Reading Handbook

Reading any text—short story, poem, magazine article, newspaper, Web page—
requires the use of special strategies. For example, you might plot the events of a
short story on a diagram, while you may use text features to spot main ideas in Included in this handbook as
indicated: R2.1 (pgs. R3, R14–R19), R2.2
a magazine article. You also need to identify patterns of organization in the text. (pgs. R16–R19), R2.3 (pgs. R10–R11),
Using such strategies can help you read different texts with ease and also help R2.4 (pgs. R20–R23), R2.5 (p. R16), R2.6
(pgs. R23–R26)
you understand what you’re reading.

1 Reading Literary Texts

Literary texts include short stories, novels, poems, and dramas. Literary texts
can also be biographies, autobiographies, and essays. To appreciate and analyze
literary texts, you will need to understand the characteristics of each type of text.
1.1 reading a short story Meanings of Question
Strategies for Reading difficult words about poem
• Read the title. As you read the story, you may
Title and author of poem
notice that the title has a special meaning.
• Keep track of events as they happen. Plot the Opinion of Favorite line
events on a diagram like this one. poem in poem
Climax
1.3 reading a play
Rising Action Falling Action
Strategies for Reading
Resolution • Read the stage directions to help you visualize
Exposition the setting and characters.
• Question what the title means and why the
• From the details the writer provides, visualize
playwright chose it.
the characters. Predict what they might do next.
• Identify the main conflict (struggle or problem)
• Look for specific adjectives that help you
in the play. To clarify the conflict, make a chart
visualize the setting—the time and place in
that shows what the conflict is and how it is
which events occur.
resolved.
1.2 reading a poem • Evaluate the characters. What do they want?
Strategies for Reading How do they change during the play? You may
• Notice the form of the poem, or the number of want to make a chart that lists each character’s
its lines and their arrangement on the page. name, appearance, and traits.
• Read the poem aloud a few times. Listen for 1.4 reading literary nonfiction
rhymes and rhythms.
Strategies for Reading
• Visualize the images and comparisons. • If you are reading a biography, an autobiography,
• Connect with the poem by asking yourself what or another type of biographical writing, such as
message the poet is trying to send. a diary, a memoir, or letters, use a family tree or
• Create a word web or another graphic organizer word web to keep track of the people mentioned.
to record your reactions and questions. • When reading an essay, evaluate the writer’s
ideas. Is there a clear main idea? Does the writer
use appropriate details to support a main idea?

R2 reading handbook
2 Reading Informational Texts: Text Features
An informational text is writing that provides factual information.
Informational materials, such as chapters in textbooks and articles in
magazines, encyclopedias, and newspapers, usually contain elements that
help the reader recognize their purpose, organization, and key ideas. These
elements are known as text features.
2.1 understanding text features
Text features are design elements of a text that indicate its organizational
structure or otherwise make its key ideas and information understandable.
Text features include titles, headings, subheadings, boldface type, bulleted
and numbered lists, and graphic aids, such as charts, graphs, illustrations, and
photographs. Notice how the text features help you find key information on the
textbook page shown.

A The title identifies the topic. D

B A subheading indicates the D
start of a new topic or section A
and identifies the focus of that
section.
C Questions may be used to focus
your understanding of the text.
D A bulleted list shows items of
equal importance.
B
E Graphic aids, such as illustrations, C
photographs, charts, diagrams,
maps, and timelines, often make
ideas in the text clearer.
F A caption, or the text that
accompanies a graphic aid, gives
information about the graphic
aid that isn’t necessarily obvious F F

from the image itself.

practice and apply

E
1. What is the first subhead
following the title?

2. Reread the Essential Question.

Identify one lasting contribution
of Roman culture.

3. What activity does the mosaic

portray? What do you learn from
the caption?

reading handbook R3
2.2 using text features Main heading
I. Legacy of Rome
You can use text features to locate information, roman numeral
A. Impact of Roman culture
to help you understand it, and to take notes. Just entry
1. Roman Art
use the following strategies when you encounter
a. mosaic Subheading
informational text. capital letter
b. sculpture
Strategies for Reading entry
B.
• Preview the text by looking at the title, 1. Detail
headings, and subheadings to get an idea of the number
2.
main concepts and the way the text is organized. entry

• Before you begin reading the text more

thoroughly, skim it—read it quickly—to get an Strategies for Using Text Headings
overview. • Preview the headings and subheadings in the text
to get an idea of what different kinds there are
• Read any questions that appear at the end of a
and what their positions might be in an outline.
lesson or chapter. Doing this will help you set a
purpose for your reading. • Be consistent. Note that subheadings that
are the same size and color should be used
• Turn subheadings into questions. Then use
consistently in Roman-numeral or capital-letter
the text below the subheadings to answer the
entries in the outline. If you decide that a
questions. Your answers will be a summary of
chapter heading should appear with a Roman
the text.
numeral, then that’s the level at which all other
• Take notes by turning headings and chapter headings should appear.
subheadings into main ideas. You might use a
• Write the headings and subheadings that you
chart like the following.
will use as your Roman-numeral and capital-
The Legacy of Rome Main heading letter entries first. As you read, fill in numbered
Impact Notes: details from the text under the headings and
of Roman 1. borrowed from Subheading subheadings in your outline.
culture Greeks
2. created their own practice and apply
styles
3. example is mosaic Reread “Like Black Smoke: The Black Death’s Journey,”
pages 896–900. Use text features in the selection to
take notes in outline form.
• As you read to locate particular facts or details,
Preview the subheadings in the text to get an
scan the text. Look for key words and phrases as idea of the different kinds. Write the headings and
you move slowly down the page. subheadings you are using as your Roman-numeral
and capital-letter entries first. Then fill in the details.
2.3 turning text headings into
outline entries
2.4 graphic aids
After you have read a selection at least once, you
can use text features to take notes in outline Information is communicated not only with words
form. The following outline shows how one but also with graphic aids. Graphic aids are visual
student used text headings from the sample representations of verbal statements. They can
page on page R3. Study the outline and use the be charts, webs, diagrams, graphs, photographs,
strategies that follow to create an outline based or other visual representations of information.
on text features. Graphic aids usually make complex information

R4 reading handbook
 Reading Handbook

easier to understand. For that reason, graphic aids MODEL: LINE GRAPH
are often used to organize, simplify, and summarize
A
information for easy reference.
Graphs
Graphs are used to illustrate statistical
information. A graph is a drawing that shows the
relative values of numerical quantities. Different
kinds of graphs are used to show different
numerical relationships.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title.
B
B Find out what is being represented or B D
measured.
C In a circle graph, compare the sizes of the parts.
D In a line graph, study the slant of the line. The
steeper the line, the faster the rate of change. B

E In a bar graph, compare the lengths of the bars.

A circle graph, or pie graph, shows the
relationships of parts to a whole. The entire In a bar graph, vertical or horizontal bars are used
circle equals 100 percent. The parts of the circle to show or compare categories of information,
represent percentages of the whole. such as voting trends. The lengths of the bars
indicate the quantities.
MODEL: CIRCLE GRAPH
MODEL: BAR GRAPH
Wildlife Sightings in a
A Game Preserve A
elephants
giraffes
10%
30%
E

40% gazelles
20%
B
lions

Line graphs show changes in numerical quantities
over time and are effective in presenting trends
such as world population growth. A line graph is
made on a grid. Here, the vertical axis indicates
quantity, and the horizontal axis shows years.
Points on the graph indicate data. The line that
connects the points highlights a trend or pattern.
B
Evaluate carefully the information
presented in graphs. For example, circle graphs
show major factors and differences well but tend
to reduce the importance of smaller factors and
differences.

reading handbook R5
 Diagrams Charts and Tables
A diagram is a drawing that shows how something A chart presents information, shows a process, or
works or how its parts relate to one another. makes comparisons, usually in rows or columns.
A picture diagram is a picture or drawing of the A table is a specific type of chart that presents a
subject being discussed. collection of facts in rows and columns and shows
how the facts relate to one another.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title. Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to learn what information the
B Read each label and look at the part it
chart or table covers.
identifies.
B Study column headings and row labels to
C Follow any arrows or numbers that show
determine the categories of information
the order of steps in a process, and read any
presented.
captions.
C Look down columns and across rows to find
MODEL: PICTURE DIAGRAM
specific information.
Suit of Armor A B MODEL: CHART
body armor for
air holes for protection Size of Selected Civilizations A
breathing
Size (est.)
Civilization B Dates
millions of sq. miles
Persia 559–330 b.c. C 2.0
flexible gloves
for sword Rome 27 b.c.–a.d. 476 3.40
handling
Mongol 1206–1368 11.7
C Aztec 1325–1521 0.2
The average suit
C
of armor weighed United States 1776 3.7
about 65 pounds

MODEL: TABLE

In a schematic diagram, lines, symbols, and words

The Beaufort Scale of Wind Strength A
are used to help readers visualize processes or
Wind B Wind Speed Effect of Wind
objects they wouldn’t normally be able to see.
Calm (0) Less than 1 kph smoke rises straight up.
MODEL: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM Light air (1) 1 to 5 kph Smoke drifts. C
Spring B Light breeze (2) 6 to 11 kph Wind felt on face.
Gentle breeze (3) 12 to 19 kph Leaves and twigs move.

C Moderate breeze (4) 20 to 28 kph Flags flap.

Fault line
Fresh breeze (5) 29 to 38 kph Small trees sway.
Underground
water Strong breeze (6) 39 to 49 kph Large branches move.
Moderate gale (7) 50 to 61 kph Whole trees sway.
Fresh gale (8) 62 to 74 kph Twigs break off trees.
Oasis A Strong gale (9) 75 to 88 kph Branches break off trees.
An oasis is a fertile or green spot in Whole gale (10) 89 to 102 kph Trees uprooted.
the midst of a desert.
Storm (11) 103 to 117 kph Widespread damage.
Hurricane (12) More than 117 Destruction.
kph

R6 reading handbook
 Reading Handbook

Maps MODEL: THEMATIC MAP

A map visually represents a geographic region,
A
such as a state or country. It provides information Thematic Map: Climates of Brazil

about areas through lines, colors, shapes, and

N 0 400 800 miles
GUYANA

C
VENEZUELA SURINAME W E

symbols. There are different kinds of maps.

FRENCH
COLOMBIA GUIANA S Tropical wet
(Fr.)
Tropical wet and dry
Equator

• Political maps show political features, such as

ECUADOR Semiarid
Humid subtropical

national borders.
Marine

PERU
B Recife

BRAZIL

• Physical maps show the landforms in areas.

Brasília
BOLIVIA

• Road or travel maps show roads and highways. Rio de

Janeiro

• Thematic maps show information on a specific CHILE

PARAGUAY
São Paulo

topic, such as climate, weather, or natural ARGENTINA Pôrto Alegre

resources. °W 0°
URUGUAY 0°

Strategies for Reading practice and apply

A Read the title to find out what kind of map it is.
Use the graphic aids shown on pages R5–R7 to answer
B Read the labels to get an overall sense of what
the following questions:
the map shows.
1. According to the circle graph, were there more
C Look at the key or legend to find out what the elephants than lions at the game preserve?
symbols and colors on the map stand for.
2. How many years did it take to double the world
MODEL: PHYSICAL MAP population from 1 billion to 2 billion?

3. According to the bar graph, does the number of

A 0 400 800 miles

actual voters equal the number of eligible voters in

Physical Map: Brazil FRENCH

C
GUIANA
HI GUI (Fr.)

any age group?

GH A
VENEZUELA L
NA NDS

Elevation
COLOMBIA
A

13,100 ft. (4,000 m)

Equator 0
6,600 ft. (2,000 m)
ECUADOR 1,600 ft. (500 m)

B
Cape

4. What important feature is part of the helmet of a

São Roque 650 ft. (200 m)
AMAZON 0 ft. (0 m)
BASIN
Below sea level
PERU
suit of armor?
Recife
BRAZIL National capital
A

Other city
N

MATO GROSSO BRAZILIAN

D

B 5. According to the diagram of an oasis, how does

PLATEAU HIGHLANDS
N
E
S

Brasília
BOLIVIA W E

water get to the surface of the ground?

Altacaem

S 20°S
Des rt

PARAGUAY
P
a

Rio de Tropic of Capricorn

6. Which civilization controlled the largest amount of

São Paulo
Janeiro
CHILE

Pôrto Alegre
territory according to the chart?
u

URUGUAY

7. Using the table, find the wind speed that is strong

ARGENTINA

° ° °

40°S
enough to make whole trees sway.

8. Are there mountains over 13,000 feet high in Brazil?

9. Using the key on the climate map of Brazil,

determine whether the driest area is in the eastern
or western part of the country.

reading handbook R7
3 Reading Informational Texts: Notice how the main idea is expressed in each of
the following models.
Patterns of Organization
Reading any type of writing is easier once you model: main idea as the first sentence

recognize how it is organized. Writers usually
arrange ideas and information in ways that best
help readers see how they are related. There are
several common patterns of organization:
• main idea and supporting details
• chronological order
• cause-effect organization
• compare-and-contrast organization
3.1 main idea and supporting details
Main idea and supporting details is a basic pattern
of organization in which a central idea about a
topic is supported by details. The main idea is
the most important idea about a topic that a
particular text or paragraph conveys. Supporting
details are words, phrases, or sentences that tell
more about the main idea. The main idea may be
directly stated at the beginning and then followed
by supporting details, or it may be merely implied
by the supporting details. It may also be stated
after it has been implied by supporting details.
When the nomads of Africa Main idea
began using camels around 300
a.d., trade across the Sahara became
easier. The donkeys, horses, and Supporting
oxen that had been used previously details
could not travel far without
stopping for food and water. Camels,
on the other hand, could cover 25
miles in a day and often go for two
weeks without water.
model: main idea as the last sentence
The new trade routes passed Supporting
through lands occupied by the details
Soninke people. These farming
people referred to their chief as ghana.
Soon the land came to be known as
the kingdom of Ghana. The tribal
chiefs taxed the goods that traveled
across their territory. By the eighth Main idea
century, trade had made Ghana a
rich kingdom.

Strategies for Reading

• To find a stated main idea in a paragraph,
model: implied main idea
identify the paragraph’s topic. The topic is
what the paragraph is about and can usually be The West African savannas and Implied main
forests south of the savanna were rich idea: Gold and
summed up in one or two words. The word, or
in gold. No salt was available there, salt were two
synonyms of it, will usually appear throughout important
though. In the Sahara, on the other
the paragraph. Headings and subheadings are hand, there was abundant salt but items that
also clues to the topics of paragraphs. no gold. Traders brought salt south were traded in
West Africa.
• Ask: What is the topic sentence? The topic through the desert and traded it for
sentence states the most important idea, gold mined from the forests.
message, or information the paragraph conveys
about this topic. It is often the first sentence in
a paragraph; however, it may appear at the end.
• To find an implied main idea, ask yourself: Whom
or what did I just read about? What do the
details suggest about the topic?
• Formulate a sentence stating this idea and add
it to the paragraph. Does your sentence convey
the main idea?

