energies

Article
Origin of Bypass Diode Fault in c-Si Photovoltaic
Modules: Leakage Current under High
Surrounding Temperature
Woo Gyun Shin 1 , Suk Whan Ko 1 , Hyung Jun Song 1,2 , Young Chul Ju 1 , Hye Mi Hwang 1 and
Gi Hwan Kang 1, *
1 Photovoltaics Laboratory, New and Renewable Energy Institute, Korea Institute of Energy Research, 152
Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34129, Korea; swghero@kier.re.kr (W.G.S.); korea19@kier.re.kr (S.W.K.);
hj.song@seoultech.ac.kr (H.J.S.); ycju@kier.re.kr (Y.C.J.); hyemi@kier.re.kr (H.M.H.)
2 Department of Safety Engineering, Seoul National University of Science & Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro,
Nowon-gu, Seoul 01811, Korea
* Correspondence: ghkang@kier.re.kr; Tel.: +82-42-860-3418




Received: 13 August 2018; Accepted: 11 September 2018; Published: 12 September 2018


Abstract: Bypass diodes have been widely utilized in crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaic (PV)
modules to maximize the output of a PV module array under partially shaded conditions. A Schottky
diode is used as the bypass diode in c-Si PV modules due to its low operating voltage. In this
work, we systematically investigated the origin of bypass diode faults in c-Si PV modules operated
outdoors. The temperature of the inner junction box where the bypass diode is installed increases
as the ambient temperature increases. Its temperature rises to over 70 ◦ C on sunny days in summer.
As the temperature of the junction box increases from 25 to 70 ◦ C, the leakage current increases up to
35 times under a reverse voltage of 15 V. As a result of the high leakage current of the bypass diode at
high temperature, melt down of the junction barrier between the metal and semiconductor has been
observed in damaged diodes collected from abnormally functioning PV modules. Thus, it is believed
that the constant leakage current applied to the junction caused the melting of the junction, thereby
resulting in a failure of both the bypass diode and the c-Si PV module.

Keywords: bypass diode of PV module; temperature inside the junction box; leakage current; diode
junction melt

1. Introduction
The bypass diode installed in the junction box of a crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaic (PV)
module is a necessary component used to improve reliability by protecting against hot spots and
by reducing losses caused by shading. The hotspots referred to here, occur under reverse voltage
generated by mismatched current from solar cells caused by partial shading. The hotspot could
damage the junction of a solar cell and the temperature of the solar cell rises locally. Even worse, the PV
module can be irreversibly damaged by these hotspots [1,2]. As c-Si solar cells are connected in series
in the PV module, the current and output are greatly reduced when some solar cells among a string are
shaded without bypass diodes in the PV module [3,4]. Under such a condition, bypass diodes allow the
mismatched current to bypass the cell-string and/or module array that is partially shaded. Therefore,
the bypass diode can protect the cell and module under shading. Moreover, the installation of a bypass
diode in the PV module results in superior performance under shaded conditions by setting a new
maximum power point (MPP) within a few seconds [5,6]. To minimize output losses and prevent
hotspots caused by shading, intensive studies have been conducted to improve the performance of the
PV module and system. The outputs were compared by configurating a PV cell based on the nonlinear

Energies 2018, 11, 2416; doi:10.3390/en11092416 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2416 2 of 11

I–V characteristics of a solar cell, KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law), and KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law)
or the series and parallel connection of the solar cells [7,8]. Furthermore, the I–V characteristics of
the PV module and arrays by the configuration of bypass diodes and shading ratio were calculated
from a conventional simulation tool [9,10]. Additionally, it has been reported that developing a new
type of bypass diode or circuit, the electrical and thermal characteristics of the PV module were
improved [11,12]. Moreover, studies on various configurations of PV array have been carried out
to improve output loss under partial shading [13,14]. Furthermore, the output characteristics of the
solar cells and PV module under shading have been analyzed. Under shaded conditions, the output
characteristics of the PV module are affected by reverse bias characteristics (including the avalanche
effect, breakdown voltage, and so on) and type of solar cell [15,16]. Mathematical models to mimic
those characteristics were developed and experiments were conducted to analyze the I–V and P–V
curves of the PV module and system under partial shading [17–19].
Among various kinds of diodes, Schottky diodes have a low threshold voltage in forward bias
and good switching characteristics. For these reasons, they are widely used as bypass diodes for
PV modules and can protect PV modules, even in cases of minute mismatches of current. However,
because the breakdown voltage under reverse bias is 60–100 V, the diode can be easily damaged by
instantaneous high voltage such as that which occurs during a surge (e.g., lightning) [20,21]. It has also
been reported that high temperature causes thermal runaway and damages the bypass diodes [22,23].
As a result of these characteristics of bypass diodes, the failure rate of bypass diodes installed outdoors
was found to be 593 of 1272 modules (47%), according to a report by a Japanese group [24]. Recently,
smart bypass diodes with improved thermal and electrical characteristics have been developed for
the reliability of the PV module. However, smart bypass diodes are more expensive than Schottky
diodes and can fail under harsh outdoor conditions where PV modules are installed. In another
report, the performance impact of the system failure modes of modules were examined in various
climatic zones. This showed that, when considering the performance loss (or reliability) of PV systems,
the failure of the bypass diode was one of most critical factors along with PID (potential induced
degradation) and discoloration of encapsulant (or pottant) materials. Therefore, the annual degradation
rate by the failed bypass diode was about 11% or 25% depending on the climatic conditions [25].
A bypass diode fault results in an output loss due to a decrease of the open circuit voltage because the
potential (voltage) difference of strings connected with a failed bypass diode is about 0 V. Additionally
it elevates the surface temperature of the solar cells in the PV module, thereby resulting in the lower
performance of the PV power plant [26].
To resolve these issues, many researchers have analyzed modules and systems with damaged
bypass diodes and suggested ways to diagnose them. According to the characteristics of the PV
module with failed bypass diodes, it has been reported that heat may rise to a temperature at which
the junction box material can melt, causing a fire when the system is not operated and there is high
insolation. To distinguish the failure of a bypass diode from the similar characteristics caused by
partial shading, monitoring the temperature inside the junction box was introduced [27]. However,
the exact origin of bypass diode faults has not been intensively investigated.
Hence, in this paper, we report on the results of our analysis of the cause of bypass diode failure,
which can decrease the performance of the PV module and array. As the bypass diode operates at
high temperature (>70 ◦ C) inside the junction box, it is prone to the effects of temperature. To estimate
the leakage current under working conditions, the leakage current flowing through the bypass diode
was measured under reverse bias at various surrounding temperatures. This revealed that more
than 0.5 mA could flow through the bypass diode in the summer (above 30 ◦ C in ambient air).
Then, X-ray analysis and die-inspection of the damaged bypass diodes, collected at the abnormally
working module installed in the field, revealed that such high leakage current resulted in metal
migration into the semiconductor layer and melting of the junction between them. Hence, we believe
that the creation of a heat-dissipation system for bypass diodes and a test procedure to evaluate
Energies 2018, 11, 2416 3 of 11

