What is communication?

Communication (from the Latin term “communis” which means to share and inform ideas, feelings, etc.)
is the act of transmitting intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of
mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.
The different categories of communication include:
Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.
Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

The basic steps of communication are:

The forming of communicative intent– (the speaker generates an idea)
1. Message encoding– (the speaker encodes an idea or converts the idea into words or actions)
2. Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium–
(the speaker transmits or sends out a message)
3. Reception of signals-(the receiver gets the message)
4. Reconstruction of the original message
5. Interpretation and making sense of the reconstructed message- (the receiver decodes or interprets the
message based on the context)
6. The receiver sends or provides feedback.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

1. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories in 1949. The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The
sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also
recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which
they deemed noise.
 Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
1. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
2. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
3. A noise source, which distorts the signal while it propagates through the channel
4. A receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.

2. Berlo Model
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and
created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of
communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

3. Schram
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are
communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through
which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954)
also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired)
on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and
experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of
the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating.
Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The
target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Speaker- the source of information or message

2. Message- the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions
3. Encoding- the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that the speaker
understands
4. Decoding- the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
5. Receiver- the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
6. Barrier- the factors that affect the flow of communication
7. Channel (Medium). It refers to the way the message is sent. In public speaking the medium is vibrations
in the air between speaker and listener, set in motion by the speaker’s voice. The message could also
be written in any language, put into some code known to both speaker and listener, tape-recorded or
videotaped, put into sign language, translated into Braille, or even sent by smoke signal.
8. It includes all messages, verbal or nonverbal, sent by the listener to the speaker.
9. (1) the occasion during which communication occurs, the occasion refers to the reason why people
assembled; it could be serious or festive, planned or spontaneous, relaxed and informal, traditional or
formal and (2) the physical setting or site where communication occurs; it includes the size of the room,
the number of audience, the facilities present, the light etc.
10. These are barriers to effective communication.
a. The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
b. Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions
and some topics may be completely ‘off-limits’ or taboo.
 c. Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
d. Differences in perception and viewpoint.
e. Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
f. Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective.
g. Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
h. Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People
often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to
incorrect conclusions.
i. Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as
do the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space
varies between cultures and between different social settings.

Verbal communication consist of messages being sent and received continuously with the speaker and the
listener, it is focused on the way messages are portrayed. Verbal communication is based on language and
use of expression, the tone in which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine
how the message is received and in what context.

Factors that affect verbal communication:

 Tone of voice
 Use of descriptive words
 Emphasis on certain phrases
 Volume of voice
The way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater interpretation for
the receiver as to what is meant by the message. By emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice,
this indicates that it is important and should be focused more on.
Along with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal cues. These
cues make the message clearer and give the listener an indication of what way the information should
be received.
Example of non-verbal cues
 Facial expressions
 Hand gestures
 Use of objects
 Body movement
In terms of intercultural communication there are language barriers which are affected by verbal forms
of communication. In this instance there is opportunity for miscommunication between two or more
parties. Other barriers that contribute to miscommunication would be the type of words chosen in
conversation.

Features of an Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the 7 Cs
of Effective Communication. The list is widely used today, especially in public relations and advertising.
Completeness
Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process in general. Hence,
communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear for him/her to respond, react,
or evaluate properly.
Conciseness
Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short but making it direct or straight to the point.
Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated from the communication that will be sent
to the recipient.
Consideration
To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about his/her receiver such as
mood, background, race, preference, education, status, needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can
easily build rapport with the audience.
Concreteness
Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by facts, figures, and
real-life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to the message conveyed.
Courtesy
The speaker shows courtesy in communication be respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of his/her
receivers. Being courteous all the time creates a positive impact on the audience.

Clearness Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to express ideas. It is
also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objectives in his/her speech so as not to confuse
the audience.

Correctness
Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases the credibility and
effectiveness of the message.

FIVE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION:

APPROACH
Timing of communication; choice of medium; tone and point of view (perspective, attitude, and
relationship regarding audience, purpose, and material); recognition of audience (reader vs. writer
orientation); direct vs. indirect presentation (ordering of evidence and conclusions); persuasive strategies
and rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, ethos)
Checkpoints:
□Timing and choice of medium are appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.
□Tone is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.
□Material is made relevant to the reader (reader’s interests and concerns are recognized).
□Conclusions are presented directly (conclusion first, evidence last) to a sympathetic audience, indirectly
(evidence first, conclusion last) to an unsympathetic or hostile audience.
□Persuasive strategy incorporates a mixture of rhetorical approaches (appeals to logic, feelings, and ethics
or credibility).

DEVELOPMENT
Organization (logical arrangement and sequence); evidence and support (relevance, specificity, accuracy
and sufficiency of detail); knowledge of subject and material; quality of perception, analysis, and insight
Checkpoints:
□Material is arranged in a logical and coherent sequence.
□Conclusion or closing restates the argument and identifies the action to be taken.
□Examples are relevant, specific, detailed, sufficient, and persuasive.
□Quotations support the argument.
□Handling of material demonstrates knowledge and insight.