R8 reading handbook

practice and apply
Read each paragraph, and then do the following:
1. Identify the main idea in the paragraph, using one
of the strategies discussed on the previous page.
2. Identify whether the main idea is stated or implied
in the paragraph.
Home is where the heart is. There’s no place
like it. I love my home with a ferocity totally
out of proportion to its appearance or location.
I love dumb things about it: the hot-water
heater, the plastic rack you drain dishes in, the
roof over my head, which occasionally leaks.
And yet it is precisely those dumb things that
make it what it is—a place of certainty, stability,
predictability, privacy, for me and for my
family. It is where I live. What more can you
say about a place than that? That is everything.
—Anna Quindlen,“Homeless”
Some boys taught me to play football. This
was fine sport. You thought up a new strategy
for every play and whispered it to the others.
You went out for a pass, fooling everyone.
Best, you got to throw yourself mightily at
someone’s running legs. Either you brought
him down or you hit the ground flat out on
your chin, with your arms empty before you.
It was all or nothing. If you hesitated in fear,
you would miss and get hurt: you would take
a hard fall while the kid got away, or you
would get kicked in the face while the kid got
away. But if you flung yourself wholeheartedly
at the back of his knees—if you gathered
and joined body and soul and pointed them
diving fearlessly—then you likely wouldn’t
get hurt, and you’d stop the ball. Your fate,
and your team’s score, depended on your
concentration and courage. Nothing girls did
could compare with it.
—Annie Dillard, An American Childhood
3.2 chronological order
Chronological order is the arrangement of events
in the order in which they happen. This type of
Reading Handbook
organization is used in short stories and novels,
historical writing, biographies, and autobiographies.
To show the order of events, writers use order words
such as before, after, next, and later and time words
and phrases that identify specific times of day, days
of the week, and dates, such as the next morning,
Tuesday, and on July 4, 1776.
Strategies for Reading
• Look in the text for headings and subheadings
that may indicate a chronological pattern of
organization.
• Look for words and phrases that identify times,
such as in a year, three hours earlier, in 202 B.C.,
and the next day.
• Look for words that signal order, such as first,
afterward, then, during, and finally, to see how
events or steps are related.
• Note that a paragraph or passage in which ideas
and information are arranged chronologically
will have several words or phrases that indicate
time order, not just one.
• Ask yourself: Are the events in the paragraph or
passage presented in time order?
Notice the words and phrases that signal time order
in the first two paragraphs of the following model.
model
A Butterfly Gets Its Wings
How does a butterfly get its wings?
During its life, the butterfly goes Events
through different growth stages.
There are four main stages altogether:
1) the egg, 2) the caterpillar, 3) the
pupa, and 4) the adult. The ancient
Greeks called this whole process
metamorphosis, a word we still use
today.
At first, the butterfly is a single Order words
slimy egg, no larger than a fingertip. and phrases
The baby insect grows within the
egg until it is ready to hatch. For most
types of butterflies, this first stage lasts
about 10 days. When the egg cracks Time words
open, a caterpillar crawls out. and phrases
reading handbook R9

In the second stage, the caterpillar spends most
of its time eating and growing. As the caterpillar
becomes bigger, it sheds its spiky or fuzzy skin.
This process is called molting. A caterpillar molts
several times during its life. Once the caterpillar has
shed its skin for the last time, it becomes a pupa.
In the third stage, the pupa immediately grows
a hard shell called a chrysalis. Then, inside the
chrysalis, the pupa goes through the changes that
will make it a butterfly. The pupa’s hormones turn
its body into wings, antennas, and other butterfly
parts. After all the changes are complete, the shell
splits open. A butterfly is ready to make its entrance.
Finally, the adult butterfly breaks from the
chrysalis. Its body, however, doesn’t look quite
right. It’s all soft and wrinkly. As air and blood are
pumped through the butterfly’s body, it starts to
look more like its usual self. In a short time, the
butterfly is ready to try out its new wings. With a
few flutters, it’s off and away!
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding model to do the following:
1. List at least six words in the last three paragraphs
that indicate time or order.
2. What does the writer call the four main parts in the
life of a butterfly?
3. In what form does a butterfly begin its life?
3.3 cause-effect organization
Cause-effect organization is a pattern of
organization that shows causal relationships
between events, ideas, and trends. Cause-effect
relationships may be directly stated or merely
implied by the order in which the information
is presented. Writers often use the cause-effect
pattern in historical and scientific writing. Cause-
effect relationships may have several forms.
One cause with one effect
Cause Effect
One cause with multiple effects
Effect
Cause
Effect
R10 reading handbook
Multiple causes with a single effect
Cause
Effect
Cause
A chain of causes and effects
Cause Effect (Cause) Effect
Strategies for Reading
• Look for headings and subheadings that indicate
a cause-effect pattern of organization, such as
“Effects of Food Allergies.”
• To find the effect or effects, read to answer the
question, What happened?
• To find the cause or causes, read to answer the
question, Why did it happen?
• Look for words and phrases that help you
identify specific relationships between events,
such as because, since, had the effect of, led to,
as a result, resulted in, for that reason, due to,
therefore, if . . . then, and consequently.
• Look closely at each cause-effect relationship.
Do not assume that because one event
happened before another, the first event caused
the second event.
• Use graphic organizers like the diagrams shown
to record cause-effect relationships as you read.
Notice the words that signal causes and effects in
the following model.
model
How a Tsunami Forms
Tsunami is a word that brings fear
to people who live near the sea. Also
known in English as a tidal wave,
a tsunami is a huge ocean wave Effect
caused by an underwater volcanic
Signal words
eruption or earthquake.
An earthquake or the explosion of Cause
a volcano on the ocean floor creates
massive waves of energy. These Cause
energy waves spread out in widening Effect
circles, like waves from a pebble
dropped into a pond.

As the tsunami nears the shore, it begins to
scrape along the ocean bottom. This friction
causes the waves in the front to slow down. As a
result, the waves traveling behind begin piling up
and growing higher. This increase in height can
happen very quickly—by as much as 90 feet in 10
or 15 minutes.
The effects of a tsunami can include the death
of many people and the destruction of ships,
buildings, and land along the shore. An especially
dangerous situation may occur when the first
part of a tsunami to hit the shore is the trough,
or low point, rather than the crest of a wave. This
trough sucks all the water away from the shore
and may attract curious people on the beach.
Within a few minutes, however, the crest of the
wave will hit and may drown the onlookers. The
most destructive tsunami ever recorded struck
the Indonesian island of Sumatra, in 2004. It left
more than 200,000 people dead.
practice and apply
1. Use the pattern of a chain of causes and effects,
illustrated on page R10, to make a graphic organizer
showing the causes and effects described in the text.
2. List three words that the writer uses to signal cause
and effect in the last two paragraphs.
3.4 compare-and-contrast organization
Compare-and-contrast organization is a pattern
of organization that provides a way to look at
similarities and differences in two or more subjects.
A writer may use this pattern of organization to
compare the important points or characteristics
of two or more subjects. These points or
characteristics are called points of comparison.
The compare-and-contrast pattern of organization
may be developed in either of two ways:
Point-by-point organization—The writer discusses
one point of comparison for both subjects, then
goes on to the next point.
Subject-by-subject organization—The writer
covers all points of comparison for one subject and
then all points of comparison for the next subject.
Reading Handbook
Strategies for Reading
• Look in the text for headings, subheadings, and
sentences that may suggest a compare-and-
contrast pattern of organization, such as “Plants
Share Many Characteristics,” to help you identify
where similarities and differences are addressed.
• To find similarities, look for words and phrases
such as like, similarly, both, all, every, also, and in
the same way.
• To find differences, look for words and phrases
such as unlike, but, on the other hand, more, less,
in contrast, and however.
• Use a graphic organizer, such as a Venn diagram
or a compare-and-contrast chart, to record points
of comparison and similarities and differences.
Subject 1 Both Subject 2
Subject 1 Subject 2
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Read the following models. As you read, use
the signal words and phrases to identify the
similarities and differences between the subjects
and how the details are organized in each text.
model 1
Living in Outer Space
Ten . . . nine . . . eight . . . The date is
December 21, 1968.
Seven . . . six . . . five . . . Alongside a launch
gantry at Cape Kennedy, Florida, a huge Saturn
V rocket stands fueled and ready for blastoff,
hydrogen vapor steaming from its rocket motors.
Four . . . three . . . two . . . At the top of the
rocket sits the Apollo 8 command module, the
capsule that will ferry astronauts Frank Borman,
James A. Lovell Jr., and William A. Anders to the
moon and back.
One . . . zero . . . Liftoff! The Saturn’s powerful
engines roar to life, and another exciting chapter
reading handbook R11
 in the history of the United States
space program begins.
Today, that same Apollo 8
command module is one of the most
popular attractions at the Henry
Crown Space Center at the Museum
of Science and Industry in Chicago.
For six days in 1968, this cone-shaped
capsule was home to the first humans
to leave the security of Earth’s orbit
and venture out to visit another
heavenly body.
Museum visitors, especially young
people accustomed to space travel in
the shuttle era, are often amazed at the
cramped quarters within the capsule,
and they wonder just how three adults
lived for six days in such a compact
environment. Space travel has come
a long way since those pioneering
days of the 1960s. Some of the main
similarities and differences relate to
living quarters and food.
Today’s shuttle crews have both
a flight deck and a lower crew-
quarters deck in which to move
around. The Apollo crews, however,
were pretty much confined to their
metal-and-fabric flight couches,
although there was a little stretching
room beneath the couches and
around the hatch area that led to the
Lunar Excursion Module.
Mealtime is a highlight of anyone’s
day, including every astronaut’s. Early
space travelers were limited to puréed
foods squeezed out of toothpaste tubes
and juices in plastic bags. Shuttle
crews, on the other hand, enjoy a
much more appetizing diet. It’s still
not exactly fine dining, but at least the
food is served on trays, is eaten with
utensils, and includes healthy snacks,
like fresh fruit.
At the end of a working “day” in
space, all astronauts are ready for
some rest. In Apollo, the crew simply
drifted off to sleep on their couches.
Aboard the shuttle, crew members
R12 reading handbook
sleep in special sleep restraints. Some
sleep horizontally, while others opt
for a vertical snooze. In zero gravity,
position doesn’t matter!
The United States has continued
to develop the space program. The
lessons learned during the first three
decades of space flight are making
life in the alien environment beyond
Earth’s atmosphere much more
pleasant for a new generation of space
explorers.
model 2
To compare the two types of
energy, we must first understand what
energy is. Energy is the ability to do
work. That doesn’t just mean work as
in homework or yard work. Energy
Comparison comes in many forms, such as a rock
words and falling off a cliff, a moving bicycle,
phrases or the stored energy in food. With
all these forms, there are only two Subjects
Contrast
main types of energy, potential and
words and kinetic. These are the energies of rest
phrases and motion.
Potential energy is the energy an
Subjects
object has stored up based on how
high up it is or how much it weighs.
For instance, suppose two kids weigh
the same and climb a tree. If they Comparison
are on different branches, the kid words and
on the higher branch has more phrases
potential energy than the kid on the
lower branch. However, if one kid Contrast
weighs more than the other, and words and
they both sit at the same height, phrases
the heavier kid has more potential
energy than the lighter kid.
If the kids jump out of the tree,
their potential energy becomes kinetic
energy. This kind comes from the
motion of an object. Kinetic energy
increases with the speed of an object.
When the kids jump, their speed
increases as they fall. They have more
kinetic energy when they are falling

faster than they do when they first jump and are
falling more slowly. Also, the more mass an object
has, the more kinetic energy it has. Even if both
kids jump at the exact same time, the one with
more mass will always have more kinetic energy.
These two kids probably knew they were using a
lot of energy, but they would probably be surprised
to know how much work they had been doing.
practice and apply
Refer to the preceding models to answer the following
questions:
1. Which model is organized by subject? Which model
is organized by points of comparison?
2. Identify two words or phrases in each model
that signal a compare-and-contrast pattern of
organization.
3. List two points that the writer of each model
compares and contrasts.
4. Use a Venn diagram or a compare-and-contrast
chart to identify two or more points of comparison
and the similarities and differences shown in one of
the two models.
3.5 problem-solution order
Problem-solution order is a pattern of organization
in which a problem is stated and analyzed and
then one or more solutions are proposed and
examined. This pattern of organization is often
used in persuasive writing, such as editorials or
proposals.
Strategies for Reading
• Look for an explanation of the problem in the
first or second paragraph.
• Look for words, such as problem and reason, that
may signal an explanation of the problem.
• To find the solution, ask: What suggestion does
the writer offer to solve the problem?
• Look for words, such as propose, conclude, and
answer, that may signal a solution.
Reading Handbook
model
I love baseball, but I won’t be going to any major-
league games, and I won’t be rooting for the local
major-league team. The reason is simple. There
is no local major-league team in North Dakota.
There’s none in South Dakota or in Montana or
even in Wyoming. The closest major-league team
is the Minnesota Twins, and that’s over 240 miles
away!
The problem is that getting a major-league team
costs money. Any city that wants a team has to have
enough money to build a stadium. The city also
has to have a big enough population to support the
team. Fargo is the biggest city in North Dakota,
and it only has about 91,484 people. That’s not
enough to support a major-league franchise. Sports
stadiums often hold more people than Fargo has!
Even though the towns around here aren’t
exactly huge, there are a lot of die-hard baseball fans
like my friends and me. So here’s my plan. Why
couldn’t a couple of towns get together to build a
stadium and start a team? For example, Moorhead,
Minnesota, is right next to Fargo. They already
share the same airport, and the metropolitan area
has about 174,367 people. That might be enough
to support a team. If it’s not, then maybe Grand
Forks, or even Aberdeen, could join in too.
People might say that there would be a problem
naming a team that is supported by cities in two or
three different states. I think baseball fans would be
so happy to have a team, they wouldn’t really care
what it was called.
If enough people wrote to the Fargo and
Moorhead city governments, maybe the idea could
be put on the ballot. Major-league baseball is
supposed to be our national pastime. Shouldn’t we
be a part of it too?
practice and apply
Reread the model and then answer the following
questions:
1. According to the model, what is the cause of the
problem?
2. What solution does the writer offer? What words
are a clue?
reading handbook R13
4 Reading Informational Texts: Forms
Magazines, newspapers, Web pages, and consumer, public, and workplace
documents are all informational materials, but each one has its own purpose.
To understand and analyze these texts, look at their structure, which includes
text features and patterns of organization.
4.1 reading a newspaper article
The purpose of a daily or weekly newspaper is to provide readers with timely
news, opinions, and advertising. Because people often skim newspapers,
publishers use images and other structural elements to capture readers’
attention.
Strategies for Reading
A “Teen Rap” is the name of a
column, a type of article that
appears regularly in a newspaper A

and is usually written by the

T E E N
RAP by Lauren Beckham D
same person. Source: The Boston Herald

C
B Notice whether graphic aids
or quotations attract your The Difference a City Year Makes
attention.
C Read the title and other
headings to find out more about
W hat kind of person gets up at the
break of dawn, spends all day
tutoring teenagers, cleaning up former crack

its topic and organization.
D Notice whether the article has a
byline, a line naming the author.
B Convention of Idealism, to show community
E A caption accompanying
a graphic aid may provide
information that adds to the
meaning of the article.
houses, or teaching kids to read and write—
all in the name of community service?
The kind who joins City Year.
Hundreds of young adults come together
in Boston for CYZYGY, City Year’s Annual
leaders, business people
Two participants in a Winter Wonderland camp for
and—most importantly—
young children displaced by Hurricane Katrina. E
other young adults
that community Barnes Middle School in East Boston,
mentoring and tutoring at-risk boys in a
service, though
difficult, is remedial class.
rewarding to both “I could say that it was a challenge but

practice and apply those who give and

B part of their accomplishments.”
1. Why does this article meet the
purpose of a newspaper?
2. How does the circle graph relate to
the title?
3. What does the photograph with
its caption tell you?
those who receive.
that’s what I needed,” said the Dorchester
teen. “And they needed me. I’m proud to be
“Young people are coming Samuels plans to attend Bunker Hill
together and giving back” Community College next year and then
pursue a bachelor’s degree in child
When Anthony Samuels of Dorchester
psychology. Meanwhile, he is looking forward
graduated from Melrose High School last
to the CYZYGY conference.
year, he had a specific plan.
“I was ready to give back to my
“Hopefully in the next five years we’ll have,
instead of eight City Year sites, 15 to 20,” he
community,” Samuels, 19, said. “When I
learned about City Year, I jumped right in.”
said. “CYZYGY will show Boston that young
Samuels spends his days at the Umana
people are coming together and giving back.”

4. What other kinds of information do

you expect to find in a newspaper?

R14 reading handbook

 Reading Handbook

4.2 reading a textbook

Each textbook has its own structure based on the content in the book. Look at
the table of contents to see how the book is organized and to identify special
features, such as sidebars, charts, and graphs. Because a textbook’s purpose is
to educate people, each of its features will support the book’s focus.
Strategies for Reading
A Before you begin reading the
C
lesson or chapter, read any
questions that appear at the end
of it. Then use the questions to
set your purpose for reading.
B Read carefully to understand and
remember the ideas presented in
the text. When you come to an
unfamiliar word, first try to figure
out its meaning from context
clues. If necessary, use a glossary
in the textbook or a dictionary.
Avoid interrupting your reading
by constantly looking up words in
a dictionary.
For more information on context clues B
and glossaries, see the Vocabulary and
Spelling Handbook, pages R68 and R72.

C Use the book’s special features,

such as sidebars, to increase your
understanding of the text. The
purpose of a sidebar is to present
additional information, usually D
set off in a box.
D Take notes as you read. Use text
features such as maps to help
you understand the content. Use A
subheadings and boldfaced terms
to help identify important topics.
Record your notes in graphic practice and apply
organizers, such as cause-
effect charts, to help clarify 1. Compare the structure of the newspaper article on page R14 with the
relationships among ideas. textbook page here. Identify some features they share.

2. How is the purpose of a textbook different from that of a newspaper?

reading handbook R15

4.3 reading a consumer document
Consumer documents are printed materials that accompany products and
services. Their purpose is to provide information about the use, care, operation
or assembly of the products. Some common consumer documents are
contracts, warranties, instructional manuals, and schedules. These materials are
usually very carefully structured to make them easy to use.
Strategies for Reading Microwave Instructions
A Read the heading to see what A Before Operating
information the document B 1. Plug the power cord into a three-pronged electrical outlet.
covers. Read the subheadings to C 2. Display panel will light up and flash 00:00.
learn what process each section Touch STOP/CLEAR pad.
of the instructions explains. 3. Set the clock.
D
B Read the directions all the way Touch STOP/CLEAR pad when the oven is first plugged
in, or after the electrical power has been interrupted.
through at least once. A Setting the Clock
C Look for numbers or letters that Procedure
indicate the order in which the E 1. Touch TIMER CLOCK pad.
steps should be followed. Or look 2. Enter the time of day. For example, if it is 10:30, touch
for signal words such as first and the number pads 1030 and “10:30” will appear.

finally to see the order in which
the steps should be followed.
D Words that appear in all capital
letters are often names or labels
that appear on the device you
are being shown how to use. If
there is an illustration or diagram,
try to match the words in the
instructions to words or symbols
3. Press the TIMER CLOCK pad again to set the time.
Note You can select any time of the day from 1:00–12:59. To reset Clock, repeat steps 1
through 3 above. If incorrect time (for example, 8:61 or 13:00, etc.) is entered, “EE”
will appear on display. Touch STOP/CLEAR pad and program correctly.
Canceling a Program
• To reset, or cancel, a cooking program as it is being entered, touch STOP/CLEAR pad
once.
• To stop the oven while it is operating, touch STOP/CLEAR pad once. Do not open the
door without pressing STOP/CLEAR pad.
• An entire cooking program (one stage or multiple stages) can be canceled after the oven
has started cooking. This can be done by touching STOP/CLEAR pad twice.

in the graphic aid.
E Look for verbs that describe
actions you should take, such as
plug, touch, enter, and press.
F Pay attention to warnings or
notes that describe problems.
F Note See page 10 to create your own cooking programs.
Power Levels
Most foods can be cooked at full power (P-HI). However, for best results, some foods
require a lower cooking power. Some foods such as tender cuts of meat can be cooked
only with a lower power. Before setting any power level, the POWER LEVEL pad must be
touched, followed by desired number.

practice and apply

Reread the microwave instructions and answer the questions.