the electrical properties of the diode current under reverse voltage are mandatory to realize reliable
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
PV modules. 3 of 11

2.
2. Electrical
Electrical Characteristics
Characteristics of
of Schottky
Schottky Type
Type Bypass Diode
Bypass diodesforfor
Bypass diodes PV PV modules
modules are mainly
are mainly SchottkySchottky diodes,
diodes, which which
consist consist of metal-
of metal-semiconductor
semiconductor junctions. The
junctions. The advantages advantages
of the of the metal-semiconductor
metal-semiconductor junctions are lower junctions arevoltage
threshold lower threshold
as well as
voltage as wellspeed,
fast switching as fastasswitching
shown in speed,
Figure 1.asDue
shown in Figure
to these 1. Due to Schottky
characteristics, these characteristics, Schottky
diodes can protect the
diodes canbyprotect
solar cells the quickly
operating solar cells
when by aoperating quickly
minute reverse when(=
voltage a under
minutea minute
reverse shading)
voltage (= under
occurs in aa
minute shading)
PV module. occursdue
However, in atoPV
themodule. However,
large tunneling dueatto
effect thethe large tunneling effect
metal-semiconductor at the ametal-
junction, large
semiconductor
amount of leakagejunction,
currenta large amount
can flow of leakage
through current
the diode, evencan flow through
at small the diode,
reverse voltage. even
The at small
lowering of
reverse voltage.
the energy The
barrier bylowering
the imageofforce
the energy
results barrier by theleakage
in increased image current.
force results
As a in increased
result, more leakage
leakage
current. As a through
current flows result, more leakage diode
the Schottky current flows
than through
through a PNthe Schottky
junction diode
diode, andthan through diode
the Schottky a PN
junction diode,
can be easily and the
heated by Schottky diode
such leakage can be[28,29].
current easily heated by such leakage current [28,29].

Figure 1.
Figure General I–V
1. General I–V curves
curves of
of the
the Schottky
Schottky and
and PN
PN junction
junction diodes.
diodes.