CLARITY
Presentation of thesis or central argument (statement of purpose, delineation or narrowing of topic,
relevance of subordinate or secondary arguments); word choice; technical language and jargon; structure
(sentence, paragraph, document); coherence devices (organizational statement, repetition of words and
phrases, progression from familiar to unfamiliar, topic and transitional sentences); textual markers
(headings, highlighting, formatting features)
Checkpoints:
□Purpose or central idea is sufficiently limited for meaningful discussion.
□Purpose or central idea is stated clearly, usually in the opening.
□Organizational statement is offered, usually at the end of the opening.
□Subordinate ideas are effectively identified and related clearly to the main purpose or central idea.
□Language is clear, specific, accurate, and appropriate to the audience, purpose, and material.
□Word choice is clear, specific, accurate, unassuming, and free of clichés and misused jargon.
□Technical language and terms are defined and explained as needed (depending on knowledge of the
audience).
□Sentences are free of ambiguity.
□Text is coherent, with new information linked to previously discussed information (ordered within
sentences as “something old/something new”).
□Transitions between paragraphs are clear and helpful.
□Text is appropriately highlighted (bullets, paragraphing, boldface, italics, underlining, etc.) to engage the
reader and reinforce the main points.

STYLE
Word choice (economy, precision, and specificity of language and detail; abstract vs. concrete language;
action verbs vs. linking or weak verbs with nominalizations; figures of speech: schemes and tropes); tone
(personality and humor); active vs. passive voice; sentence variety
Checkpoints:
□Word choice is economical, clear, specific, accurate, unassuming, and free of clichés and misused jargon.
□Action verbs are preferred over weak verbs with nominalizations (as in recommend over make a
recommendation).
□Language is appropriately concrete or abstract (signifying or not signifying things that can be perceived
by the senses).
□Figurative language (metaphors and similes, as well as other tropes and schemes) enrich and deepen
the argument.
□Active voice is preferred over passive voice (active voice is used to emphasize the performer of the
action; passive voice is used to emphasize the receiver of the action).
□Sentences are free of wordiness and unnecessarily complex constructions.
□Variety in sentence structure and sentence length creates emphasis.
□Author’s values, personality and – when appropriate – humor are conveyed in a way that reinforces the
message.

CORRECTNESS
Rules and conventions of spelling, grammar, punctuation, usage, and idiom; style (appropriateness of
word choice and level of formality to audience, purpose, and material); social and cultural
appropriateness; accuracy in proofreading
Checkpoints:
□Spelling (including technical terms and proper names) is correct.
□Correct words are used to convey the intended meaning.
□Rules of grammar and syntax are followed, including pronoun-noun agreement, subject-verb
agreement, appropriate verb tense, pronoun case, possessive forms, parallel construction, etc.
□Punctuation (particularly comma placement) reflects standard usage.
□Copy is free of mechanical errors and lapses in proofreading.

Intercultural communication is a form of communication that aims to share information across different
cultures and social groups. It is used to describe the wide range of communication processes and problems
that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different
religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes
used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people
from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many
people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode
messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted.
With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different
cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social
attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding
the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries.

PROBLEMS

The problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message transmission. In
communication between people of the same culture, the person who receives the message interprets it
based on values, beliefs, and expectations for behavior similar to those of the person who sent the
message. When this happens, the way the message is interpreted by the receiver is likely to be fairly
similar to what the speaker intended. However, when the receiver of the message is a person from a
different culture, the receiver uses information from his or her culture to interpret the message. The
message that the receiver interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.
 Attribution is the process in which people look for an explanation of another person’s behavior. When
someone does not understand another, he/she usually blames the confusion on the other’s “stupidity,
deceit, or craziness”.

Effective communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties involved that are
based on the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is implicit understanding within
communication, cultural differences may be overlooked, and problems can be dealt with more easily. The
meaning of trust and how it is developed and communicated vary across societies. Similarly, some cultures
have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.

Nonverbal communication is behavior that communicates without words—though it often may be

accompanied by words. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause
mistrust and misperception of the situation among cross-cultural parties.

Kinesic behavior is communication through body movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions
and eye contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries.
Occulesics are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages.
Proxemics concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms of personal
space and in terms of office layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and Germany.
Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said—e.g., rate of
speech, tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence.
Object language or material culture refers to how we communicate through material artifacts—e.g.,
architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars, cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures,
time is experienced linearly and as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life
and people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. In polychronic cultures, people tolerate many
things happening simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people. In these cultures, people may
be highly distractible, focus on several things at once, and change plans often.

BASIC TOOLS FOR IMPROVEMENT

The following are ways to improve communication competence:
 Display of interest: showing respect and positive regard for the other person.
 Orientation to knowledge: Terms people use to explain themselves and their perception of the world.
 Empathy: Behaving in ways that shows you understand the world as others do.
 Interaction management: A skill in which you regulate conversations.
 Task role behaviour: initiate ideas that encourage problem solving activities.
 Relational role behaviour: interpersonal harmony and mediation.
 Tolerance for ambiguity: The ability to react to new situations with little discomfort.
 Interaction posture: Responding to others in descriptive, non-judgemental ways..

IMPORTANT FACTORS
Proficiency in the host culture language: understanding the grammar and vocabulary.
 Understanding language pragmatics: how to use politeness strategies in making requests and how to
avoid giving out too much information.
 Being sensitive and aware to nonverbal communication patterns in other cultures.
 Being aware of gestures that may be offensive or mean something different in a host culture rather
than your own home culture.
 Understanding a culture’s proximity in physical space and paralinguistic sounds to convey their
intended meaning.

TRAITS
Tolerating high levels of uncertainty.
 Open-mindedness.
 Engaging in divergent and systems-level thinking.

MANAGEMENT
Important points to consider:
 Develop cultural sensitivity
 Anticipate the meaning the receiver will get.
 Careful encoding
 Use words, pictures, and gestures.
 Avoid slang, idioms, regional sayings.
 Selective transmission
 Build relationships, face-to-face if possible.
 Careful decoding of feedback
 Get feedback from multiple parties.
 Improve listening and observation skills.
 Follow-up actions