1. Explain how to reset the clock after a power outage.

2. Restate how to solve the following problem: The clock was incorrectly set at 14:30.

3. Why do these instructions meet the purpose of a consumer document?

4. Compare how this information is organized with how the information in a textbook is
organized (see page R15). What are the main differences in their structure?

R16 reading handbook

 Reading Handbook

4.4 reading a public document

The purpose of public documents is to provide people with information that may
interest them. These documents are often free and inform people of decisions
and events. Public documents may be government documents, speeches, laws,
signs, or rules and regulations. The structure of a public document often depends
on the content of the document and the audience for which it is intended.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title and take note of public document
any special features that tell
what information the document
covers.
E
B Read the document carefully to
find out what the document is A Summer Fun and Food Program
asking or telling you to do. The Fun and Food Program (FFP) will begin the summer season
with FREE healthy cold lunches to youth ages 1 through 18 at all
C Look for the source of the county recreation centers. The program directors hope to provide
document. Public documents B city children with at least one nutritious meal per day when
are usually identified as coming school is not in session. The county Food Services Department has
from a particular agency or group. prepared a menu that is healthy and appealing. Following the
They are usually not commercial lunch meals, various age-appropriate activities sponsored by the
California Department of Parks will be offered to those
advertisements.
in attendance.
D Look for a contact person or group.
C The program is funded in part by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
You will need this information
(USDA) and administered by the state of California through County
to find out more about the topic
Food Services, part of the California Services Department.
or to clear up anything you don’t
understand. The Fun and Food Program is open to all youth ages 1 through 18.* E
NOTE: Persons in a school or non-profit program who are 19 years
E Notice any graphic aids that may and older can also participate.
convey information. Symbols
D *For more information, contact the program office at (555) 564-1234,
as well as shapes and colors
or check your local recreation center for a flier.
may have certain purposes or
meanings. For example, signs
often rely on graphic aids to practice and apply
communicate messages clearly
and briefly. Reread the document and answer the questions.

1. What is the purpose of the document?

2. Who should read the document?

3. What would you do if you had questions about the program?

4. How is the purpose of the public document different from the purpose of
a workplace document?

reading handbook R17

4.5 reading a workplace document
Workplace documents are materials that are produced or used within a
workplace. Their purpose is to aid in the functioning of a business. They may be
documents created by a business to monitor itself, such as minutes of a meeting
or a sales report. They may also be documents that explain company policies,
organization, safety rules, and operating procedures. Because workplace
documents include memos, business letters, job applications, and résumés, their
structures will vary. Most of them, however, will use short sentences and text
features, such as bullets, boldface type, and charts, to highlight key points.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title and any subtitles operating procedures
to see what information the
document covers. “Little Folks” Play Group A

B Determine who needs to read Middleton Park District

the document. Look for clues to
see if it applies to you. Notice to Volunteers
C Look for subheadings to identify Safety Guidelines B
main ideas and topics and to see We’re glad you have volunteered to help with our Saturday morning
how the document is organized. play group for children ages 2–5. To keep our space clean and safe
and our children happy, we all must follow these safety rules.
D Read the document slowly and
carefully, as it may contain details Staffing C
• An adult must be in the playroom at all times.
that should not be overlooked.
• Children who go outside to the playground must be accompa-
E Look for a contact person nied by an adult.
or group. You will need this
information to clear up anything Emergencies C
you don’t understand. • In case of emergency, dial 911 on the phone in the kitchen. D

F Take notes to help you remember
what actions are required.
practice and apply
Reread the document and answer the
questions.
1. What is the document’s purpose?
2. Who needs to read the document?
• In case of fire, evacuate the children through the main door or
the emergency exit. Before opening a door, touch it to see if it
is hot. A fire extinguisher is located next to the emergency exit.
Cleanup C
• Make sure the playroom is clean at the end of the day. Put all
toys in the toy chests.
• Wipe tabletops clean with a damp sponge.
• Turn off the lights as you leave.

3. Who should be with the children This document was prepared by the Middleton Park District. If you
on the playground? have questions or concerns, contact the Program Coordinator. E
4. If there is a fire, what should you
do before opening the door?

5. What structural features make the

document easy to read?

R18 reading handbook

 Reading Handbook

4.6 reading electronic text

Electronic text is any text that is in a form that a computer can store and display
on a screen. Electronic text can be part of Web pages, CD-ROMs, search engines,
and documents that you create with your computer software. Like books, Web
pages often provide aids for finding information. However, each Web page is
designed differently, and information is not in the same location on each page.
It is important to know the functions of different parts of a Web page so that
you can easily find the information you want.
Strategies for Reading
A Look at the title of a page to
determine what topics it covers. http://www.apa.state.ny.us/About_Park/index.html

B For an online source, such as a

Web page or search engine, note
the Web address, known as a URL A
(Universal Resource Locator). You
may want to make a note of it if
you need to return to that page.
C Look for a menu bar along the A
top, bottom, or side of a Web
page. Clicking on an item in
a menu bar will take you to
C
another part of the Web site.
D
D Notice any hyperlinks to related
pages. Hyperlinks are often
underlined or highlighted in a
contrasting color. You can click
on a hyperlink to get to another
page—one that may or may not
have been created by the same
person or organization.
E For information that you want to
keep for future reference, save practice and apply
documents on your computer or
print them. For online sources, 1. What is the URL of the Web page shown?
you can pull down the Favorites
2. What is the main purpose of this Web page?
or Bookmarks menu and
bookmark pages so that you can 3. Which links would you click on to find out about recreation in the park?
easily return to them or print 4. What would you do if you had questions that weren’t answered by
the information you need. information on the site?
Printing the pages will allow 5. Compare the structure and purpose of this Web page with that of a
you to highlight key ideas on a textbook page.
hard copy.

reading handbook R19

5 Reading Persuasive Texts
5.1 analyzing an argument
An argument expresses a position on an issue
or problem and supports it with reasons and
evidence. Being able to analyze and evaluate
arguments will help you distinguish between
claims you should accept and those you should not.
A sound argument should appeal strictly to reason.
However, arguments are often used in texts that
also contain other types of persuasive devices. An
argument includes the following elements:
• A claim is the writer’s position on an issue
or problem.
• Support is any material that serves to prove a
claim. In an argument, support usually consists
of reasons and evidence.
• Reasons are declarations made to justify an
action, decision, or belief—for example, “My
reason for thinking we will be late is that
we can’t make it to the appointment in five
minutes.”
• Evidence can be the specific references,
quotations, facts, examples, and opinions that
support a claim. Evidence may also consist of
statistics, reports of personal experience, or the
views of experts.
• A counterargument is an argument made to
oppose another argument. A good argument
anticipates the opposition’s objections and
provides counterarguments to disprove or
answer them.
Claim I think I should be allowed to
watch more TV.
Reason TV can provide opportunities for
learning and enjoyment.
Evidence TV can take you to faraway places
and can bring art, music, and
science right into your home.
Counterargument Some people think TV is really
bad for kids, but those people are
looking at only the worst part of TV,
not the best.
R20 reading handbook
practice and apply
Read the following editorial and use a chart like the
one shown to identify the claim, reason, evidence, and
counterargument.
Important Hours
by Gina Maraini
“The Golden Years.” That is what some
people call old age. They think it is a time of
peace and relaxation. But many old people
spend time alone. Some cannot get out of
their homes because of illness. “What can I
do?” you ask. You can do more than you think
to make an important contribution to an
older person’s life. Even spending an hour a
week can mean a lot to an older neighbor who
lives alone.
Some kids might say that they can only
do good for an older person if they have lots
of time and lots of patience. It’s easy to talk
yourself out of volunteering your time by
saying, “I only have an hour a week. What
good would that do?” Never underestimate
just how much good you can do even in a
little bit of time.
Sometimes things happen that seem
unimportant to a kid but can really be a
problem to an old person. If a small object
like a pen or pencil slides under furniture, an
older person often is not able to stoop down
and pick it up. But they feel embarrassed
to ask for help. So, the pen stays there.
Sometimes it gets forgotten about and
becomes lost. You can help that older person
find these things. And by helping, you are
reminding that person that he or she is not
forgotten about either.
Sometimes it is hard for an older person
to reach up high. Putting things away, like
groceries, becomes a problem. Often the older
person gets tired and gives up. You can help
to put groceries and other heavy objects away.
And by doing that, you are helping that older
person feel like he or she can still keep up
with life’s challenges.
One of the most important things you can
do for a senior citizen who lives alone is to
 Reading Handbook

Persuasive Technique Example

give that person someone to talk to. Old Appeals by Association
people, who have lived long lives and had
Bandwagon appeal Every day more buyers are
many experiences, have stories to tell that you Suggests that a person enjoying the conveniences
can learn a lot from. And it is important for should believe or do of catalog shopping.
you to say so, too. That way, you can show the something because
older person that he or she is contributing to “everyone else” does
your life. Testimonial Todd Marshall, star of
You can make a real contribution to an Relies on endorsements stage and screen, buys his
older person’s life. Even if you only have an from well-known people shoes at Fine Footwear.
hour to spend, you can help an older person or satisfied customers Shouldn’t you?
feel cared about and important. Find ways Snob appeal Be among the first to
to reach out, whether through volunteer Taps into people’s desire enjoy the upgraded
organizations or just by being aware of who to be special or part of an facilities at Spring Lake
is alone in your neighborhood. And always elite group Fitness Center.
remember: as much as you give, you get Appeal to loyalty Say Yes! to your
back so much more, simply by knowing the Relies on people’s affiliation community—support the
difference that you have made. with a particular group campaign to build a new
library!

Emotional Appeals
5.2 recognizing persuasive techniQues Appeals to pity, fear, We need to keep the
Persuasive texts typically rely on more than or vanity homeless shelter open—
Use strong feelings, rather think how you would feel
just the logical appeal of an argument to be
than facts, to persuade if you had no place to go.
convincing. They also rely on ethical and emotional
appeals and other persuasive techniques—devices Word Choice
that can convince you to adopt a position or take Glittering generality Buying handmade jewelry
an action. A generalization that from the Hang Up helps
includes a word or phrase support small-town
Ethical appeals establish a writer’s credibility and with positive connotations, America.
trustworthiness with an audience. When a writer to promote a product,
links a claim to a widely accepted value, the writer person, or idea.
not only gains moral support for that claim but
also establishes a connection with readers. For
example, with the following appeal, the writer
reminds readers of a value they should accept
and links a claim to it: “Most of us agree that we
should protect our natural resources, but we don’t
invest a lot of time or money to preserve them.”
The chart shown here explains several other
means by which a writer may attempt to sway you
to adopt his or her position. Learn to recognize
these techniques, and you are less likely to be
influenced by them.

reading handbook R21

 practice and apply
Identify the persuasive techniques used in this model.
Vote for Velazquez!
Whom do you want to represent you in
Congress—a dinosaur who’s stuck in the past or
someone who’s courageously facing the future?
Why settle for Jill Jolsen, who hasn’t lifted a
finger to help this community? Don’t let her
slick ads fool you. Instead, join the leaders in
the community and many of your neighbors
who have already put their support behind
Victor Velazquez. Local businesswoman Janice
Wu is behind Velazquez all the way—she says
he will bring new jobs and fresh ideas that will
really work. Don’t miss this once-in-a-lifetime
chance to change this town. Vote for Velazquez!
5.3 analyzing logic and reasoning
While persuasive techniques may sway you to
side with a writer, they should not be enough
to convince you that an argument is sound. To
determine the soundness of an argument, you
really need to examine the argument’s claim and
support and the logic or reasoning that links them.
To do this, it is helpful to identify the writer’s mode
of reasoning.
R22 reading handbook
The Inductive Mode of Reasoning
When a person uses specific evidence to arrive at
a general principle, or generalization, that person
is using inductive reasoning. Similarly, when a
writer presents specific evidence first and then
offers a generalization drawn from that evidence,
the writer is making an inductive argument. Here
is an example of inductive reasoning.
specific facts
Fact 1 Turtles are the only reptiles that have a
shell.
Fact 2 The green turtle, a sea turtle, can swim
almost 20 miles an hour.
Fact 3 Snapping turtles have powerful, sharp-
edged jaws and are aggressive when attacked.
Generalization
Turtles have a variety of protective strategies.
Strategies for Determining the Soundness
of Inductive Arguments
Ask yourself the following questions to evaluate
an inductive argument:
• Is the evidence valid and sufficient support
for the conclusion? Inaccurate facts lead to
inaccurate conclusions.
• Does the conclusion follow logically from the
evidence? From the facts listed above, the
conclusion that all turtles have a wide variety
of protective strategies would be too broad a
generalization.
• Is the evidence drawn from a large enough
sample? Even though there are only three
facts listed above, the sample is large enough
to support the claim. If you wanted to support
the conclusion that only turtles have a variety
of protective strategies, the sample is not large
enough.
 Reading Handbook

The Deductive Mode of Reasoning The following chart shows two conclusions drawn
When a person uses a general principle, or from the same general principle.
generalization, to form a conclusion about a
All seventh-graders are going to the zoo next week.
particular situation or problem, that person is using
deductive reasoning. For example, Accurate Deduction Inaccurate Deduction
Laura is in the seventh Laura is going to the zoo
Being exposed to loud noise General principle
grade; therefore, Laura next week; therefore, Laura
over a long period will or generalization
damage a person’s hearing. is going to the zoo next is in the seventh grade.
week.

I listen to my stereo at its Laura may be going to the zoo with her family or
highest setting for hours The situation being friends.
every day. observed or considered
practice and apply

I will have some hearing Conclusion (also considered Identify the mode of reasoning used in the following
loss. a deduction) paragraph.

Similarly, a writer is making a deductive argument
when he or she begins the argument with a
claim that is based on a general principle and
then presents evidence to support the claim.
For example, a writer might begin a deductive
argument with the claim “Many people have some
hearing loss.”
In science class, I learned what different
substances do for the human body. Protein
aids growth and repairs muscles. Fruits and
vegetables provide critical vitamins, and
calcium strengthens bones. Carbohydrates
supply energy to the body. Clearly, a balanced
diet is important for good health.

Strategies for Determining the Soundness of

Deductive Arguments
Ask yourself the following questions to evaluate a
deductive argument:
• Is the general principle actually stated, or is it
implied? Note that writers often use deductive
reasoning in arguments without stating the
general principles. They just assume that readers
will recognize and agree with the principles. So
you may want to identify the general principle for
yourself.
• Is the general principle sound? Don’t just
assume the general principle is sound. Ask
yourself whether it is really true.
• Is the conclusion valid? To be valid, a conclusion
in a deductive argument must follow logically
from the general principle and the specific
situation.

reading handbook R23

 Identifying Faulty Reasoning
Sometimes an argument at first appears to make sense but isn’t valid because
it is based on a fallacy. A fallacy is an error in logic. Learn to recognize these
common fallacies.

type of fallacy definition example

Circular reasoning Supporting a statement by simply repeating it in I’m tired because I don’t have any energy.
different words
Either/or fallacy A statement that suggests that there are only Either we raise taxes, or we close the parks.
two choices available in a situation that really
offers more than two options
Oversimplification An explanation of a complex situation or Getting a good grade in Mrs. Raimi’s class
problem as if it were much simpler than depends on whether she likes you.
it is
Overgeneralization A generalization that is too broad. You can often You never get me anything I want.
recognize overgeneralizations by the use of
words such as all, everyone, every time, anything,
no one, and none.
Hasty generalization A conclusion drawn from too little evidence or She left after fifteen minutes. She must not
from evidence that is biased like us.

Stereotyping A dangerous type of overgeneralization. All rock stars are self-centered.