3. Temperature in the Junction Box of a c-Si PV Module Installed Outside

3. Temperature in the Junction Box of a c-Si PV Module Installed Outside
A test-bed c-Si PV module with a temperature sensor and communication system was built
A test-bed c-Si PV module with a temperature sensor and communication system was built
outdoors to evaluate the temperature inside the junction box and on the surface of the module.
outdoors to evaluate the temperature inside the junction box and on the surface of the module. PV
PV modules were connected to a 3 kW PV inverter and artificial environment condition such as
modules were connected to a 3 kW PV inverter and artificial environment condition such as the
the shading was not set. To measure the temperature inside the junction box, a self-fabricated chip
shading was not set. To measure the temperature inside the junction box, a self-fabricated chip
combined with a built-in temperature sensor and communication system (Zigbee) was installed.
combined with a built-in temperature sensor and communication system (Zigbee) was installed. The
The temperature data from inside the junction box was monitored by a temperature sensor and
temperature data from inside the junction box was monitored by a temperature sensor and wirelessly
wirelessly transmitted to the server via a Zigbee network. The temperature sensor used for this
transmitted to the server via a Zigbee network. The temperature sensor used for this experiment was
experiment was a digital thermometer. The range of the temperature sensor was −55 ◦ C to 125 ◦ C
a digital thermometer. The range of the◦ temperature sensor was −55 °C to 125 °C and the
and the measurement accuracy was ±0.5 C (−10 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C). The measurement of the surface
measurement accuracy was ±0.5 °C (−10 °C to 85 °C). The measurement of the surface temperature of
temperature of the PV module used a T-type temperature sensor, which is widely used for temperature
the PV module used a T-type temperature sensor, which is widely used for temperature
measurement in PV modules and systems. The measurement temperature range was −200 ◦ C to
measurement in PV modules and systems. The measurement temperature range was −200 °C to 600
600 ◦ C and the measurement error was ±0.4% (Class: special). Ten PV modules were monitored
°C and the measurement error was ±0.4% (Class: special). Ten PV modules were monitored in this
in this experiment. Measurements were conducted for one year from October 2016 to September
experiment. Measurements were conducted for one year from October 2016 to September 2017 in
2017 in Daejeon, South Korea (36.3◦ N, 127.4◦ E). Moreover, after considering the insolation, only
Daejeon, South Korea (36.3 °N, 127.4 °E). Moreover, after considering the insolation, only
measurement data recorded from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. were used in this work. The measured
measurement data recorded from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. were used in this work. The measured
temperature data were five-minute average values of each PV module. Figure 2 shows the average
temperature data were five-minute average values of each PV module. Figure 2 shows the average
value of the surface and junction box temperatures obtained from the total PV module. Figure 2
value of the surface and junction box temperatures obtained from the total PV module. Figure 2
represents the maximum and average temperatures inside the junction box. The average temperature
represents the maximum and average temperatures inside the junction box. The average temperature
was highest in June, while July and August were subject to cooling by monsoon rains. The seasonal
average temperature inside the junction box was 40.0 °C for spring (March to May), 46.4 °C for
summer (June to August), 36.9 °C for autumn (September to November), and 24.6 °C for winter
(December to February). The average temperature inside the junction box showed the same trend as
Energies 2018, 11, 2416 4 of 11

was highest in June, while July and August were subject to cooling by monsoon rains. The seasonal
average temperature inside the junction box was 40.0 ◦ C for spring (March to May), 46.4 ◦ C for summer
(June to August), 36.9 ◦ C for autumn (September to November), and 24.6 ◦ C for winter (December
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
to February). The average temperature inside the junction box showed the same trend as the surface
temperature of the module. Thismodule.
temperature ◦ C. Meanwhile, the maximum
the surface temperature of the This difference
temperature wasdifference
less than 2was less than 2 °C. Meanwhile,
temperature ◦ ◦ (August). In summer,
the maximum temperature inside the junction box varied from 37.1 °C C
inside the junction box varied from 37.1 C (December) to 71.8 (December) to 71.8 °C
the heat generated
(August). In summer, in thethePV module
heat and junction
generated in the PVbox does not
module andtransfer
junctionwellboxto the not
does outside because
transfer well of
to
the higher ambient temperature (above 30 ◦ C) when compared to that of winter. On the other hand,
the outside because of the higher ambient temperature (above 30 °C) when compared to that of
the maximum
winter. On the temperatures
other hand, the ofmaximum
the junction box in December,
temperatures January,box
of the junction andinFebruary
December, were 37.1, 44.0,
January, and
and 49.7 ◦ C, respectively. The calculated standard deviation based on the measured daily temperature
February were 37.1, 44.0, and 49.7 °C, respectively. The calculated standard deviation based on the
inside
measuredthe junction box was about
daily temperature inside9 to 12.junction
the From these box values,
was about it was confirmed
9 to 12. Fromthat thevalues,
these temperature
it was
inside the junction box must be influenced by the external environment
confirmed that the temperature inside the junction box must be influenced by the external (irradiation, temperature, wind
speed, etc.). Moreover, the periods when the junction box was hotter than 60 ◦ C were calculated from
environment (irradiation, temperature, wind speed, etc.). Moreover, the periods when the junction
the
boxmeasurement
was hotter than data.60 From
°C wereNovember
calculatedto May,
from the the inside temperature
measurement data.atFrom
the junction
November didtonot exceed
May, the
60 ◦ C, but the duration of extreme temperature (>60 ◦ C) was over 10 h per month in summer: 13.5
inside temperature at the junction did not exceed 60 °C, but the duration of extreme temperature (>60
h°C)
in was
June,over
12.010 hhinperJuly, 31.5 hininsummer:
month August, 13.5
and h28.8 h in September.
in June, 12.0 h in July, In August,
31.5 h inthe period
August, andof 28.8
extreme
h in
temperature
September. In August, the period of extreme temperature was the longest (31.5 h), about 6 d the
was the longest (31.5 h), about 6 d per month based on 5 h/day (10:00–15:00) despite per
low
monthaverage
based temperature.
on 5 h/dayFrom the measured
(10:00–15:00) despite temperature data, it was
the low average confirmed From
temperature. that the temperature
the measured
inside the junction
temperature data, itboxwas ofconfirmed
the PV module that theoperating
temperaturenormally
inside wasthedistributed
junction box in the range
of the PV of 38 to
module
72 ◦ C based on the maximum value. It can be assumed that the temperature inside the junction box
operating normally was distributed in the range of 38 to 72 °C based on the maximum value. It can
was higher than
be assumed thatwhen shading occurred,
the temperature inside theduring which
junction thewas
box bypass
higherdiodethan conducts forwardoccurred,
when shading voltage,
or the bypass diode fails [30]. Moreover, the inside of the junction box
during which the bypass diode conducts forward voltage, or the bypass diode fails [30]. Moreover, was exposed to temperatures
of
theover 60 ◦ofC the
inside for junction
more than box90was
h inexposed
high ambient temperature
to temperatures of (June
over 60to °CSeptember), which
for more than 90may
h in have
high
caused problems to the bypass diode.
ambient temperature (June to September), which may have caused problems to the bypass diode.

