , intralox saddles
3) Grid packings.

54) What are the desirable characteristics of packing materials used in packed towers?
A few important desirable characteristics are:
1) Large active surface area per unit packed volume.
2) Low pressure drop to the flow of fluids.
3) Low weight
4) High mechanical strength and low bulk density.
5) Permit uniform liquid distribution with maximum dispersion.
6) Durable, Corrosion-resistant and cheap.
55) How are the packing’s loaded to a tower?
There are generally two methods by which the packings are loaded to the tower viz.
1) Dumping and 2) Stacking.

56) What is flooding in packed towers? What is its impact on tower design?
Flooding is a phenomenon in packed tower operation when the liquid instead of coming down,
accumulates at the top and finally floods out of the tower. From flooding velocity (with respect to
gas), the operating velocity (which is 50-60% of flooding) is calculated on the basis of which the
packed tower diameter is obtained.

57) What is water hammer?

By operating a quick closing or a quick opening valve in a flow line, a column of flowing fluid is
suddenly stopped. Thus there is a tremendous pressure rise due to deceleration of an
incompressible fluid resulting in mechanical stress on the pipe internal surface. This is
transmitted in the form of shock waves termed as water hammer.

58) Explain the terms cavitation and NPSH.

Cavitation : In case of a pump if the suction pressure is slightly greater than the vapour pressure
of the liquid being pumped, some liquid may flash to generate vapour inside the pump. This
process is called ‘cavitation’. This leads to reduced pump capacity and causes severe erosion.
NPSH : NPSH (Nett Positive Suction Head) is the difference between the pump inlet pressure
and the liquid vapour pressure which can avoid cavitation.
The NPSH is 2 to 3 metre for small centrifugal pumps and can reach upto a value of even
15metre for very large pumps with high capacity, impeller speed and discharge pressure.

59) What are the important considerations in section of pumps for chemical industries?
(i) Quantum of liquid to be handled
(ii) General characteristics of liquid like temperature, viscosity, specific gravity and vapour
pressure
(iii) Operational characteristics viz. total dynamic head, suction and discharge head.
(iv) Specific liquid characteristic like the presence of fine particulate and the corrosive
nature.

60) What are positive displacement pumps?

In case of positive displacement pumps, a definite volume of liquid is trapped in a chamber which
is alternately filled from the inlet and emptied through the discharge at a high pressure. Rotary
pump and reciprocating pumps are the types of positive displacement pumps.

61) Why centrifugal pumps are widely used in chemical industry?

Centrifugal pump are widely used in chemical industries to perform various liquid transfer
operations viz. transfer of raw materials, materials in manufacture and finished products and the
transfer of service water for boiler feed, condenser circulation, condensate return etc. The reason
for its wide acceptability includes.
 (i) Availability in a wide range of capacity starting from a very small (2-3 gal/min) to a very
large one (100000 gal/min)
(ii) Simple appliance with low first cost uniform flow and low floor space requirement.
(iii) Low maintenance cost
(iv) Quiet operation
(v) Adaptability to use with motor of turbine drive.

62) What is the difference between rotary and reciprocating pump?

Although both are of positive displacement type, in case of reciprocating pump, the chamber is a
stationary cylinder containing a piston or plunger while in rotary pumps the chamber makes a to
and fro movement from inlet to discharge.

63) What is Acid-Egg?

It is specific type of pumping arrangements of liquid. It consists of an egg-shaped container filled
with the liquid to be pumped. The container is fitted with an inlet pipe for discharge, an outlet
pipe for discharge and third pipe for the admission of compressed air or gas. Pressure of air or gas
on the liquid surface forces it out through the discharge pipe.

64) Name some plates used in distillation column.

(i) Sieve plate
(ii) Valve tray
(iii) Bubble cap tray/ plate

65) Define Plate spacing.

(i) Height of the column depend upon plate spacing
(ii) Plate spacing from 0.15m-1m
(iii) A theoretical plate in many separation processes is a hypothetical zone or stage in which
two phases, such as the liquid and vapor phases of a substance, establish an equilibrium
with each other.

66) Discuss the Requirements of packing.

• Functional–effectively contain and protect the contents
• Provide convenience during distribution, sale, opening, use, reuse, etc.
• Be environmentally responsible
• Be cost effective
• Appropriately designed for target market
• Eye-catching (particularly for retail/consumer sales)
• Communicate attributes and recommended use of the product and package.

67) Define Reactive distillation.

Reactive distillation is a process where the chemical reactor is also the still. Separation of the
product from the reaction mixture does not need a separate distillation step, which saves energy
(for heating) and materials
68) What is a heat exchanger? Mention some of its applications?
A heat exchanger is a device designed to efficiently transfer or "exchange" heat from one matter
to another. When a fluid is used to transfer heat, the fluid could be a liquid, such as water or oil,
or could be moving air. The most well known type of heat exchanger is a car radiator. In a
radiator, a solution of water and ethylene glycol, also known as antifreeze, transfers heat from the
engine to the radiator and then from the radiator to the ambient air flowing through it

69) Define distillation and give various types of distillation.

Distillation is the process of separating mixtures based on the differences required to change the
phase (liquid to gas) of the components of the mixture.
Distillation is the process of purification of compounds based on their volatility.
Types of Distillations are,
Equilibrium or Flash distillation, Simple batch or Differential distillation, Steam distillation ,
Azeotropic and Extractive distillation, Fractional distillation.

70) What is the impact of baffle spacing on heat transfer and pressure drop on the shell side?
If the baffles are placed too close (i.e small baffle spacing), the turbulence will be more, but shell
side pressure drop will be more and shell side cleaning will also be difficult. With large baffle
spacing, the turbulence decreases, but pressure is reduced. In terms of the ratio of the baffle
spacing to shell diameter, the optimum value lies normally between 0.3 and 0.6.