Stereotypes are broad statements about people
on the basis of their gender, ethnicity, race, or
political, social, professional, or religious group.
Attacking the person An attempt to discredit an idea by attacking the The narrow-minded senator opposes recycling.
or name-calling person or group associated with it. Candidates
often engage in name-calling during political
campaigns.
Evading the issue Responding to an objection with arguments and Yes, I broke my campaign promise not to raise
evidence that do not address its central point taxes, but higher taxes have led to increases in
police patrols and paved highways.
False cause The mistake of assuming that because one event John didn’t get his homework done because he
occurred after another event in time, the first had to take the dog for a walk.
event caused the second one to occur

R24 reading handbook


practice and apply
Look for examples of logical fallacies in the following
argument. Identify each one and explain why you
identified it as such.
Dear Editors:
There has been a lot of talk about students’
lack of concern for the appearance of our school.
Nobody gets rid of his or her trash properly
and everyone writes graffiti on the walls. But
if the school seemed more worth caring about,
students would take better care of it. Most of
the school is very old. The halls are dark and the
walls are dingy because the maintenance staff
has been on strike for several weeks. The old-
fashioned school board said that an entirely new
building wasn’t needed. So only a new gym was
added. It is clean and bright because students
have kept it that way. Either we build a new
school, or it will be destroyed in three years.
5.4 evaluating persuasive texts
Learning how to evaluate persuasive texts and
identify bias will help you become more selective
when doing research and also help you improve
your own reasoning and arguing skills. Bias is an
inclination for or against a particular opinion or
viewpoint. A writer may reveal a strongly positive
or negative bias on an issue by
• presenting only one way of looking at it
• overlooking key information
• stacking more evidence on one side of the
argument than the other
• using unfairly weighted evidence, which is weak
or unproven evidence that a writer treats as if it
is more important than it really is
• using loaded language, which consists of words
with strongly positive or negative connotations
EXAMPLE: Barbara Larsen is the best choice for student
council president because she has fresh ideas and
fantastic people skills. (Fresh and fantastic have
very positive connotations.)
Reading Handbook
Propaganda is any form of communication that
is so distorted that it conveys false or misleading
information. Some politicians create and distribute
propaganda. Many logical fallacies, such as name-
calling, the either/or fallacy, and false causes, are
often used in propaganda. The following example
shows an oversimplification. The writer uses one
fact to support a particular point of view but does
not reveal another fact that does not support that
viewpoint.
EXAMPLE: Sincethe new park opened, vandalism in
the area has increased by 10 percent. Clearly, the
park has had a negative impact on the area. (The
writer does not include the fact that the vandalism
was caused by people who were not drawn into
the area by the park.)
For more information on logical fallacies, see Identifying
Faulty Reasoning, page R24.
Strategies for Assessing Evidence
It is important to have a set of standards by
which you can evaluate persuasive texts. Use the
questions below to help you assess the adequacy,
accuracy, and appropriateness of facts and
opinions that are presented as evidence.
• Are the facts accurate? Facts can be proved by
eyewitness accounts, authoritative sources such
as encyclopedias and experts, or research.
• Are the opinions well informed? Any opinions
offered should be supported by facts, be based
on research or eyewitness accounts, or come
from experts on the topic.
• Is the evidence adequate? Thorough, or
adequate, evidence leaves no reasonable
question unanswered. If a choice is offered to
the reader, enough evidence for making the
choice should be given. If taking a side is called
for, all sides of the issue should be presented.
• Is the evidence biased? Be alert to evidence that
contains loaded language or other signs of bias.
• Is the evidence appropriate? The evidence needs
to apply to the topic and come from people,
groups, or organizations that have important
knowledge of, or credentials relating to, the topic.
reading handbook R25
 • Is it important that the evidence be current?
Where timeliness is crucial, as in the areas of
medicine and technology, the evidence should
reflect the latest developments in the areas.
practice and apply
Read the argument below. Identify the facts, opinion,
and elements of bias.
Let your voice be heard. The Students’
League is hosting a demonstration against U.S
Representative Sharon Bullhorn on Saturday.
Just last week, Representative Bullhorn voted
against raising the minimum wage. Obviously
Representative Bullhorn doesn’t care about
young people. If she did, she would have
helped pass the much-needed minimum wage
increase, so that preteens and teens could earn
the money they deserve.
Strategies for Determining a Strong Argument
Make sure that all or most of the following
statements are true:
• The argument presents a claim or thesis.
• The claim is connected to its support by a
general principle that most readers would
readily agree with. Valid general principle: It
is the job of a school to provide a well-rounded
physical education program. Invalid general
principle: It is the job of a school to produce
healthy, physically fit people.
• The reasons make sense.
• The reasons are presented in a logical and
effective order.
• The claim and all reasons are adequately
supported by sound evidence.
• The evidence is adequate, accurate, and
appropriate.
• The logic is sound. There are no instances of
faulty reasoning.
• The argument adequately anticipates and
addresses reader concerns and counterclaims
with counterarguments.
R26 reading handbook
practice and apply
Use the preceding criteria to evaluate the strength of
the following proposal.
model
Summary of Proposal
I propose that our school install video
cameras in halls, lunchrooms, and other
public areas to monitor students’ activities.
Need
The halls and public areas of our school are
not well supervised because of a shortage of
security staff. Last month, three students were
hurt in fights on school property.
Proposed Solution
Installing video monitors in the halls and
public areas of the school will create a safe
environment for students at a reasonable cost.
There is good evidence that video
monitoring works. Westview School has
monitored its students for over a year. In
that time there has not been one incident of
fighting or damage to property.
People who are against video monitoring
don’t agree. They say that monitoring violates
students’ rights to privacy.
In my opinion, junior high students
need to act like responsible adults. We need
guidelines and monitoring to show us where
the limits are and to help us learn to act
responsibly on our own.
Not only does video monitoring work,
but installing the equipment can lower
supervisory costs in the long run. Only eight
cameras would be needed, installed in the
two main hallways, the lunchroom, and the
auditorium. The total cost would be around
$16,000. I believe the money can be found in
the general school budget.
What idiot would not support video
monitoring of students?
It would be a crime not to have video
monitoring.
Most school officials only care about their
jobs and not what’s good for students. I say
to those school officials who do care: Either
install video cameras or wait for more students
to be injured.

6 Adjusting Reading Rate
to Purpose
You may need to change the way you read certain
texts in order to understand what you read. To
adjust the way you read, you first need to be aware
of what you want to get out of what you are
reading. Then you can adjust the speed at which
you read in response to your purpose and the
difficulty of the material.
Determine Your Purpose for Reading
You read different types of materials for different
purposes. You may read a novel for enjoyment.
You may read a textbook unit to learn a new
concept or to master the content for a test. When
you read for enjoyment, you naturally read at a
pace that is comfortable for you. When you read
for information, you need to read material more
slowly and thoroughly. When you are being tested
on material, you may think you have to read fast,
especially if the test is being timed. However, you
can actually increase your understanding of the
material if you slow down.
Determine Your Reading Rate
The rate at which you read most comfortably
is called your independent reading level. It is
the rate that you use to read materials that you
enjoy. To learn to adjust your reading rate to read
materials for other purposes, you need to be aware
of your independent reading level. You can figure
out your reading level by following these steps:
1. Select a passage from a book or story you enjoy.
2. Have a friend or classmate time you as you
begin reading the passage silently.
3. Read at the rate that is most comfortable for you.
4. Stop when your friend or classmate tells you
one minute has passed.
5. Determine the number of words you read in
that minute and write down the number.
6. Repeat the process at least two more times,
using different passages.
7. Add the numbers and divide the sum by the
number of times your friend timed you.
Reading Handbook
Reading Techniques for Informational Material
You can use the following techniques to adapt
your reading for informational texts, to prepare for
tests, and to better understand what you read:
• Skimming is reading quickly to get the general
idea of a text. To skim, read only the title,
headings, graphic aids, highlighted words, and
first sentence of each paragraph. Also, read
any introduction, conclusion, or summary.
Skimming can be especially useful when taking
a test. Before reading a passage, you can skim
questions that follow it in order to find out what
is expected and better focus on the important
ideas in the text.
When researching a topic, skimming can help
you decide whether a source has information
that is related to your topic.
• Scanning is reading quickly to find a specific piece
of information, such as a fact or a definition.
When you scan, your eyes sweep across a page,
looking for key words that may lead you to the
information you want. Use scanning to review for
tests and to find answers to questions.
• Changing pace is speeding up or slowing
down the rate at which you read parts of a
particular text. When you come across familiar
concepts, you might be able to speed up without
misunderstanding them. When you encounter
unfamiliar concepts or material presented in an
unpredictable way, however, you may need to
slow down to understand the information.
Reading too slowly can affect
your ability to understand what you read. Make
sure you aren’t just reading one word at a time.
Practice reading phrases.
practice and apply
Find an article in a magazine or textbook. Skim the
article. Then answer the following questions:
1. What did you notice about the organization of the
article from skimming it?
2. What is the main idea of the article?
reading handbook R27
 Glossary of Literary Terms
Act An act is a major division within a play, similar to a
chapter in a book. Each act may be further divided into
smaller sections, called scenes. Plays can have as many
as five acts. The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street by Rod
Serling has two acts.
Adventure Story An adventure story is a literary work
in which action is the main element. An adventure novel
usually focuses on a main character who is on a mission and
is facing many challenges and choices.
Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of consonant
sounds at the beginning of words. Note the repetition of
the b sound in these lines.
Crusts of black burned buttered toast,
Gristly bits of beefy roasts . . .
—Shel Silverstein, “Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would
Not Take the Garbage Out”
See pages 536, 586.
Analogy An analogy is a point-by-point comparison
between two things that are alike in some respect. Often,
writers use analogies in nonfiction to explain unfamiliar
subjects or ideas in terms of familiar ones.
See also Extended Metaphor; Metaphor; Simile.
Anecdote An anecdote is a short account of an event that
is usually intended to entertain or make a point. In “Names/
Nombres,” Julia Alvarez uses an anecdote about arriving
at the immigration office to show how her name began
changing once she entered the United States.
See page 773.
Antagonist The antagonist is a force working against the
protagonist, or main character, in a story, play, or novel. The
antagonist is usually another character but can be a force
of nature, society itself, or an internal force within the main
character. In Michael Morpurgo’s retelling of “Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight,” the Green Knight is the antagonist.
See page 663.
See also Protagonist.
R100 glossary of literary terms
Assonance Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds
within nonrhyming words. An example of assonance is the
repetition of the i sound in the following line.
is a diamond blind in the black belly of coal
—Lucille Clifton, “the earth is a living thing”
Author’s Perspective An author’s perspective is the
unique combination of ideas, values, feelings, and beliefs
that influences the way the writer looks at a topic. Tone,
or attitude, often reveals an author’s perspective. Peter
Benchley writes “Great White Sharks” from a perspective
that reflects his fascination with the sea and his regret that
his novel Jaws caused misconceptions about sharks.
See page 877.
See also Author’s Purpose; Tone.
Author’s Purpose A writer usually writes for one or more
of these purposes: to express thoughts or feelings, to inform
or explain, to persuade, and to entertain. For example, in
his “Remarks at the Dedication of the Aerospace Medical
Health Center,” President John F. Kennedy’s purpose was to
persuade Americans that the United States should lead the
world in space research.
See also Author’s Perspective; Writer’s Point of View.
Autobiography An autobiography is a writer’s account
of his or her own life. In almost every case, it is told from
the first-person point of view. Generally, an autobiography
focuses on the most significant events and people in the
writer’s life over a period of time. Lance Armstrong’s It’s Not
About the Bike is an autobiography.
See pages 8, 746, 784.
See also Memoir.
Ballad A ballad is a type of narrative poem that tells a story
and was originally meant to be sung or recited. Because it
tells a story, a ballad has a setting, a plot, and characters.
Folk ballads were composed orally and handed down
by word of mouth from generation to generation. “The
Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes is an example of a literary
ballad, which takes its form from the folk ballad but is not
composed orally.
Biography A biography is the true account of a person’s
life, written by another person. As such, biographies are
usually told from a third-person point of view. The writer of
a biography usually researches his or her subject in order to
present accurate information. The best biographers strive for
honesty and balance in their accounts of their subjects’ lives.
William Jay Jacobs’s “Eleanor Roosevelt” is an example of a
biography.
Cast of Characters In the script of a play, a cast of
characters is a list of all the characters in the play, usually
in order of appearance. It may include a brief description of
each character.
Character Characters are the people, animals, or
imaginary creatures who take part in the action of a work
of literature. Like real people, characters display certain
qualities, or character traits, that develop and change over
time, and they usually have motivations, or reasons, for their
behaviors.
Main character: Main characters are the most
important characters in literary works. Generally, the
plot of a short story focuses on one main character, but
a novel may have several main characters.
Minor characters: The less important characters in a
literary work are known as minor characters. The story
is not centered on them, but they help carry out the
action of the story and help the reader learn more about
the main character.
Dynamic character: A dynamic character is one who
undergoes important changes as a plot unfolds. The
changes occur because of the character’s actions and
experiences in the story. The changes are usually
internal and may be good or bad. Main characters are
usually, though not always, dynamic.
Static character: A static character is one who remains
the same throughout a story. The character may
experience events and have interactions with other
characters, but he or she is not changed because of them.
See pages 5, 24, 176, 183.
See also Characterization; Character Traits.
Characterization The way a writer creates and develops
characters is known as characterization. There are four basic
methods of characterization:
• The writer may make direct comments about a character
through the voice of the narrator.
• The writer may describe the character’s physical appearance.
• The writer may present the character’s own thoughts,
speech, and actions.
• The writer may present thoughts, speech, and actions of
other characters.
See pages 178, 241, 255, 259.
See also Character; Character Traits.
Character Traits Character traits are the qualities shown
by a character. Traits may be physical (brown eyes) or
expressions of personality (shyness). Writers reveal the traits
of their characters through methods of characterization.
Sometimes writers directly state a character’s traits, but
more often readers need to infer traits from a character’s
words, actions, thoughts, appearance, and relationships.
Examples of words that describe traits include courageous,
humble, generous, and wild.
Climax The climax stage is the point of greatest interest
in a story or play. The climax usually occurs toward the end
of a story, after the reader has understood the conflict and
become emotionally involved with the characters. At the
climax, the conflict is resolved and the outcome of the plot
usually becomes clear.
See pages 26, 31, 566.
See also Plot.
Comedy A comedy is a dramatic work that is light and
often humorous in tone, usually ending happily with a
peaceful resolution of the main conflict.
Conflict A conflict is a struggle between opposing forces.
Almost every story has a main conflict—a conflict that is the
story’s focus. An external conflict involves a character who
struggles against a force outside him- or herself, such as
nature, a physical obstacle, or another character. An internal
conflict is one that occurs within a character.
Examples: In Rudyard Kipling’s “Rikki-tikki-tavi,” the
mongoose Rikki is in conflict with the cobras Nag and
Nagaina. In Robert D. San Souci’s retelling of Young Arthur,
Arthur is torn between wanting to escape punishment when
he thinks he has stolen the king’s sword and wanting to
accept responsibility as a true knight should.
See pages 5, 24, 63, 74, 653.
See also Plot.
Connotation A word’s connotations are the ideas and
feelings associated with the word, as opposed to its
dictionary definition. For example, the word mother, in
addition to its basic meaning (“a female parent”), has
connotations of love, warmth, and security.
glossary of literary terms R101
Couplet A couplet is a rhymed pair of lines. A couplet may
be written in any rhythmic pattern.
Masons, when they start upon a building,
Are careful to test out the scaffolding;
—Seamus Heaney, “Scaffolding”
See also Stanza.
Critical Essay See Essay.
Denotation A word’s denotation is its dictionary
definition.
See also Connotation.
Description Description is writing that helps a reader
to picture events, objects, and characters. To create
descriptions, writers often use imagery—words and phrases
that appeal to the reader’s senses.
Dialect A dialect is a form of a language that is spoken
in a particular place or by a particular group of people.
Dialects may feature unique pronunciations, vocabulary, and
grammar. For example, when Antonio and Felix speak to
each other in Piri Thomas’s story “Amigo Brothers,” they use
dialect that reflects their Puerto Rican community in New
York. Their dialect includes informal grammar and slang
words drawn from both American Spanish and English.
“Same here. It ain’t natural not to think about the
fight. I mean, we both are cheverote fighters, and we
both want to win.”
Dialogue Dialogue is written conversation between two or
more characters. Writers use dialogue to bring characters to
life and to give readers insights into the characters’ qualities,
traits, and reactions to other characters. In fiction, dialogue
is usually set off with quotation marks. In drama, stories are
told primarily through dialogue.
Diary A diary is a daily record of a writer’s thoughts,
experiences, and feelings. As such, it is a type of
autobiographical writing. The terms diary and journal
are often used synonymously.
Drama A drama, or play, is a form of literature meant to be
performed by actors in front of an audience. In a drama, the
characters’ dialogue and actions tell the story. The written
form of a play is known as a script. A script usually includes
R102 glossary of literary terms
dialogue, a cast of characters, and stage directions that give
instructions about performing the drama. The person who
writes the drama is known as the playwright or dramatist.
Dynamic Character See Character.
Epic Poem An epic poem is a long narrative poem about
the adventures of a hero whose actions reflect the ideals
and values of a nation or a group of people.
Essay An essay is a short work of nonfiction that deals
with a single subject. There are many types of essays. An
expository essay presents or explains information and ideas.
A personal essay usually reflects the writer’s experiences,
feelings, and personality. A persuasive essay attempts to
convince the reader to adopt a certain viewpoint. A critical
essay evaluates a situation or a work of art.
See pages 8, 494, 749.
Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea is
called an exaggeration. It is often used for purposes of
emphasis or humor. In “Sally Ann Thunder Ann Whirlwind,”
Mary Pope Osborne exaggerates Sally’s size, strength, and
cleverness to create a humorous, memorable impression of
the character.
Exposition Exposition is the first stage of a typical story
plot. The exposition provides important background
information and introduces the setting and the important
characters. The conflict the characters face may also be
introduced in the exposition, or it may be introduced later, in
the rising action.
See pages 26, 31.
See also Plot.
Expository Essay See Essay.
Extended Metaphor An extended metaphor is a figure of
speech that compares two essentially unlike things at some
length and in several ways. It does not contain the word like
or as.
See also Metaphor.
External Conflict See Conflict.
Fable A fable is a brief tale told to illustrate a moral or
teach a lesson. Often the moral of a fable appears in a
distinct and memorable statement near the tale’s beginning
or end. “The Race Between Toad and Donkey” by Roger D.
Abrahams is an example of a fable from Jamaica.
See also Moral.