Figure 2.2.Monthly
Figure Monthly maximum
maximum and and average
average temperature
temperature inside
inside the the box
junction junction box and
and surface surface
temperature
of the PV module
temperature of theinstalled
PV moduleoutdoors in South
installed Korea.
outdoors The bar
in South graph
Korea. indicates
The theindicates
bar graph amount ofthetime that
amount
the junction
of time boxjunction
that the was heatedboxto ◦ C. to >60 °C.
>60heated
was

4. Continuous Leakage Current of the Bypass Diode at Different Temperature

4. Continuous Leakage Current of the Bypass Diode at Different Temperature
The junction box of the PV module is a closed structure to protect the electrodes from dust and
The junction box of the PV module is a closed structure to protect the electrodes from dust and
moisture. As a result, generated heat is not well dissipated from this structure. Moreover, the bypass
moisture. As a result, generated heat is not well dissipated from this structure. Moreover, the bypass
diode is always connected to solar cells under reverse bias so that the leakage current flows in the
diode is always connected to solar cells under reverse bias so that the leakage current flows in the
bypass diode. As discussed earlier, the bypass diode works at >60 ◦ C when the ambient temperature
bypass diode. As discussed earlier, the bypass diode works at >60 °C when the ambient temperature
is high. In addition, the conducting the bypass diode in the shade generates the heat, which can
increase the temperature inside the junction box. High temperature inside the junction box causes the
leakage current of the bypass diode, and increased leakage current raises the internal temperature
even more. This mechanism is called thermal runaway, which can cause the failure of the bypass
module, 15 V for the 60 to 72-cell modules, and 20 V for the 96-cell module).
Figure 4 shows the leakage current of a bypass diode at various temperatures with different
applied voltages, and the results are summarized in Table 1. In the graph and table, it can be clearly
observed that the leakage current of the bypass diode increased as the temperature rose. In particular,
the leakage
Energies current
2018, 11, 2416 greatly increased from 60 °C, regardless of the voltage applied. For example, 5 of 11
under 10 V, the current spiked (0.39 and 1.11 mA) as the temperature of the chamber increased from
60 to 80 °C and 80 to 100 °C, respectively. At even higher applied reverse bias, the current escalated
is high.
even more In than
addition,
for thethecase
conducting
under thethe bypass
applied biasdiode
of 10inV.
the shadethe
Under generates
applied the heat,ofwhich
voltage 15 V, canthe
increase the temperature inside the junction box. High temperature inside
leakage current increased by 0.47 and 1.28 mA, respectively, under the same conditions. The leakagethe junction box causes the
leakagewas
current current
evenoflarger
the bypass
at 20 V, diode, and increased
for which the current leakage
rose by current raises
0.54 and 1.82the
mA internal temperature
as the temperature
even more. This mechanism is called thermal runaway, which can cause the
increased from 60 to 80 °C and 80 to 100 °C. Meanwhile, with temperature fixed, a higher leakage failure of the bypass diode.
In this section, the amount of continuous leakage current of the bypass
current was observed when a higher reverse bias was applied. At 100 °C, when the reverse bias diode was experimentally
estimated
voltage was considering
increased thefrom temperature
10 to 15 V andinside
fromthe15junction
to 20 V,box.
the Bypass
leakagediodes
currentused for the by
increased experiment
0.29 and
had passed the certification standard and are still used in the PV module.
0.66 mA, respectively. The amount of incremental reverse current originating from the increase The experimental scheme
in the
is shown in Figure 3a. The experimental setup consisted of a power supply,
applied voltage was less than that induced by temperature change. Hence, the leakage current of the current-measurement
equipment
bypass diode(Dewetron-2600),
at a low reverse shunt
biasresistance
voltage (10(2000 mV,V)
V–20 400was
mA,), and an
mainly environmental
influenced by thechamber,
rise in
as displayed in Figure 3b. The shunt resistance was used for measuring the
temperature, rather than the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage. For example, in a widely installed leakage current and the
maximum
c-Si measuredmodule
PV 60 cell-based ohm, amplitude accuracy,
(20 cells for power
each string, rating
with were 5bias
a reverse Ω, 0.05%,
of 15 V),andthe1 leakage
W, respectively.
current
In this system, the leakage current of the bypass diode under
at 25 and 100 °C was 0.01 and 1.89 mA, respectively. The leakage current at 100 °C was reverse bias, flowing through
158 times the
shunt resistance, was monitored at various temperatures controlled
higher than that measured at 25 °C. Normally, the measured maximum temperature inside the using the environmental chamber.
The temperature
junction box is overin the
70 °Cchamber
when the varied (25, 40, 60,
PV module operates 100 ◦ C), while
80, or normally reverse in
as discussed bias voltages
Section (10, 15,
2. Thus, it
or 20 V) were applied. The temperature and applied reverse voltage were
was estimated that the leakage current will increase about 35 times in summer (over 70 °C) when carefully chosen in relation
to the temperature
compared to the caseinoperated
the junction box of
in winter (25the PV module
°C–30 installed
°C). Therefore, theoutdoors, and to
Schottky-type the operating
bypass diode is
voltage of the cell-strings of widely used modules (10 V for the 48-cell
vulnerable to damage from high surrounding temperature and at reverse bias voltage, which module, 15 V for the 60 to affects
72-cell
modules, and 20 V for the 96-cell module).
the reliability of the modules containing them.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) experimental equipment for measuring the current of a bypass diode at
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) experimental equipment for measuring the current of a bypass
various temperatures.
diode at various temperatures.