Falling Action The falling action is the stage of the plot in
which the story begins to draw to a close. The falling action
comes after the climax and before the resolution. Events in
the falling action show the results of the important decision
or action that happened at the climax. Tension eases as the
falling action begins; however, the final outcome of the story
is not yet fully worked out at this stage.
See page 26.
See also Climax; Plot.
Fantasy Fantasy is a type of fiction that is highly
imaginative and portrays events, settings, or characters that
are unrealistic. The setting might be a nonexistent world,
the plot might involve magic or the supernatural, and the
characters might have superhuman powers.
Farce Farce is a type of exaggerated comedy that features
an absurd plot, ridiculous situations, and humorous dialogue.
The main purpose of a farce is to keep an audience laughing.
Comic devices typically used in farces include mistaken
identity, wordplay (such as puns and double meanings), and
exaggeration.
Fiction Fiction is prose writing that tells an imaginary
story. The writer of a fictional work might invent all the
events and characters or might base parts of the story on
real people and events. The basic elements of fiction are
plot, character, setting, and theme. Fiction includes short
stories, novellas, and novels.
See also Novel; Novella; Short Story.
Figurative Language In figurative language, words are
used in an imaginative way to express ideas that are not
literally true. “Tasha’s money is burning a hole in her pocket”
is an example of figurative language. The sentence does not
really mean that Tasha’s pocket is on fire. Instead, it means
that Tasha is anxious to spend her money. Figurative language
is used for comparison, emphasis, and emotional effect.
See pages 538, 547, 593.
See also Metaphor; Onomatopoeia; Personification; Simile.
First-Person Point of View See Point of View.
Flashback In a literary work, a flashback is an interruption
of the action to present events that took place at an earlier
time. A flashback provides information that can help a
reader better understand a character’s current situation.
Example: In “The Last Dog,” Katherine Paterson uses
flashback to explain how Brock became interested in the
“ancient fictions” and the world outside the dome.
Glossary of Literary Terms
Foil A foil is a character who provides a striking contrast to
another character. By using a foil, a writer can call attention
to certain traits possessed by a main character or simply
enhance a character by contrast. In Avi’s “What Do Fish Have
to Do with Anything?” the mother acts as a foil to the main
character, Willie.
Folklore The traditions, customs, and stories that are
passed down within a culture are known as its folklore.
Folklore includes various types of literature, such as legends,
folk tales, myths, trickster tales, and fables.
See Fable; Folk Tale; Myth.
Folk Tale A folk tale is a story that has been passed from
generation to generation by word of mouth. Folk tales
may be set in the distant past and involve supernatural
events. The characters in them may be animals, people, or
superhuman beings. “Waters of Gold” is an example of a
folk tale.
Foreshadowing Foreshadowing occurs when a writer
provides hints that suggest future events in a story.
Foreshadowing creates suspense and makes readers eager
to find out what will happen. For example, in the myth
“Icarus and Daedalus,” Daedalus’ warnings about flying
close to the sun hint at Icarus’ fate.
See pages 26, 73.
Form The structure or organization of a work of writing
is often called its form. The form of a poem includes the
arrangement of its words and lines on the page.
Free Verse Poetry without regular patterns of rhyme and
rhythm is called free verse. Some poets use free verse to
capture the sounds and rhythms of ordinary speech. The
Yesterday, I lay awake in the palm of the night.
A soft rain stole in, unhelped by any breeze,
And when I saw the silver glaze on the windows,
I started with A, with Ackerman, as it happened,
Then Baxter and Calabro, . . .
—Billy Collins, “The Names”
poem “The Names” by Billy Collins is written in free verse.
See pages 534, 541.
See also Rhyme.
Genre The term genre refers to a category in which a work
of literature is classified. The major genres in literature are
fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama.
glossary of literary terms R103
Haiku Haiku is a form of Japanese poetry in which 17
syllables are arranged in three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables.
The rules of haiku are strict. In addition to following the
syllabic count, the poet must create a clear picture that will
evoke a strong emotional response in the reader. Nature is
a particularly important source of inspiration for Japanese
haiku poets, and details from nature are often the subjects
of their poems.
On sweet plum blossoms
The sun rises suddenly.
Look, a mountain path!
—Basho
Hero A hero is a main character or protagonist in a story. In
older literary works, heroes tend to be better than ordinary
humans. They are typically courageous, strong, honorable,
and intelligent. They are protectors of society who hold
back the forces of evil and fight to make the world a better
place. In modern literature, a hero may simply be the most
important character in a story. Such a hero is often an
ordinary person with ordinary problems.
Historical Dramas Historical dramas are plays that take
place in the past and are based on real events. In many of
these plays, the characters are also based on real historical
figures. The dialogue and the action, however, are mostly
created by the playwright.
Historical Fiction A short story or a novel can be called
historical fiction when it is set in the past and includes real
places and real events of historical importance. The novel
Crispin: The Cross of Lead by Avi is an example of historical
fiction.
See page 678.
Humor Humor is a quality that provokes laughter or
amusement. Writers create humor through exaggeration,
amusing descriptions, irony, and witty and insightful
dialogue. In his essay “Breaking the Ice,” Dave Barry uses
humor to tell the story of his first date.
See pages 494, 585.
Hyperbole Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which the
truth is exaggerated for emphasis or humorous effect.
Idiom An idiom is an expression that has a meaning different
from the meaning of its individual words. For example, “to go
to the dogs” is an idiom meaning “to go to ruin.”
See page 499
R104 glossary of literary terms
Imagery Imagery consists of words and phrases that
appeal to a reader’s five senses. Writers use sensory details
to help the reader imagine how things look, feel, smell,
sound, and taste.
When the sun paints the desert
with its gold,
I climb the hills.
Wind runs round boulders, ruffles
my hair. . . .
—Pat Mora, “Gold”
See pages 538, 541, 551.
Internal Conflict See Conflict.
Interview An interview is a conversation conducted
by a writer or reporter, in which facts or statements are
elicited from another person, recorded, and then broadcast
or published. This book includes an interview with Ray
Bradbury.
See page 462.
Journal See Diary.
Legend A legend is a story handed down from the
past about a specific person, usually someone of heroic
accomplishments. Legends usually have some basis in
historical fact. Young Arthur by Robert D. San Souci is an
example of a legend.
Limerick A limerick is a short, humorous poem composed
of five lines. It usually has the rhyme scheme aabba, created
by two rhyming couplets followed by a fifth line that rhymes
with the first couplet. A limerick typically has a sing-song
rhythm.
There was an old man with a light, a
Who was dressed in a garment of white; a
He held a small candle, b
With never a handle, b
And danced all the merry long night. a
—Edward Lear
Lyric Poetry Lyric poetry is poetry that presents the
personal thoughts and feelings of a single speaker. Most
poems, other than narrative poems, are lyric poems. Lyric
poetry can be in a variety of forms and cover many subjects,
from love and death to everyday experiences. Mary Oliver’s
“Sleeping in the Forest” is an example of a lyric poem.

Memoir A memoir is a form of autobiographical writing
in which a writer shares his or her personal experiences and
observations of significant events or people. Often informal
or even intimate in tone, memoirs usually give readers
insight into the impact of historical events on people’s lives.
An American Childhood by Annie Dillard is a memoir.
See page 119.
See also Autobiography.
Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison of two things that
are basically unlike but have some qualities in common.
Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain the word like
or as. In “The Delight Song of Tsoai-Talee,” the speaker of the
poem compares himself to different things in nature, including
“a feather on the bright sky” and “the hunger of a young wolf.”
See pages 538, 593.
See also Extended Metaphor; Figurative Language; Simile.
Meter In poetry, meter is the regular pattern of stressed (´)
and unstressed ( ) syllables. Although poems have rhythm,
not all poems have regular meter. Each unit of meter is
known as a foot and is made up of one stressed syllable and
one or two unstressed syllables. Notice the meter marked in
the following lines.
The wind´ was a torrent
´ ´
of darkness ´ the gusty
among ´ interprets events in a way that makes readers doubt what he
´
trees.
The moon´ was a ghostly
´ galleon
´ ´ upon cloudy
tossed ´ in the story. The narrator may be unreliable for a number of
´
seas.
—Alfred Noyes, “The Highwayman”
See pages 536, 563.
See also Rhythm.
Minor Character See Character.
Mood Mood is the feeling or atmosphere that a writer
creates for the reader. Descriptive words, imagery, and
figurative language all influence the mood of a work. In
“Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed,” Ray Bradbury creates a
mood of fearfulness and dread.
See pages 438, 445, 593.
See also Tone.
Moral A moral is a lesson that a story teaches. A moral is
often stated at the end of a fable. For example, the stated
moral of the Liberian fable “Two Ways to Count to Ten” is “It
is not always the biggest nor the strongest, but sometimes
the cleverest who wins the prize.”
See also Fable.
Glossary of Literary Terms
Motivation See Character.
Myth A myth is a traditional story that attempts to answer
basic questions about human nature, origins of the world,
mysteries of nature, and social customs. For example,
“Prometheus” is a Greek myth that explains how humans
received the gift of fire.
Narrative Nonfiction Narrative nonfiction is writing that
reads much like fiction, except that the characters, setting,
and plot are real rather than imaginary. Narrative nonfiction
includes autobiographies, biographies, and memoirs.
Exploring the Titanic by Robert D. Ballard is an example of
narrative nonfiction.
Narrative Poetry Poetry that tells a story is called
narrative poetry. Like fiction, a narrative poem contains
characters, a setting, and a plot. It might also contain
such elements of poetry as rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and
figurative language. Ernest Lawrence Thayer’s “Casey at the
Bat” is a narrative poem.
Narrator The narrator is the voice that tells a story.
Sometimes the narrator is a character in the story. At other
times, the narrator is an outside voice created by the writer.
The narrator is not the same as the writer.
An unreliable narrator is one who tells a story or
or she is saying. An unreliable narrator is usually a character
different reasons. For example, the narrator may not have all
the facts or may be too young to understand the situation.
See also Point of View.
Nonfiction Nonfiction is writing that tells about real
people, places, and events. Unlike fiction, nonfiction is
mainly written to convey factual information. Nonfiction
includes a wide range of writing—newspaper articles,
textbooks, instructional manuals, letters, essays, biographies,
movie reviews, speeches, true-life adventure stories,
advertising, and more.
Novel A novel is a long work of fiction. Like a short story,
a novel is the product of a writer’s imagination. Because a
novel is considerably longer than a short story, a novelist can
develop the characters and story line more thoroughly.
See also Fiction.
Novella A novella is a short prose tale, or short novel. It
is longer than a short story and often teaches a moral, or
satirizes a subject.
See also Short Story; Novel.
glossary of literary terms R105
Ode An ode is a type of lyric poem that deals with serious
themes, such as justice, truth, or beauty.
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose
sounds echo their meanings, such as buzz, whisper, gargle,
and murmur. In “Amigo Brothers,” the word bong is used to
indicate the bell sounding at the beginning and end of each
round of the boxing match.
Bong! Bong! Bong! The bell sounded over and over again.
—Piri Thomas, “Amigo Brothers”
Oral Literature Oral literature consists of stories that
have been passed down by word of mouth from generation
to generation. Oral literature includes folk tales, legends,
and myths. In more recent times, some examples of oral
literature have been written down or recorded so that the
stories can be preserved.
Personal Essay See Essay.
Personification The giving of human qualities to an
animal, object, or idea is known as personification. In “Rikki-
tikki-tavi,” for example, the animals are personified. They
have conversations with each other as if they were human.
“Don’t kill me,” said Chuchundra, almost weeping.
“Rikki-tikki, don’t kill me!”
“Do you think a snake killer kills muskrats?” said
Rikki-tikki scornfully.
—Rudyard Kipling, “Rikki-tikki-tavi”
See pages 74, 538.
See also Figurative Language.
Persuasive Essay See Essay.
Play See Drama.
Playwright See Drama.
Plot The series of events in a story is called the plot. The
plot usually centers on a conflict, or struggle, faced by the
main character. The action that the characters take to solve
the problem builds toward a climax in the story. At this
point, or shortly afterward, the problem is solved and the
story ends. Most story plots have five stages: exposition,
rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
See pages 5, 24, 26, 31.
See also Climax; Exposition; Falling Action; Rising Action.
R106 glossary of literary terms
Poetry Poetry is a type of literature in which words are
carefully chosen and arranged to create certain effects.
Poets use a variety of sound devices, imagery, and figurative
language to express emotions and ideas.
See also Alliteration; Assonance; Ballad; Free Verse; Imagery;
Meter; Narrative Poetry; Rhyme; Rhythm; Stanza.
Point of View Point of view refers to how a writer chooses
to narrate a story. When a story is told from the first-person
point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and
uses first-person pronouns, such as I, me, and we. In a story
told from the third-person point of view, the narrator is not
a character. Third-person narration makes use of pronouns
such as he, she, it, and they. A writer’s choice of narrator
affects the information readers receive.
It is also important to consider whether a writer is
writing from a subjective or an objective point of view.
When writing from a subjective point of view, the writer
includes personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs. When
writing from an objective point of view, the writer leaves
out personal opinions and instead presents information in a
straightforward, unbiased way.
See pages 176, 217, 227, 748.
See also Narrator.
Prop The word prop, originally an abbreviation of the
word property, refers to any physical object that is used in a
drama. In the play based on Charles Dickens’s A Christmas
Carol, the props include a turkey and a dove.
Prose The word prose refers to all forms of writing that are
not in verse form. The term may be used to describe very
different forms of writing—short stories as well as essays,
for example.
Protagonist A protagonist is the main character in a story,
play, or novel. The protagonist is involved in the main conflict
of the story. Usually, the protagonist undergoes changes as
the plot runs its course. In “A Retrieved Reformation” by O.
Henry, Jimmy Valentine is the protagonist.
Radio Play A radio play is a drama that is written
specifically to be broadcast over the radio. Because the
audience is not meant to see a radio play, sound effects are
often used to help listeners imagine the setting and the
action. The stage directions in the play’s script indicate the
sound effects.
Recurring Theme See Theme.
Refrain A refrain is one or more lines repeated in each
stanza of a poem.
See also Stanza.

Repetition Repetition is a technique in which a sound,
word, phrase, or line is repeated for emphasis or unity.
Repetition often helps to reinforce meaning and create an
appealing rhythm. Note how the use of repetition in the
following lines emphasizes the rhythm of battle.
Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them
—Alfred, Lord Tennyson, “The Charge of
the Light Brigade”
See page 129.
See also Alliteration; Sound Devices.
Resolution See Falling Action.
Rhyme Rhyme is the repetition of sounds at the end of
words. Words rhyme when their accented vowels and the
letters that follow have identical sounds. Cat and hat rhyme,
as do feather and leather. The most common type of rhyme
in poetry is called end rhyme, in which rhyming words come
at the ends of lines. Rhyme that occurs within a line of
poetry is called internal rhyme. The following lines include
examples of end rhyme.
’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogroves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
—Lewis Carroll, “Jabberwocky”
See pages 129, 536, 563, 584.
Rhyme Scheme A rhyme scheme is a pattern of end
rhymes in a poem. A rhyme scheme is noted by assigning a
letter of the alphabet, beginning with a, to each line. Lines
that rhyme are given the same letter.
It was many and many a year ago, a There was a cool breeze blowing and a sweet smell of
In a kingdom by the sea, b mesquite fruit in the air, but I didn’t appreciate it.
That a maiden there lived whom you may know a —Marta Salinas, “The Scholarship Jacket”
By the name of Annabel Lee; b
—Edgar Allan Poe, “Annabel Lee”
See pages 555, 559.
Glossary of Literary Terms
Rhythm Rhythm is a pattern of stressed and unstressed
syllables in a line of poetry. Poets use rhythm to bring out the
musical quality of language, to emphasize ideas, and to create
moods. Devices such as alliteration, rhyme, assonance, and
consonance often contribute to creating rhythm.
See pages 129, 536.
See also Meter.
Rising Action The rising action is the stage of the plot that
develops the conflict, or struggle. During this stage, events
occur that make the conflict more complicated. The events in
the rising action build toward a climax, or turning point.
See page 26.
See also Plot.
Scene In drama, the action is often divided into acts and
scenes. Each scene presents an episode of the play’s plot
and typically occurs at a single place and time.
See also Act.
Scenery Scenery is a painted backdrop or other structures
used to create the setting for a play.
Science Fiction Science fiction is fiction in which a writer
explores unexpected possibilities of the past or the future,
using known scientific data and theories as well as his or
her creative imagination. Most science fiction writers create
believable worlds, although some create fantasy worlds that
have familiar elements. Ray Bradbury, the author of “Dark They
Were, and Golden-Eyed,” is a famous writer of science fiction.
See also Fantasy.
Screenplay A screenplay is a play written for film.
Script The text of a play, film, or broadcast is called a script.
Sensory Details Sensory details are words and phrases
that appeal to the reader’s senses of sight, hearing, touch,
smell, and taste. Note the sensory details in the following
line. These details appeal to the senses of touch and smell.
See also Imagery.
Setting The setting of a story, poem, or play is the time and
place of the action. Sometimes the setting is clear and well-
defined. At other times, it is left to the reader’s imagination.
glossary of literary terms R107
Elements of setting include geographic location, historical
period (past, present, or future), season, time of day, and culture.
See pages 5, 24, 43.
Short Story A short story is a work of fiction that centers
on a single idea and can be read in one sitting. Generally, a
short story has one main conflict that involves the characters
and keeps the story moving.
See also Fiction.
Simile A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison
between two unlike things using the word like or as.
The fingers were all there, but like dead leaves that
never fell, the ring and little fingers were rigid and
curled, the others barely moved.
—Chaim Potok, “Zebra”
See pages 184, 538.
See also Figurative Language; Metaphor.
Sonnet A sonnet is a poem that has a formal structure,
containing 14 lines and a specific rhyme scheme and meter.
The sonnet, which means “little song,” can be used for a
variety of topics.
See also Rhyme Scheme.
Sound Devices Sound devices are ways of using words
for the sound qualities they create. Sound devices can
help convey meaning and mood in a writer’s work. Some
common sound devices include alliteration, assonance,
meter, onomatopoeia, repetition, rhyme, and rhythm.
See pages 536, 555, 585.
See also Alliteration; Assonance; Meter; Onomatopoeia;
Repetition; Rhyme; Rhythm.
Speaker In poetry the speaker is the voice that “talks” to
the reader, similar to the narrator in fiction. The speaker is
not necessarily the poet. For example, in Carl Sandburg’s
“Washington Monument by Night,” the experiences
described may or may not have happened to the poet.
See pages 501, 534, 555, 837.
Speech A speech is a talk or public address. The purpose
of a speech may be to entertain, to explain, to persuade, to
inspire, or any combination of these purposes. President
John F. Kennedy’s speech “Remarks at the Dedication of the
Aerospace Medical Health Center” was written and delivered
in order to persuade his audience.
See pages 8, 929.
R108 glossary of literary terms
Stage Directions In the script of a play, the instructions
to the actors, director, and stage crew are called the stage
directions. Stage directions might suggest scenery, lighting,
sound effects, and ways for actors to move and speak. Stage
directions often appear in parentheses and in italic type.
(As soon as Scrooge shouts, the girl and the carolers
vanish and Cratchit begins to close up the shop.)
—Frederick Gaines, A Christmas Carol
See pages 7, 387.
Stanza A stanza is a group of two or more lines that form a
unit in a poem. Each stanza may have the same number of
lines, or the number of lines may vary.
See also Couplet; Form; Poetry.
Static Character See Character.
Stereotype In literature, characters who are defined by a
single trait are known as stereotypes. Such characters do
not usually demonstrate the complexities of real people.
Familiar stereotypes in popular literature include the absent-
minded professor and the busybody.
Structure The structure of a work of literature is the way
in which it is put together. In poetry, structure involves
the arrangement of words and lines to produce a desired
effect. One structural unit in poetry is the stanza. In prose,
structure involves the arrangement of such elements as
sentences, paragraphs, and events. “Dark They Were, and
Golden-Eyed,” for example, has a circular structure, in which
the end mirrors the beginning.
Style A style is a manner of writing. It involves how
something is said rather than what is said. For example, “A
Day’s Wait” by Ernest Hemingway is written in a style that
makes use of vivid verbs, precise nouns, long descriptive
sentences, and realistic dialogue.
Surprise Ending A surprise ending is an unexpected plot
twist at the end of a story. The surprise may be a sudden
turn in the action or a piece of information that gives a
different perspective to the entire story. The short story
writer O. Henry is famous for using this device.
See page 228.
Suspense Suspense is a feeling of growing tension and
excitement felt by a reader. Suspense makes a reader
curious about the outcome of a story or an event within a
story. A writer creates suspense by raising questions in the