Figure 4 shows the leakage current of a bypass diode at various temperatures with different
applied voltages, and the results are summarized in Table 1. In the graph and table, it can be clearly
observed that the leakage current of the bypass diode increased as the temperature rose. In particular,
the leakage current greatly increased from 60 ◦ C, regardless of the voltage applied. For example, under
10 V, the current spiked (0.39 and 1.11 mA) as the temperature of the chamber increased from 60 to
80 ◦ C and 80 to 100 ◦ C, respectively. At even higher applied reverse bias, the current escalated even
more than for the case under the applied bias of 10 V. Under the applied voltage of 15 V, the leakage
current increased by 0.47 and 1.28 mA, respectively, under the same conditions. The leakage current
was even larger at 20 V, for which the current rose by 0.54 and 1.82 mA as the temperature increased
from 60 to 80 ◦ C and 80 to 100 ◦ C. Meanwhile, with temperature fixed, a higher leakage current was
observed when a higher reverse bias was applied. At 100 ◦ C, when the reverse bias voltage was
increased from 10 to 15 V and from 15 to 20 V, the leakage current increased by 0.29 and 0.66 mA,
respectively. The amount of incremental reverse current originating from the increase in the applied
voltage was less than that induced by temperature change. Hence, the leakage current of the bypass
diode at a low reverse bias voltage (10 V–20 V) was mainly influenced by the rise in temperature,
rather than the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage. For example, in a widely installed c-Si PV 60
cell-based module (20 cells for each string, with a reverse bias of 15 V), the leakage current at 25 and
Energies 2018, 11, 2416 6 of 11

100 ◦ C was 0.01 and 1.89 mA, respectively. The leakage current at 100 ◦ C was 158 times higher than
that measured at 25 ◦ C. Normally, the measured maximum temperature inside the junction box is over
70 ◦ C when the PV module operates normally as discussed in Section 2. Thus, it was estimated that
the leakage current will increase about 35 times in summer (over 70 ◦ C) when compared to the case
operated in winter (25 ◦ C–30 ◦ C). Therefore, the Schottky-type bypass diode is vulnerable to damage
from high surrounding temperature and at reverse bias voltage, which affects the reliability of the
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11
modules containing them.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Leakage
Figure 4. current of
Leakage current of the
thebypass
bypassdiode
diodeatatvarious
varioustemperature
temperatureand
andreverse
reverse bias
bias voltage:
voltage: (a)(a)
1010
V,
V, (b)
(b) 15and
15 V, V, and (c)V.20
(c) 20 (d)V.The
(d)leakage
The leakage current
current of the of the bypass
bypass diode
diode as as a function
a function of reverse
of reverse bias
bias voltage
voltage
with with different
different surroundingsurrounding temperatures.
temperatures.

Table 1.
Table Measured peak
1. Measured peak average
average leakage
leakage current.
current.

Peak Average Leakage Current (mA)

Temperature.
Temperature. 10
10 VV 15
15V V 20
20VV
25 °C 0.01 0.01 0.02
25 ◦ C 0.01 0.01 0.02
40 ◦°C
40 C 0.04
0.04 0.04
0.04 0.05
0.05
60 ◦°C
60 C 0.11
0.11 0.14
0.14 0.19
0.19
80 ◦°C
80 C 0.50
0.50 0.61
0.61 0.73
0.73
100 ◦°C
C 1.60
1.60 1.89
1.89 2.55
2.55

5. Failure Detection and Analysis of Damaged Bypass Diodes

5.1. Detection of Bypass Diode Failure in the Field

From the results in Sections 3 and 4, it was confirmed that a bypass diode installed in a junction
box may be under continuous thermal and electrical stress given the high internal temperature under
reverse bias voltage. Under these conditions, when continuous or repetitive shading occurs, the
internal temperature will be higher since the bypass diode conducts current. For this reason, bypass
diode failure may occur in an operating PV plant. Before performing an analysis of the failed bypass
diode, it was gathered in the PV plant (Figure 5). The capacity of the commercial PV plant is a 100
Energies 2018, 11, 2416 7 of 11