reader’s mind. The use of foreshadowing is one way that
writers create suspense.
See pages 73, 89, 99.
See also Foreshadowing.
Symbol A symbol is a person, a place, an object, or an
activity that stands for something beyond itself. For
example, a flag is a colored piece of cloth that stands for a
country. A white dove is a bird that represents peace.
Example: In “What Do Fish Have to Do with Anything?” by
Avi, money represents happiness, opportunity, and freedom
to Willie’s mother.
See pages 339, 575.
Tall Tale A tall tale is a humorously exaggerated story
about impossible events, often involving the supernatural
abilities of the main character. Stories about folk heroes
such as Pecos Bill and Paul Bunyan are typical tall tales.
Teleplay A teleplay is a play written for television. In a
teleplay, scenes can change quickly and dramatically. The
camera can focus the viewer’s attention on specific actions.
The camera directions in teleplays are much like the stage
directions in stage plays.
See page 135.
Theme A theme is a message about life or human nature
that the writer shares with the reader. In many cases,
readers must infer what the writer’s message is. One way of
figuring out a theme is to apply the lessons learned by the
main characters to people in real life. For example, a theme
of “A Crush” by Cynthia Rylant is that simple acts of kindness
can make a positive difference in people’s lives.
Recurring themes are themes found in a variety of works.
For example, authors from different backgrounds might
express similar themes having to do with the importance of
family values. Universal themes are themes that are found
throughout the literature of all time periods. For example,
The Lord of the Rings contains a universal theme relating to
the hero’s search for truth, goodness, and honor.
See pages 5, 304, 327, 363, 381, 723.
See also Moral.
Third-Person Point of View See Point of View.
Title The title of a piece of writing is the name that is
attached to it. A title often refers to an important aspect of
the work. For example, the title “The War of the Wall” refers
to Lou and the narrator’s conflict with the “painter lady.”
Glossary of Literary Terms
Tone The tone of a literary work expresses the writer’s
attitude toward his or her subject. Words such as angry, sad,
and humorous can be used to describe different tones.
See pages 438, 495.
See also Author’s Perspective; Mood.
Tragedy A tragedy is a dramatic work that presents the
downfall of a dignified character or characters who are
involved in historically or socially significant events. The
events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision
that is often an error in judgment on the part of the
hero. Succeeding events are linked in a cause-and-effect
relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion,
usually death. William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is a
famous tragedy.
Traits See Character.
Turning Point See Climax.
Understatement Understatement is a technique of
creating emphasis by saying less than is actually or literally
true. It is the opposite of hyperbole, or exaggeration.
Understatement is often used to create a humorous effect.
Universal Theme See Theme.
Unreliable Narrator See Narrator.
Voice The term voice refers to a writer’s unique use of
language that allows a reader to “hear” a human personality
in the writer’s work. Elements of style that contribute
to a writer’s voice can reveal much about the author’s
personality, beliefs, and attitudes.
See page 18.
Word Choice The success of any writing depends on the
writer’s choice of words. Words not only communicate ideas
but also help describe events, characters, settings, and so
on. Word choice can make a writer’s work sound formal or
informal, serious or humorous. A writer must choose words
carefully depending on the goal of the piece of writing. For
example, a writer working on a science article would probably
use technical, formal words; a writer trying to establish the
setting in a short story would probably use more descriptive
words.
See also Style.
Writer’s Point of View A writer’s point of view is the
writer’s opinion about a topic.
glossary of literary terms R109
Glossary of Reading and Informational Terms
Almanac See Reference Works.
Analogy An analogy is a comparison between two things
that are alike in some way. Often, writers use analogies
in nonfiction to explain an unfamiliar subject or idea by
showing how it is like a familiar one.
Argument An argument is speaking or writing that
expresses a position on a problem and supports it with
reasons and evidence. An argument often takes into
account other points of view, anticipating and answering
objections that opponents might raise.
See also Claim; Counterargument; Evidence.
Assumption An assumption is an opinion or belief that
is taken for granted. It can be about a specific situation,
a person, or the world in general. Assumptions are often
unstated.
Author’s Message An author’s message is the main idea
or theme of a particular work.
See also Main Idea; Theme, Glossary of Literary Terms, page
R109.
Author’s Perspective See Glossary of Literary Terms, page
R100.
Author’s Position An author’s position is his or her
opinion on an issue or topic.
See also Claim; Writer’s Point of View, Glossary of Literary
Terms, page R109.
Author’s Purpose See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R100.
Autobiography See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R100.
Bias In a piece of writing, the author’s bias is the side of an
issue that he or she favors. Words with extremely positive or
negative connotations are often a signal of an author’s bias.
Bibliography A bibliography is a list of related books and
other materials used to write a text. Bibliographies can be
good sources for further study on a subject.
See also Works Consulted.
Biography See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R100.
Business Correspondence Business correspondence is
written business communications such as business letters,
e-mails, and memos. In general, business correspondence is
brief, to the point, clear, courteous, and professional.
Cause and Effect Two events are related by cause and
effect when one event brings about, or causes, the other.
R110 glossary of reading and informational terms
The event that happens first is the cause; the one that
follows is the effect. Cause and effect is also a way of
organizing an entire piece of writing. It helps writers show
the relationships between events or ideas.
See also False Cause, Reading Handbook, page R24.
Chronological Order Chronological order is the
arrangement of events by their order of occurrence. This
type of organization is used in fictional narratives and in
historical writing, biography, and autobiography.
Claim In an argument, a claim is the writer’s position on
an issue or problem. Although an argument focuses on
supporting one claim, a writer may make more than one
claim in a text.
Clarify Clarifying is a reading strategy that helps readers
understand or make clear what they are reading. Readers
usually clarify by rereading, reading aloud, or discussing.
Classification Classification is a pattern of organization
in which objects, ideas, and/or information are presented in
groups, or classes, based on common characteristics.
Cliché A cliché is an overused expression. “Better late than
never” and “hard as nails” are common examples. Good
writers generally avoid clichés unless they are using them in
dialogue to indicate something about a character’s personality.
Compare and Contrast To compare and contrast
is to identify the similarities and differences of two or
more subjects. Compare and contrast is also a pattern of
organizing an entire piece of writing.
Conclusion A conclusion is a statement of belief based on
evidence, experience, and reasoning. A valid conclusion is
one that logically follows from the facts or statements upon
which it is based.
Connect Connecting is a reader’s process of relating the
content of a text to his or her own knowledge and experience.
Consumer Documents Consumer documents are printed
materials that accompany products and services. They
usually provide information about the use, care, operation,
or assembly of the product or service they accompany. Some
common consumer documents are applications, contracts,
warranties, manuals, instructions, labels, brochures, and
schedules.
Context Clues When you encounter an unfamiliar word,
you can often use context clues to understand it. Context
clues are the words or phrases surrounding the word that
provide hints about the word’s meaning.
Counterargument A counterargument is an
argument made to oppose another argument. A good
argument anticipates opposing viewpoints and provides
counterarguments to disprove them.
Credibility Credibility is the believability or trustworthiness
of a source and the information it provides.
Critical Review A critical review is an evaluation or
critique by a reviewer, or critic. Types of reviews include film
reviews, book reviews, music reviews, and art show reviews.
Database A database is a collection of information that
can be quickly and easily accessed and searched and from
which information can be easily retrieved. It is frequently
presented in an electronic format.
Debate A debate is basically an argument—but a very
structured one that requires a good deal of preparation. In
school settings, debate usually is a formal contest in which
two opposing teams defend and attack a proposition.
See also Argument.
Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is a way
of thinking that begins with a generalization, presents a
specific situation, and then moves forward with facts and
evidence toward a logical conclusion. The following passage
has a deductive argument embedded in it: “All students
in the math class must take the quiz on Friday. Since Lana
is in the class, she had better show up.” This deductive
argument can be broken down as follows: generalization:
All students in the math class must take the quiz on Friday;
specific situation: Lana is a student who is in the math class;
conclusion: Therefore, Lana must take the math quiz.
See also Analyzing Logic and Reasoning, Reading Handbook,
pages R22–R25.
Dictionary See Reference Works.
Draw Conclusions To draw a conclusion is to make a
judgment or arrive at a belief based on evidence, experience,
and reasoning.
Editorial An editorial is an opinion piece that usually
appears on the editorial page of a newspaper or as part of
a news broadcast. The editorial section of the newspaper
presents opinions rather than objective news reports.
See also Op/Ed Piece.
Either/Or Fallacy An either/or fallacy is a statement
that suggests that there are only two choices available in a
situation when in fact there are more than two.
See also Identifying Faulty Reasoning, Reading Handbook,
page R24.
Emotional Appeals Emotional appeals are messages
that create strong feelings to make a point. An appeal to
fear is a message that taps into people’s fear of losing their
safety or security. An appeal to pity is a message that taps
into people’s sympathy and compassion for others to build
support for an idea, a cause, or a proposed action. An appeal
to vanity is a message that attempts to persuade by tapping
into people’s desire to feel good about themselves.
See also Recognizing Persuasive Techniques, Reading
Handbook, pages R21–R22.
Encyclopedia See Reference Works.
Essay See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R102.
Evaluate To evaluate is to examine something carefully
and to judge its value or worth. Evaluating is an important
skill. A reader can evaluate the actions of a particular
character, for example. A reader can also form opinions
about the value of an entire work.
Evidence Evidence is a specific piece of information that
supports a claim. Evidence can take the form of a fact, a
quotation, an example, a statistic, or a personal experience,
among other things.
Expository Essay See Essay, Glossary of Literary Terms,
page R102.
Fact Versus Opinion A fact is a statement that can be
proved, or verified. An opinion, on the other hand, is a
statement that cannot be proved because it expresses a
person’s beliefs, feelings, or thoughts.
See also Generalization; Inference.
Fallacy A fallacy is an error of reasoning. Typically, a fallacy
is based on an incorrect inference or a misuse of evidence.
See also Either/Or Fallacy; Logical Appeal;
Overgeneralization.
See also Identifying Faulty Reasoning, Reading Handbook,
page R24.
Faulty Reasoning See Fallacy.
glossary of reading & informational terms R111
Feature Article A feature article is a main article in a
newspaper or a cover story in a magazine.
Generalization A generalization is a broad statement
about a class or category of people, ideas, or things based on
a study of, or a belief about, some of its members.
See also Overgeneralization; Stereotyping.
Government Publications Government publications
are documents produced by government organizations.
Pamphlets, brochures, and reports are just some of the many
forms these publications take. Government publications can
be good resources for a wide variety of topics.
Graphic Aid A graphic aid is a visual tool that is
printed, handwritten, or drawn. Charts, diagrams, graphs,
photographs, and maps are examples of graphic aids.
See also Graphic Aids, Reading Handbook, pages R4–R7.
Graphic Organizer A graphic organizer is a “word
picture”—a visual illustration of a verbal statement—that
helps a reader understand a text. Charts, tables, webs, and
diagrams can all be graphic organizers. Graphic organizers
and graphic aids can look the same. However, graphic
organizers and graphic aids do differ in how they are used.
Graphic aids help deliver important information to students
using a text. Graphic organizers are actually created by
students themselves. They help students understand the
text or organize information.
Historical Documents Historical documents are writings
that have played a significant role in human events. The
Declaration of Independence, for example, is a historical
document.
How-To Book A how-to book explains how to do
something—usually an activity, a sport, or a household project.
Implied Main Idea See Main Idea.
Index The index of a book is an alphabetized list of
important topics covered in the book and the page numbers
on which they can be found. An index can be used to quickly
find specific information about a topic.
Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is the process
of logical reasoning that starts with observations, examples,
and facts and moves on to a general conclusion or principle.
See also Analyzing Logic and Reasoning, Reading Handbook,
pages R22–R25.
Inference An inference is a logical guess that is made
based on facts and one’s own knowledge and experience.
R112 glossary of reading & informational terms
Informational Text Informational text is writing that
provides factual information. It often explains an idea or
teaches a process. Examples include news reports, a science
textbook, software instructions, manuals, lab reports, and
signs.
Internet The Internet is a global, interconnected system
of computer networks that allows for communication
through e-mail, listservs, and the World Wide Web.
The Internet connects computers and computer users
throughout the world.
Journal A journal is a periodical publication issued by a
legal, medical, or other professional organization. The term
may also be used to refer to a diary or daily record.
Loaded Language Loaded language consists of words
with strongly positive or negative connotations, intended to
influence a reader’s or listener’s attitude.
Logical Appeal A logical appeal is a way of writing
or speaking that relies on logic and facts. It appeals to
people’s reasoning or intellect rather than to their values
or emotions. Flawed logical appeals—that is, errors in
reasoning—are called logical fallacies.
See also Fallacy.
Logical Argument A logical argument is an argument
in which the logical relationship between the support and
claim is sound.
Main Idea The main idea is the central or most important
idea about a topic that a writer or speaker conveys. It can
be the central idea of an entire work or of just a paragraph.
Often, the main idea of a paragraph is expressed in a topic
sentence. However, a main idea may just be implied, or
suggested, by details. A main idea is typically supported by
details.
Make Inferences See Inference.
Monitor Monitoring is the strategy of checking your
comprehension as you read and modifying the strategies
you are using to suit your needs. Monitoring often includes
the following strategies: questioning, clarifying, visualizing,
predicting, connecting, and rereading.
Narrative Nonfiction See Glossary of Literary Terms, page
R105.
News Article A news article is writing that reports on a
recent event. In newspapers, news articles are usually brief
and to the point, presenting the most important facts first,
followed by more detailed information.

Nonfiction See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R105.
Op/Ed Piece An op/ed piece is an opinion piece that
typically appears opposite (“op”) the editorial page of a
newspaper. Unlike editorials, op/ed pieces are written and
submitted by readers.
Organization See Pattern of Organization.
Overgeneralization An overgeneralization is a
generalization that is too broad. You can often recognize
overgeneralizations by the appearance of words and phrases
such as all, everyone, every time, any, anything, no one, or
none. An example is “None of the city’s workers really cares
about keeping the environment clean.” In all probability,
there are many exceptions. The writer can’t possibly know
the feelings of every city worker.
See also Identifying Faulty Reasoning, Reading Handbook,
page R24.
Overview An overview is a short summary of a story, a
speech, or an essay.
Paraphrase Paraphrasing is the restating of information in
one’s own words.
See also Summarize.
Pattern of Organization The term pattern of
organization refers to the way ideas and information are
arranged and organized. Patterns of organization include
cause-and-effect, chronological, compare-and-contrast,
classification, and problem-solution, among others.
See also Cause and Effect; Chronological Order;
Classification; Compare and Contrast; Problem-Solution
Order; Sequential Order.
See also Reading Informational Texts: Patterns of
Organization, Reading Handbook, pages R8–R13.
Periodical A periodical is a magazine or other publication
that is issued on a regular basis.
Personal Essay See Essay, Glossary of Literary Terms, page
R102.
Persuasion Persuasion is the art of swaying others’
feelings, beliefs, or actions. Persuasion normally appeals to
both the mind and the emotions of readers.
See also Emotional Appeals; Loaded Language; Logical
Appeal.
See also Recognizing Persuasive Techniques, Reading
Handbook, pages R21–R22.
Glossary of Reading & Informational Terms
Predict Predicting is a reading strategy that involves using
text clues to make a reasonable guess about what will
happen next in a story.
Primary Source See Sources.
Prior Knowledge Prior knowledge is the knowledge a
reader already possesses about a topic. This information
might come from personal experiences, expert accounts,
books, films, and other sources.
Problem-Solution Order Problem-solution order is a
pattern of organization in which a problem is stated and
analyzed and then one or more solutions are proposed and
examined.
Propaganda Propaganda is a form of communication that
may use false or misleading information.
Public Documents Public documents are documents
that were written for the public to provide information that
is of public interest or concern. They include government
documents, speeches, signs, and rules and regulations.
See also Government Publications.
Reference Works Reference works are sources that
contain facts and background information on a wide range
of subjects. Most reference works are good sources of
reliable information because they have been reviewed by
experts. The following are some common reference works:
encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri, almanacs, atlases, and
directories.
Review See Critical Review.
Rhetorical Questions Rhetorical questions are those that
have such obvious answers that they do not require a reply.
Writers often use them to suggest that their claim is so
obvious that everyone should agree with it.
Scanning Scanning is the process used to search through
a text for a particular fact or piece of information. When
you scan, you sweep your eyes across a page, looking for key
words that may lead you to the information you want.
Secondary Source See Sources.
Sequential Order Sequential order is a pattern of
organization that shows the order of steps or stages in a
process.
glossary of reading & informational terms R113
Setting a Purpose The process of establishing specific
reasons for reading a text is called setting a purpose.
Readers can look at a text’s title, headings, and illustrations
to guess what it might be about. They can then use these
guesses to figure out what they want to learn from reading
the text.
Sidebar A sidebar is additional information set in a box
alongside or within an article. Popular magazines often
make use of sidebars.
Signal Words In a text, signal words are words and
phrases that help show how events or ideas are related.
Some common examples of signal words are and, but,
however, nevertheless, therefore, and in addition.
Sources A source is anything that supplies information.
Primary sources are materials written by people who
witnessed or took part in an event. Letters, diaries,
autobiographies, and speeches are primary sources. Unlike
primary sources, secondary sources are made by people who
were not directly involved in an event or present when it
occurred. Encyclopedias, textbooks, biographies, and most
newspaper and magazine articles are examples of secondary
sources.
Speech See Glossary of Literary Terms, page R108.
Stereotyping Stereotyping is a dangerous type of
overgeneralization. It can lead to unfair judgments of
people based on their ethnic background, beliefs, practices,
or physical appearance.
Summarize To summarize is to briefly retell the main
ideas of a piece of writing in one’s own words.
See also Paraphrase.
Support Support is any information that helps to prove a
claim.
Supporting Detail See Main Idea.
Synthesize To synthesize information means to take
individual pieces of information and combine them in order
to gain a better understanding of a subject.
R114 glossary of reading & informational terms
Text Features Text features are elements of a text, such
as boldface type, headings, and subheadings, that help
organize and call attention to important information. Italic
type, bulleted or numbered lists, sidebars, and graphic
aids such as charts, tables, timelines, illustrations, and
photographs are also considered text features.
Thesaurus See Reference Works.
Thesis Statement A thesis statement is the main
proposition that a writer attempts to support in a piece of
writing.
Topic Sentence The topic sentence of a paragraph
states the paragraph’s main idea; all other sentences in the
paragraph provide supporting details.
Visualize Visualizing is the process of forming a mental
picture based on written or spoken information.
Web Site A Web site is a collection of “pages” on the World
Wide Web, usually devoted to one specific subject. Pages
are linked together and accessed by clicking hyperlinks or
menus, which send the user from page to page within a
Web site. Web sites are created by companies, organizations,
educational institutions, branches of the government, the
military, and individuals.
Workplace Documents Workplace documents are
materials that are produced or used within a work setting,
usually to aid in the functioning of the workplace. They
include job applications, office memos, training manuals,
job descriptions, and sales reports.
Works Cited The term works cited refers to a list of all
the works a writer has referred to in his or her text. This list
often includes not only books and articles but also Internet
sources.
Works Consulted The term works consulted refers to a list
of all the works a writer consulted in order to create his or
her text. It is not limited just to those cited in the text.
See also Bibliography.
Glossary of Vocabulary in English & Spanish
accommodations (E-kJmQE-dAPshEnz) n. rooms and food,
especially in a hotel or on a ship or train
alojamiento s. habitaciones para que duerman y coman
viajeros en hoteles, barcos o trenes
accost (E-kôstP) v. to approach a person and speak
unpleasantly or aggressively
importunar v. acercarse a una persona y hablarle de modo
desagradable o agresivo
adjoining (E-joiPnGng) adj. next to or in contact with adjoin v.
colindante adj. al lado; contiguo colindar v.
aghast (E-gBstP) adj. struck by terror or amazement
aterrado adj. espantado; sobresaltado
agile (BjPEl) adj. quick and light in movement
ágil adj. que puede moverse con facilidad
agitator (BjPG-tA’tEr) n. someone who stirs up people to
support a cause
agitador s. persona que exhorta a apoyar una causa
amenable (E-mCPnE-bEl) adj. open; agreeable
dispuesto adj. que está de acuerdo
anecdotal (Bn’Gk-dItPl) adj. based on observations rather
than scientific analysis
anecdótico adj. basado en observaciones más que en
análisis científico
anonymous (E-nJnPE-mEs) adj. having an unknown or
withheld name
anónimo adj. de nombre desconocido u oculto
antagonism (Bn-tBgPE-nGz’Em) n. hostility; unfriendliness
antagonismo s. hostilidad; oposición
appalling (E-pôPlGng) adj. outrageous; terrible appall v.
terrible adj. espantoso; atroz
aptitude (BpPtG-tLd’) n. natural ability
aptitud s. habilidad natural
aquatic (E-kwBtPGk) adj. growing or living in the water
acuático adj. que crece o vive en el agua
aroma (E-rIPmE) n. a smell; odor
aroma s. olor, generalmente agradable
artisan (ärPtG-zEn) n. a person who is skilled in a trade
artesano s. persona que hace objetos a mano siguiendo
un método tradicional
ascend (E-sDndP) v. to go or move upward; rise
ascender v. subir
assent (E-sDntP) n. agreement
asentimiento s. acuerdo
automated (ôPtE-mA’tGd) adj. able to function with little or
no assistance from people automate v.
automatizado adj. que funciona por su cuenta con poca
ayuda humana automatizar v.
bacterium (bBk-tîrPC-Em) n. the singular form of bacteria,
microscopically small living things that may cause disease
bacteria s. organismo microscópico que puede causar
enfermedades
balk (bôk) v. to refuse to move or act
resistirse v. rehusarse
barrage (bE-räzhP) n. a rapid, heavy attack
descarga s. sucesión rápida de golpes o balas
barren (bBrPEn) adj. empty; lacking interest or charm
estéril adj. vacío; sin interés o encanto
beckon (bDkPEn) v. to summon or call, usually by a gesture
or nod
llamar v. atraer con un gesto
bedlam (bDdPlEm) n. a noisy confusion
pandemonio s. confusión y ruido
bemused (bG-myLzdP) adj. confused
desconcertado adj. confuso
brevity (brDvPG-tC) n. shortness
brevedad s. concisión
brooding (brLPdGng) adj. full of worry; troubled brood v.
inquietante adj. pertubador; preocupante inquietar v.
brusque (brOsk) adj. abrupt or blunt in speaking
brusco adj. abrupto o contundente al hablar
buoyancy (boiPEn-sC) n. the ability to remain afloat in
liquid
flotabilidad s. capacidad de flotar en un líquido
camouflage (kBmPE-fläzh’) v. to disguise or portray falsely
in order to conceal
camuflar v. disfrazar o disimular
capitalize (kBpPG-tl-Fz’) v. to take advantage of
capitalizar v. sacar provecho
glossary of vocabulary R115
carcass (kärPkEs) n. the dead body of an animal
cadáver s. esqueleto de animal muerto
cascade (kB-skAdP) n. a waterfall or something that
resembles a waterfall
cascada s. caída de agua
contorted (kEn-tôrPtGd) adj. twisted or strained out of
shape contort v.
contorsionado adj. torcido contorsionar v.
contour (kJnPtMr’) n. the outline of a figure or body
contorno s. conjunto de líneas que limitan una figura

chafe (chAf) v. to irritate by rubbing conventional (kEn-vDnPshE-nEl) adj. usual; traditional

rozar v. frotar e irritar convencional adj. usual; tradicional

chaotic (kA’JtPGk) adj. confused; disordered converge (kEn-vûrjP) v. to come together

caótico adj. confuso; desordenado convergir v. unirse

cherish (chDrPGsh) v. to care for deeply
apreciar v. querer; valorar
chronicle (krJnPG-kEl) n. a record of historical events in the
order in which they took place
crónica s. registro de sucesos históricos en el orden en que
se dan
convivial (kEn-vGvPC-El) adj. enjoying the company of
others; sociable
cordial adj. sociable; simpático
convoluted (kJnPvE-lL’tGd) adj. difficult to understand;
complicated
enrollado adj. difícil de entender; complicado

claret (klBrPGt) adj. dark red cope (kIp) v. to struggle with and overcome
granate adj. color vino tinto superar v. hacer frente y vencer

clarity (klBrPG-tC) n. clearness of mind copious (kIPpC-Es) adj. more than enough; plentiful
claridad s. lucidez copioso adj. abundante

cohort (kIPhôrt’) n. a companion or associate covey (kOvPC) n. a small group or flock of birds, especially
compinche s. compañero o socio partridges or quail
nidada s. grupo de aves, especialmente de perdices o
commence (kE-mDnsP) v. to start or begin codornices
comenzar v. empezar
cower (kouPEr) v. to crouch or shrink down in fear
compassionate (kEm-pBshPE-nGt) adj. wanting to help encogerse v. doblarse con miedo
those who suffer
compasivo adj. que siente pena por los que sufren y desea croon (krLn) v. to sing softly
ayudar canturrear v. cantar suavemente

compensation (kJm’pEn-sAPshEn) n. payment culminate (kOlPmE-nAt’) v. to reach the highest point or

remuneración s. pago degree
culminar v. llegar a su momento o grado más alto
compulsory (kEm-pOlPsE-rC) adj. forced; required
obligatorio adj. forzoso cumbersome (kOmPbEr-sEm) adj. awkward; hard to
manage
consensus (kEn-sDnPsEs) n. general agreement incómodo adj. pesado y díficil de manejar
consenso s. acuerdo general
cunning (kOnPGng) adj. skillful, clever
consolation (kJn’sE-lAPshEn) n. a comfort astuto adj. ingenioso, listo
consuelo s. alivio
cunningly (kOnPGng-lC) adv. in a clever way that is meant to
contemplate (kJnPtEm-plAtQ) v. to consider carefully and at trick or deceive
length astutamente adv. de modo ingenioso con el fin de
contemplar v. considerar con atención engañar

R116 glossary of vocabulary


currency (kûrPEn-sC) n. money
moneda s. dinero
cynically (sGnPG-kEl-lC) adv. in a way that shows mistrust in
the motives of others
cínicamente adv. con desconfianza de los motivos ajenos
daunting (dônPtGng) adj. frightening; intimidating daunt v.
sobrecogedor adj. desalentador; asustador sobrecoger v.
decimate (dDsPE-mAt’) v. to kill or destroy a large part of
diezmar v. matar o destruir una gran parte
decoy (dCPkoi’) n. a person or thing used to distract others
or lead them in a different direction
señuelo s. persona o cosa que se usa para distraer o
desviar
deference (dDfPEr-Ens) n. respect and honor
deferencia s. respeto y honor
defiant (dG-fFPEnt) adj. willing to stand up to opposition; bold
desafiante adj. que confronta oposición
demeaning (dG-mCPnGng) adj. lowering one’s dignity or
standing demean v.
degradante adj. que reduce la dignidad o posición de una
persona degradar v.
demonize (dCPmE-nFz’) v. to give evil, demonic qualities to
demonizar v. atribuir características muy negativas
despair (dG-spârP) v. to lose hope
desesperar v. perder la esperanza
detached (dG-tBchtP) adj. separated; disconnected detach v.
separado adj. alejado; distanciado separar v.
devastating (dDvPE-stAQtGng) adj. very effective in causing
pain or destruction devastate v.
devastador adj. que causa gran dolor o destrucción
devastar v.
diffuse (dG-fyLzP) v. to spread out or through
difundir v. difuminar; diseminar
disarray (dGs’E-rAP) n. a state of disorder; confusion
desorganización s. desorden; confusión
disciplinarian (dGs’E-plE-nârPC-En) n. someone who
enforces strict discipline, or rules
ordenancista s. persona que impone reglas estrictas de
orden y disciplina
Glossary of Vocabulary
discreetly (dG-skrCtPlC) adv. in a manner that shows caution
and good judgment
discretamente adv. de modo moderado y sensato
disembodied (dGs’Dm-bJPdCd) adj. separated from or
lacking a body disembody v.
incorpóreo adj. que no tiene cuerpo
disillusionment (dGs’G-lLPzhEn-mEnt) n. disappointment;
loss of hope
desilusión s. decepción; pérdida de la esperanza
dismay (dGs-mAP) n. distress caused by trouble or
something unexpected
consternación s. angustia por problemas o por sucesos
inesperados
dismount (dGs-mountP) v. to get down or off
desmontarse v. bajarse
disorientation (dGs-ôr’C-Dn-tAPshEn) n. mental confusion
or impaired awareness
desorientación s. confusión mental
dispel (dG-spDlP) v. to get rid of
disipar v. hacer desaparecer
dissenter (dG-sDnPtEr) n. one who disagrees or holds a
different opinion
disidente s. el que no está de acuerdo o tiene una opinión
distinta
dissuade (dG-swAdP) v. to persuade not to do something
disuadir v. convencer de no hacer algo
dominate (dJmPE-nAt’) v. to have control over
dominar v. mandar
dwindle (dwGnPdl) v. to become less, until little remains
disminuir v. reducir hasta que no queda casi nada
eavesdrop (CvzPdrJp’) v. to listen secretly to a private
conversation of others
fisgonear v. escuchar en secreto conversaciones privadas
ecosystem (CPkI-sGs’tEm) n. a physical environment, such
as an ocean, and the community of things that live in it
ecosistema s. ambiente físico, como un océano, y las
comunidades que viven en él
eloquence (DlPE-kwEns) n. forceful, convincing speech or
writing
elocuencia s. facultad de hablar o escribir de modo
convincente
glossary of vocabulary R117
elusive (G-lLPsGv) adj. tending to elude capture
evasivo adj. escurridizo; difícil de capturar
eminent (DmPE-nEnt) adj. famous; well-respected
eminente adj. muy famoso
endeavor (Dn-dDvPEr) n. purposeful or serious activity;
enterprise
empeño s. esfuerzo serio y resuelto
entitlement (Dn-tFtPl-mEnt) n. the state of having a right or
claim to something
derecho s. prerrogativa o atribución
epidemic (Dp’G-dDmPGk) n. an outbreak of a disease that
spreads quickly among many people
epidemia s. enfermedad que ataca a mucha gente al
mismo tiempo
evasive (G-vAPsGv) adj. tending or trying to avoid
evasivo adj. que tiende a evitar
evidently (DvPG-dEnt-lC) adv. obviously; clearly
evidentemente adv. obviamente; claramente
excess (Gk-sDsP) adj. too much or too many
excesivo adj. que tiene demasiado
exhilarating (Gg-zGlPE-rA’tGng) adj. stimulating; making one
feel thrilled or inspired exhilarate v.
estimulante adj. tonificante; que hace sentir entusiasmo
estimular v.
exuberantly (Gg-zLPbEr-Ent-lC) adv. in a manner showing
enthusiasm or joy
exuberantemente adv. con mucho entusiasmo o alegría
falsify (fôlPsE-fF’) v. to make false by adding to or changing
falsificar v. falsear
ferocity (fE-rJsPG-tC) n. fierceness; extreme intensity
ferocidad s. fiereza; extrema intensidad
fester (fDsPtEr) v. to become an increasing source of
irritation or poisoning
enconarse v. volverse más irritante o venenoso
feverishly (fCPvEr-Gsh-lC) adv. in a way marked by intense
emotion or activity
febrilmente adv. con intensa emoción o actividad
flail (flAl) v. to wave wildly
agitar v. ondear fuertemente
R118 glossary of vocabulary
fledgling (flDjPlGng) n. a young bird that has recently grown
its flight feathers
polluelo s. pichón que acaba de echar plumas
flimsy (flGmPzC) adj. not solid or strong
ligero adj. insubstancial; débil
flinching (flGnPchGng) n. drawing back from difficulty or
danger flinch v.
reculada s. titubeo; vacilación recular v.
forage (fôrPGj) v. to search around for food or other supplies
hurgar v. buscar lo que se necesita, especialmente
alimento
foray (fôrPA’) n. a trip into an unknown area
incursión s. viaje a un territorio desconocido
forerunner (fôrPrOn’Er) n. person or thing that came before
precursor s. persona o cosa que precede algo que se
desarrollará más tarde
foresighted (fôrPsF’tGd) adj. having the ability to anticipate
the future and prepare for it
visionario adj. que anticipa el futuro y se prepara
forlorn (fEr-lôrnP) adj. appearing lonely or sad
desdichado adj. de aspecto triste y solo
frail (frAl) adj. delicate; weak and fragile
frágil adj. delicado; débil
fray (frA) n. a fight; a heated dispute
refriega s. lucha
gait (gAt) n. a manner of walking or moving on foot
paso s. modo de andar
gaunt (gônt) adj. thin and bony
enjuto adj. delgado y huesudo
genially (jCnPyEl-lC) adv. in a pleasant, friendly manner
cordialmente adv. de modo amistoso
ghastly (gBstPlC) adj. terrifyingly horrible
espantoso adj. horrendo
gigantic (jF-gBnPtGk) adj. extremely large
gigantesco adj. enorme
glinty (glGnPtC) adj. sparkling
destellante adj. brillante
grave (grAv) adj. solemn and dignified
grave adj. solemne y digno