5. Failure Detection and Analysis of Damaged Bypass Diodes

5.1. Detection of Bypass Diode Failure in the Field

From the results in Sections 3 and 4, it was confirmed that a bypass diode installed in a junction
box may be under continuous thermal and electrical stress given the high internal temperature under
reverse bias voltage. Under these conditions, when continuous or repetitive shading occurs, the internal
temperature will be higher since the bypass diode conducts current. For this reason, bypass diode
failure may occur in an operating PV plant. Before performing an analysis of the failed bypass diode,
it was gathered in the PV plant (Figure 5). The capacity of the commercial PV plant is a 100 kW placed
in Korea (36.4◦ N, 127.4◦ E) and has operated for five years. Some modules exhibited degradation of
performance as a result of damaged solar cells and failure of the bypass diode. A common way to
detect bypass diode faults is to measure the surface temperature of a PV module using an infrared
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(IR)
7 of 11
camera. Figure 5 shows an IR image of the PV module with a failed bypass diode. In the PV module,
the solar
diode. In cells
the PV connected
module, theto the normal
solar bypass diode
cells connected and
to the failedbypass
normal bypassdiode
diodeand
have different
failed bypasssurface
diode
temperatures.
have different The reason
surface is that a failed
temperatures. Thebypass
reasondiode
is thatconstitutes
a failed abypass
closeddiode
circuitconstitutes
with the connected
a closed
solar cells,
circuit withandthethe current generated
connected solar cells,from
and the
the solar
currentcells induces heat
generated frominthe
thesolar
solarcells
cells.induces
Therefore,
heatthein
surface
the solartemperature of thethe
cells. Therefore, solar cells temperature
surface on the module connected
of the to the
solar cells on failed bypassconnected
the module diode is higher
to the
than that
failed of the
bypass solariscells
diode higherconnected
than that toof
the
thenormal bypass
solar cells diode. The
connected surface
to the normaltemperature
bypass diode.of solar
The
cells on a module can vary depending on insolation and environmental conditions,
surface temperature of solar cells on a module can vary depending on insolation and environmental but there was a
temperaturebut difference of aabout ◦
10–18 Cdifference
at the time 2 ◦
conditions, there was temperature ofofabout
measurement (atthe
10–18 °C at about
time600
of W/m and 30 (at
measurement C
ambient temperature).
about 600 W/m and 30 °C ambient temperature).
2

Figure 5. IR
IR images
images of
of bypass
bypass diode failure in the field (Ti27, FLUKE Co, Ltd.).

5.2. Analysis
5.2. Analysis of
of Failed
Failed Bypass
Bypass Diode
Diode
Before analyzing
Before analyzing the the internal characteristics of
internal characteristics of the
the normal
normal and
and failed
failed bypass
bypass diode,
diode, their
their I–V
I–V
curves were
curves werecompared
compared using a voltage–current
using a voltage–currentsource-meter (Keithley
source-meter 2430). In
(Keithley this case,
2430). the damaged
In this case, the
diode was from the modules discussed in Section 5.1, while the normal diode
damaged diode was from the modules discussed in Section 5.1, while the normal diode was obtained was obtained from
normally functioning PV modules at the same site. The bypass diodes used
from normally functioning PV modules at the same site. The bypass diodes used in the analysis werein the analysis were the
SB1240
the SB1240model,
model, which
whichhave electrical
have and
electrical and thermal
thermal characteristics:
characteristics:normal
normalcurrent
currentof of12
12 A,
A, forward
forward
bias threshold voltage of 0.68 V, and junction temperature ≤ 200 ◦ C, respectively. Figure 6 shows the
bias threshold voltage of 0.68 V, and junction temperature ≤200 °C, respectively. Figure 6 shows the
measured I–V
measured I–V curves
curves ofof the
the normal
normal and
and failed
failed bypass
bypass diode. The normal
diode. The normal bypass
bypass diodediode had
had forward
forward
bias threshold
bias threshold voltage
voltage (~0.5
(~0.5 V)
V) and
and reverse
reverse bias
bias breakdown
breakdown voltage
voltage (~(~60
60 V),V), however,
however, thethe graph
graph
revealed that the failed bypass diode did not have these characteristics. Unlike
revealed that the failed bypass diode did not have these characteristics. Unlike the normal diode, the normal diode,
the
the current
current flowedflowed tofailed
to the the failed
bypassbypass
diodediode
at veryatlow
veryvoltage
low voltage regardless
regardless of the forward
of the forward and/or and/or
reverse
reverse
bias. In bias. In the enlarged
the enlarged I–V graph
I–V graph ranging
ranging fromfrom
–2 to–22toV2inside
V inside Figure
Figure 6, 6,the
thenormal
normalbypass
bypass diode
diode
successfully blocked the current in reverse bias voltage. On the other hand, as the
successfully blocked the current in reverse bias voltage. On the other hand, as the currents increased, currents increased,
as voltage increased in the failed bypass diode. Moreover, the failed bypass diode is a conductor with
minute resistance (<0.5 Ω). As a result, the failed bypass diode was electrically short.
 bias threshold voltage of 0.68 V, and junction temperature ≤200 °C, respectively. Figure 6 shows the
measured I–V curves of the normal and failed bypass diode. The normal bypass diode had forward
bias threshold voltage (~0.5 V) and reverse bias breakdown voltage (~ 60 V), however, the graph
revealed that the failed bypass diode did not have these characteristics. Unlike the normal diode, the
current2018,
Energies flowed to the failed bypass diode at very low voltage regardless of the forward and/or reverse
11, 2416 8 of 11
bias. In the enlarged I–V graph ranging from –2 to 2 V inside Figure 6, the normal bypass diode
successfully blocked the current in reverse bias voltage. On the other hand, as the currents increased,
as
as voltage
voltage increased
increased in in the
the failed
failed bypass
bypass diode. Moreover, the
diode. Moreover, the failed
failed bypass
bypass diode
diode is
is aa conductor
conductor with
with
minute resistance (<0.5 Ω). As a result, the failed bypass diode was electrically
minute resistance (<0.5 Ω). As a result, the failed bypass diode was electrically short. short.