grievous (grCPvEs) adj. painful; serious
penoso adj. doloroso; serio
grimace (grGmPGs) v. to twist one’s face to show pain or
disgust
hacer una mueca v. retorcer la cara de dolor o desagrado
hierarchy (hFPE-rär’kC) n. an organization of people
according to rank
jerarquía s. organización por rango
homage (hJmPGj) n. a display of loyalty and respect
homenaje s. demostración de lealtad y respeto
humor (hyLPmEr) v. to give in to the wishes of
llevar la corriente v. acceder; satisfacer
hustle (hOsPEl) v. to gain by energetic effort
conseguir v. obtener con mucho esfuerzo
impairment (Gm-pârPmEnt) n. the condition of being
damaged, injured, or harmed
deterioro s. daño o herida
impasse (GmPpBs’) n. a situation in which no progress can
be made; a deadlock
impasse s. situación en que no se avanza; punto muerto
impetus (GmPpG-tEs) n. a driving force; a motivation
ímpetu s. fuerza motriz; motivación
impoverished (Gm-pJvPEr-Gsht) adj. very poor impoverish v.
empobrecido adj. muy pobre empobrecer v.
improbable (Gm-prJbPE-bEl) adj. not likely
improbable adj. poco probable
improvise (GmPprE-vFzQ) v. to make up on the spur of the
moment, without preparation
improvisar v. inventar en el momento
inadvertence (Gn’Ed-vûrPtns) n. a lack of attention;
carelessness
inadvertencia s. descuido; omisión
incoherent (Gn’kI-hîrPEnt) adj. confused; lacking logical
connections
incoherente adj. confuso; carente de conexiones lógicas
inconsolable (Gn’kEn-sIPlE-bEl) adj. impossible or difficult
to comfort
inconsolable adj. que no se puede consolar
Glossary of Vocabulary
incredulously (Gn-krDjPE-lEs-lC) adv. in a way that shows
doubt or disbelief
incrédulamente adj. con incredulidad
incriminate (Gn-krGmPE-nAt’) v. to cause to appear guilty
incriminar v. hacer parecer culpable
indefinitely (Gn-dDfPE-nGt-lC) adv. for an unlimited length
of time
indefinidamente adv. por un tiempo ilimitado
inevitably (Gn-DvPG-tE-blC) adv. unavoidably; without fail
inevitablemente adv. que no se puede evitar; sin falta
infinitely (GnPfE-nGt-lC) adv. extremely; greatly
infinitamente adv. sumamente; enormemente
infuriated (Gn-fyMrPC-A’tGd) adj. very angry infuriate v.
enfurecido adj. furioso enfurecer v.
inscription (Gn-skrGpPshEn) n. something written, carved, or
engraved on a surface
inscripción s. cosa escrita, tallada o gravada en una
superficie
insinuation (Gn-sGn’yL-APshEn) n. a suggestion or hint
intended to insult
insinuación s. manera sutil de insultar
insolently (GnPsE-lEnt-lC) adv. boldly and insultingly
insolentemente adv. de modo grosero
integrated (GnPtG-grA’tGd) adj. open to people of all races
and groups integrate v.
integrado adj. abierto a personas de todas las razas o
grupos étnicos integrar v.
integrity (Gn-tDgPrG-tC) n. honesty or sincerity
integridad s. honestidad o sinceridad
intricate (GnPtrG-kGt) adj. arranged in a complex way;
elaborate
intrincado adj. presentado de una manera compleja;
elaborado
ironically (F-rJnPGk-lC) adv. in a way that is contrary to what
is expected or intended
irónicamente adv. de manera contraria a lo esperado
jauntily (jônPtE-lC) adv. in a light and carefree way
gallardamente adv. de manera ligera y despreocupada
jostling (jJsPE-lGng) n. roughly bumping, pushing, or
shoving jostle v.
empujón s. empellón empujar v.
glossary of vocabulary R119
languish (lBngPgwGsh) v. to remain unattended or be
neglected
languidecer v. debilitarse o perder fuerza por abandono
lanky (lBngPkC) adj. tall and thin
largirucho adj. alto y flaco
linger (lGngPgEr) v. to continue to stay; delay leaving
vacilar v. quedarse; tardar en partir
masterpiece (mBsPtEr-pCsQ) n. a great work of art
obra maestra s. obra de arte magistral
melancholy (mDlPEn-kJl’C) n. sadness; depression
melancolía s. tristeza; depresión
merge (mûrj) v. to blend together
combinarse v. unirse
metabolism (mG-tBbPE-lGz’Em) n. all the processes a living
thing uses to continue to grow and live
metabolismo s. conjunto de procesos que se producen en
las células de los seres vivos
migrant (mFPgrEnt) adj. moving from place to place
migratorio adj. que se muda de un sitio a otro
mistrust (mGs-trOstP) v. to think of without confidence or
trust
desconfiar v. no tener confianza
moderate (mJdPEr-Gt) adj. not excessive or extreme;
average
moderado adj. mediano; módico
muse (myLz) v. to say thoughtfully
contemplar v. decir de modo pensativo
novelty (nJvPEl-tC) n. something new, original, or unusual
novedad s. algo nuevo, original o inusual
oblige (E-blFjP) v. to force; require
obligar v. forzar; requerir
optimistic (Jp’tE-mGsPtGk) adj. hopeful about the future
optimista adj. con esperanzas del futuro
partisan (pärPtG-zEn) adj. relating to or in support of one
political party
partidario adj. que apoya un partido político
patriarch (pAPtrC-ärk’) n. a male head of a family
patriarca s. hombre jefe de familia
R120 glossary of vocabulary
pendulum (pDnPjE-lEm) n. a weight hung so that it can
swing freely, sometimes used in timing the workings of
certain clocks
péndulo s. cuerpo que oscila libremente usado para
regular el movimiento de las manecillas de los relojes
pensively (pDnPsGv-lC) adv. thoughtfully
pensativamente adv. reflexivamente
perception (pEr-sDpPshEn) n. insight; ability to understand
people and situations
percepción s. comprensión; capacidad de entender
personas y situaciones
perfunctorily (pEr-fOngkPtE-rG-lC) adv. in a mechanical or
unconcerned way
mecánicamente adv. superficialmente; como por
obligación
perilously (pDrPE-lEs-lC) adv. dangerously
arriesgadamente adv. peligrosamente
perpetual (pEr-pDchPL-El) adj. continual; unending
perpetuo adj. eterno; sin fin
piously (pFPEs-lC) adv. religiously; in a manner showing
reverence or respect
piadosamente adv. devotamente; de modo reverente y
respetuoso
portly (pôrtPlC) adj. stout or overweight
corpulento adj. grueso o con exceso de peso
posterity (pJ-stDrPG-tC) n. future generations
posteridad s. generaciones futuras
precipitous (prG-sGpPG-tEs) adj. very steep
escarpado adj. muy pendiente
predatory (prDdPE-tôr’C) adj. given to stealing from or
hurting others for one’s own gain
rapaz adj. propenso a robar o hacer daño por beneficio
propio
preoccupied (prC-JkPyE-pFdQ) adj. lost in thought; distracted
absorto adj. ensimismado; distraído
presentable (prG-zDnPtE-bEl) adj. fit to be seen by people
presentable adj. en condiciones de ser visto
prestigious (prD-stCPjEs) adj. having a high reputation
prestigioso adj. que tiene renombre o importancia

prime (prFm) adj. first in quality or value
óptimo adj. de primera calidad o valor
prominent (prJmPE-nEnt) adj. well-known; widely
recognized
prominente adj. bien conocido; reconocido en muchas
partes
prophecy (prJfPG-sC) n. a prediction of the future
profecía s. predicción del futuro
proponent (prE-pIPnEnt) n. a person who supports
something
defensor s. el que apoya una posición
prospective (prE-spDkPtGv) adj. likely to be or become
potencial adj. posible
punctual (pOngkPchL-El) adj. on time; prompt
puntual adj. a tiempo
puny (pyLPnC) adj. weak and small
enclenque adj. débil y raquítico
quiver (kwGvPEr) v. to shake with a slight, rapid movement
temblar v. vibrar con un movimiento rápido y sutil
radar (rAPdär) n. a method of detecting distant objects
through the use of radio waves
radar s. método de detectar objetos distantes por medio
de ondas de radio
rampage (rBmPpAj’) n. a wild or violent outbreak
alboroto s. tumulto violento
rash (rBsh) adj. reckless and careless
precipitado adj. impetuoso e imprudente
rationality (rBsh’E-nBlPG-tC) n. reasonableness
racionalidad s. lógica; conformidad con la razón
raucous (rôPkEs) adj. loud and harsh-sounding
escandaloso adj. fuerte y estridente
recede (rG-sCdP) v. to become fainter or more distant
desvanecerse v. alejarse
recessed (rCPsDst’) adj. set-in or set back recess v.
empotrado adj. metido en la pared empotrar v.
reclaim (rG-klAmP) v. to get back; recover
recuperar v. recobrar
recurrence (rG-kûrPEns) n. the act of happening again;
return
reaparición s. repetición; regreso
Glossary of Vocabulary
redeem (rG-dCmP) v. to set free
redimir v. liberar
redundant (rG-dOnPdEnt) adj. not needed; more than
necessary
redundante adj. más de lo necesario
reel (rCl) v. to feel unsteady or dizzy
tambalearse v. sentirse mareado
rehabilitate (rC’hE-bGlPG-tAt’) v. to restore to useful life, as
through therapy and education
rehabilitar v. restaurar a través de terapia y educación
renounce (rG-nounsP) v. to give up
renunciar v. dejar o abandonar
reproof (rG-prLfP) n. criticism for a fault
reprobación s. crítica por una falta
retaliate (rG-tBlPC-At’) v. to get revenge; get even
vengarse v. tomar represalias
retort (rG-tôrtP) v. to reply sharply
replicar v. contestar con brusquedad
retribution (rDt’rE-byLPshEn) n. punishment for bad
behavior
castigo s. pena al que ha cometido una falta
revelation (rDv’E-lAPshEn) n. something made known
revelación s. algo que se da a conocer
revere (rG-vîrP) v. to honor or worship
venerar v. honrar o adorar
revert (rG-vûrtP) v. to return to a former condition
revertir v. regresar a una condición anterior
revive (rG-vFvP) v. to return to life or consciousness
revivir v. recobrar la conciencia; despertarse
righteous (rFPchEs) adj. based on one’s sense of what is
right
recto adj. correcto; honrado
saunter (sônPtEr) v. to stroll in a casual manner
pasear v. caminar lentamente
scrutiny (skrLtPn-C) n. close examination or study
examen s. estudio detallado
sever (sDvPEr) v. to cut off or apart
cortar v. separar
glossary of vocabulary R121
shanty (shBnPtC) n. a rundown house; a shack
choza s. casucha
sheepishly (shCPpGsh-lC) adv. with a bashful or
embarrassed look
tímidamente adv. con una expresión tímida o
avergonzada
shrewdly (shrLdPlC) adv. wisely; in a clever way
astutamente adv. inteligentemente; con astucia
shuffle (shOfPEl) v. to slide the feet along the ground while
walking
arrastrar los pies v. rozar el suelo con los pies al caminar
simultaneously (sF’mEl-tAPnC-Es-lC) adv. at the same time
simultáneamente adv. al mismo tiempo
singe (sGnj) v. to burn lightly
chamuscar v. quemar en la superficie
slack (slBk) adj. not firm or tight; loose
flojo adj. fláccido
smugly (smOgPlC) adv. in a self-satisfied way
presumidamente adv. con satisfacción vanidosa
snag (snBg) v. to catch and tear
enganchar v. agarrarse y romperse
somber (sJmPbEr) adj. serious; gloomy
sombrío adj. serio; triste
specify (spDsPE-fF’) v. to make known or identify
especificar v. detallar o identificar
speculate (spDkPyE-lAt’) v. to view or consider different
possibilities; to guess what might happen
especular v. pensar en distintas posibilidades; imaginar lo
que puede pasar
spherical (sfîrPG-kEl) adj. having the shape of a sphere or
round ball
esférico adj. con forma de esfera o de pelota
squander (skwJnPdEr) v. to waste
derrochar v. malgastar
stance (stBns) n. posture; position
postura s. posición
subservient (sEb-sûrPvC-Ent) adj. humble and obedient
obsequioso adj. humilde y obediente
R122 glossary of vocabulary
subtly (sOtPlC) adv. not obviously; in a manner hard to
notice or perceive
sutilmente adv. veladamente; con discreción
sustain (sE-stAnP) v. to keep up; to support
sustentar v. preservar; mantener
tantalizing (tBnPtE-lF’zGng) adj. tempting but out of reach
tantalize v.
tentador adj. que inspira interés sin satisfacer tentar v.
taskmaster (tBskPmBs’tEr) n. a person who sets tasks for
others to do
supervisor s. persona que reparte tareas
taunt (tônt) v. to make fun of
burlar v. provocar con burlas; ridiculizar
taut (tôt) adj. not loose or flabby
tirante adj. tenso; terso
tawny (tôPnC) adj. a warm, sandy shade of brownish orange
leonado adj. color pardo rojizo
tedious (tCPdC-Es) adj. tiresome; boring
tedioso adj. aburrido
terse (tûrs) adj. speaking little; communicating in few words
seco adj. lacónico; que se comunica con pocas palabras
threshold (thrDshPIldQ) n. a doorway or entrance
umbral s. entrada
torrent (tôrPEnt) n. a violent, rushing stream
torrente s. corriente rápida y veloz
trance (trBns) n. a condition of daydreaming or being
unconscious of one’s surroundings
trance s. ensoñación; ensimismamiento
translucent (trBns-lLPsEnt) adj. allowing light to pass
through
translúcido adj. que deja pasar la luz
travesty (trBvPG-stC) n. a degraded or grotesque likeness
parodia s. imitación burlesca de una cosa seria; distorsión
unbridled (On-brFdPld) adj. lacking restraint or control
desenfrenado adj. sin restricciones
unison (yLPnG-sEn) n. harmony or agreement; as with one
voice
unísono s. armonía o acuerdo; dicho con una voz

unperceived (On-pEr-sCvdP) adj. not seen or noticed
desapercibido adj. no visto
unperturbed (On’pEr-tûrbdP) adj. not troubled or distressed
impasible adj. que no se molesta
upstart (OpPstärt’) adj. suddenly risen to wealth or power
advenedizo adj. arribista
urgency (ûrPjEn-sC) n. a condition of pressing importance;
necessity
urgencia s. gran necesidad
usher (OshPEr) v. to guide in a certain direction
conducir v. llevar en cierta dirección
valiant (vBlPyEnt) adj. brave; courageous
valiente adj. valeroso
varmint (värPmGnt) n. a troublesome person or wild animal
alimaña s. persona o animal que causa problemas
veer (vîr) v. to change direction; to shift
virar s. cambiar de dirección; dar un viraje
vehemently (vCPE-mEnt-lC) adv. forcefully
vehementemente adv. de modo apasionado
venerable (vDnPEr-E-bEl) adj. deserving respect because of
age, character, or importance
venerable adj. que merece respeto por edad, carácter o
importancia
Glossary of Vocabulary
vengeance (vDnPjEns) n. the infliction of punishment in
return for an offense
venganza s. imposición de castigo por una ofensa
vile (vFl) adj. disgusting; unpleasant
repugnante adj. desagrable; asqueroso
virtuous (vûrPchL-Es) adj. morally good; honorable
virtuoso adj. de buen carácter moral; honorable
visceral (vGsPEr-El) adj. instinctive
visceral adj. instintivo
voracious (vô-rAPshEs) adj. possessing an insatiable desire;
greedy
voraz adj. que tiene un deseo insaciable; glotón
wavering (wAPvEr-Gng) adj. hesitating between two choices
waver v.
vacilante adj. que duda entre dos alternativas vacilar v.
wince (wGns) v. to draw back, as in pain or distress
estremecerse v. encogerse o contraerse por dolor
writhe (rFth) v. to twist or move painfully
retorcerse v. contorsionarse de dolor
glossary of vocabulary R123