Figure 6. Measured I–V curves of the normal and failed bypass diode.
Figure 6. Measured I–V curves of the normal and failed bypass diode.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11

Forestimating
For estimatingthe theunderlying
underlyingmechanism
mechanismofofhigh highleakage
leakagecurrent
currentunder
underreverse
reversebias
biasininaafailed
failed
bypass diode,
bypass diode,X-ray
X-ray analysis and and
analysis die-inspection were conducted
die-inspection to compare
were conducted tothe internal characteristics
compare the internal
of the normal and damaged diodes. X-ray analysis enables monitoring
characteristics of the normal and damaged diodes. X-ray analysis enables monitoring the inside of a sample
the insidewithout
of a
destroying it. When the diodes were irradiated with X-rays, the metal layer absorbed
sample without destroying it. When the diodes were irradiated with X-rays, the metal layer absorbed the X-rays. On the
other
the hand, On
X-rays. the X-rays
the otherpenetrated
hand, thethe semiconductor
X-rays penetrated layertheor other epoxy modeling
semiconductor layer compound
or other epoxy(EMC)
of the diodes. Thus, the migration of metal into the silicon layer could be monitored
modeling compound (EMC) of the diodes. Thus, the migration of metal into the silicon layer could using this method.
Figure
be 7 shows
monitored usingthethis
internal images
method. Figure of7the normal
shows and failed
the internal bypass
images diodes
of the normalusing
andX-ray
failedanalysis.
bypass
The X-ray analysis of the normal diode showed a clean junction between the metal
diodes using X-ray analysis. The X-ray analysis of the normal diode showed a clean junction between and semiconductor
(white
the rectangle
metal in the center of(white
and semiconductor the image) despiteinitsthe
rectangle long-term
center of operation (approximately
the image) despite its three years).
long-term
In contrast,
operation in the case of the
(approximately failed
three bypass
years). diode, theinmigration
In contrast, the case of ofmetal into the
the failed silicondiode,
bypass layer the
was
observed in the red squares shown in Figure 7b.
migration of metal into the silicon layer was observed in the red squares shown in Figure 7b.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure7.7.X-ray
X-rayanalysis
analysisimages
images(a)
(a)normal
normalbypass
bypassdiode,
diode,(b)
(b)failed
failedbypass
bypassdiode.
diode.

Forfurther
For furtherstudy,
study,die-inspection
die-inspectionof ofboth
bothdiodes
diodeswaswasconducted.
conducted.Die-inspection
Die-inspectionisisaacommonly
commonly
usedtool
used tooltotoprobe
probe defects
defects in in electrical
electrical components
components duringduring
theirtheir manufacturing
manufacturing and operation.
and operation. For
For die-inspection,
die-inspection, the de-capsulation
the de-capsulation of EMC ofwasEMC was conducted
conducted using etchant
using a chemical a chemical etchant as a
as a pretreatment
pretreatment
process. After process. After de-capsulation,
de-capsulation, the surface of the surface
junctionofwas thescanned
junction using
was scanned using
an optical an optical
microscope.
microscope.
The The scanned
scanned images images
are shown are shown
in Figure 8. Theinimage
Figure 8. The image
revealed that therevealed
junctionthat thenormal
of the junction of the
bypass
normal
diode bypass
was cleandiode was clean
and without anyand without
damage. Inany damage.
contrast (see In
thecontrast (see in
red square theFigure
red square in Figurewas
8b), damage 8b),
damage
clearly was clearly
observable at observable
the junctionatof
the junction
the bypassofdiode
the bypass diode with
with abnormal abnormal
function. function. Magnifying
Magnifying the image
the image (illustrated
(illustrated in Figure 9),initFigure
became9),apparent
it became apparent
that a part ofthat
theajunction
part of the
hadjunction
melted,had
whichmelted,
couldwhich
be a
could be a source of the leakage current and cause of the malfunction of the diodes.
source of the leakage current and cause of the malfunction of the diodes. This result was consistent This result was
consistent
with the X-raywith the X-ray
analysis. analysis.the
Although Although
migration theofmigration
metal and/or of metal
melted and/or
layersmelted
was not layers was not
observed in
the diodes in the same experiment with reverse current (60 °C at 15 V) for about 100 h, as illustrated
in Figure 4, we believe that continuous and repetitive electrical and thermal stresses (= over five years)
resulted in damage to the junction of the diode.
 process. After de-capsulation, the surface of the junction was scanned using an optical microscope.
The scanned images are shown in Figure 8. The image revealed that the junction of the normal bypass
diode was clean and without any damage. In contrast (see the red square in Figure 8b), damage was
clearly observable at the junction of the bypass diode with abnormal function. Magnifying the image
(illustrated
Energies 2018,in
11,Figure
2416 9), it became apparent that a part of the junction had melted, which could9be a
of 11
source of the leakage current and cause of the malfunction of the diodes. This result was consistent
with the X-ray analysis. Although the migration of metal and/or melted layers was not observed in
observed ◦ C at 15 V) for about 100 h,
the diodes inin the
the diodes in the samewith
same experiment experiment with reverse
reverse current (60 °Ccurrent
at 15 V)(60
for about 100 h, as illustrated
asFigure
in illustrated
4, we in Figure
believe 4, continuous
that we believe and
thatrepetitive
continuous and repetitive
electrical electrical
and thermal and
stresses (= thermal
over fivestresses
years)
(=over five years) resulted in damage to
resulted in damage to the junction of the diode. the junction of the diode.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure8.8.Cross-sectional
Cross-sectionalimages
imagesofof(a)
(a)normal
normaland
and(b)
(b)failed
failedbypass
bypassdiodes
diodesobserved
observedusing
usingoptical
optical
microscope
microscope
Energies 2018, (×25).
11, x FOR(× 25). REVIEW
PEER 9 of 11

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Magnified
Figure images
9. Magnified (×200)
images of (a)
(×200) of normal andand
(a) normal (b) failed bypass
(b) failed diode.
bypass diode.

6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In In
thisthis
work,work,
we we studied
studied the the effect
effect of operating
of operating environment
environment on theon electrical
the electrical properties
properties of a of
a bypass
bypass diodediode installed
installed in a junction
in a junction box onbox the on
backtheofback
a PVof a PV module.
module. As the box
As the junction junction box is a
is a closed
closed structure designed to protect the electrode of the module
structure designed to protect the electrode of the module and bypass diodes from the externaland bypass diodes from the external
environment,
environment, thethe
heat heat generated
generated fromfrom
thethe operating
operating solar
solar cells
cells in the
in the PVPV module
module is not
is not wellwell dissipated
dissipated
to the outside. ◦ C on sunny
to the outside. As As a result,
a result, thethe temperature
temperature inside
inside thethe junction
junction boxboxcancanriserise to over
to over 70 70
°C on sunny
summer days and the bypass diode operates at over 60 ◦ C for more than 70 h annually. Under such
summer days and the bypass diode operates at over 60 °C for more than 70 h annually. Under such
harsh
harsh conditions,
conditions, the the leakage
leakage current
current of a of a bypass
bypass diode diode
underunder
reversereverse bias increases
bias increases dramatically
dramatically at
at temperatures higher than 60 ◦ C or similar. We found that, in such cases, the leakage current was
temperatures higher than 60 °C or similar. We found that, in such cases, the leakage current was 35
35 times ◦ C and can cause thermal runaway and failure of the bypass
times higherhigher thanmeasured
than that that measuredat 25at°C25and can cause thermal runaway and failure of the bypass
diode.
diode. To To estimate
estimate thethe effect
effect of such
of such a large
a large leakage
leakage current
current at high
at high temperature
temperature on on
thethe bypass
bypass diode
diode
for a long time, normal and damaged bypass diodes were collected
for a long time, normal and damaged bypass diodes were collected from a PV module installed from a PV module installed outside.
The metal/semiconductor
outside. The metal/semiconductor junction was examined
junction was examinedusing X-ray
usingand die-inspection
X-ray methods.
and die-inspection Inspection
methods.
of the interior
Inspection of theofinterior
the damaged
of the bypass
damaged diodes
bypassconfirmed
diodes that a part of
confirmed theajunction
that part of had melted and
the junction hadthat
metal had migrated into the semi-conductor layer. It is believed that
melted and that metal had migrated into the semi-conductor layer. It is believed that the junction the junction melted due to the
continuous
melted due to theleakage currentleakage
continuous that exceeded
currentthe thatlimits
exceededof thethe
junction.
limits of Therefore,
the junction. to minimize
Therefore,bypass
to
diode failure by high temperature, it is necessary to design a junction
minimize bypass diode failure by high temperature, it is necessary to design a junction box that box that allows for easy heat
dissipation and to evaluate each bypass diode considering its leakage
allows for easy heat dissipation and to evaluate each bypass diode considering its leakage current current under high temperature.
under high temperature.

Author Contributions: W.G.S. wrote the main part of the paper, in particular, analyzing and conducting the
experiment. S.W.G. established the research direction of the paper and suggested a method for conducting the
experiment. H.J.S. analyzed the al data using the paper and provided important comments. Y.C.J. and H.M.H.
provided technical ideas and assistance in establishing an outdoor site for the experiment. G.H.K. reviewed and
Energies 2018, 11, 2416 10 of 11

Author Contributions: W.G.S. wrote the main part of the paper, in particular, analyzing and conducting the
experiment. S.W.G. established the research direction of the paper and suggested a method for conducting the
experiment. H.J.S. analyzed the al data using the paper and provided important comments. Y.C.J. and H.M.H.
provided technical ideas and assistance in establishing an outdoor site for the experiment. G.H.K. reviewed and
revised the overall contents of the paper.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a grant from the Renewable Energy of Korea Institute of Energy
Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) and Standardization Certification of Korea Energy Agency (KEA)
funded by the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (Project No: 20153010011980, 71000106).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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