Solar Photovoltaic

Technologies

Lecture 8: Continuity Equation

and P-N junction
Prof. C.S. Solanki
Department of Energy Science and Engineering
IIT Bombay
Recap of last lecture
“Excess carrier concentration,
recombination, recombination
mechanisms, minority carrier lifetime”

2
 Lecture-11
Lecture-10
∆p+p0
1015
What scenario is
Carrier conc. (cm-3)

depicted in the
n0 figure?
1014

Change of carrier
concentration after
1013 perturbation,
 when
semiconductor is
Time (ns) allowed to go to
1012 equilibrium state
10 30 50
3
 Contents
Continuity Equation
• Writing continuity equation
• Solution of continuity equation under various
conditions

P-N Junction

• Formation of P-N junction region

• Space charge region
• P-J junction under equilibrium condition

4
 Schockley-Read-Hall model
• Dynamics of this recombination process in described by
Schockley-Read-Hall (SRH) theory

np  ni2
R
 p 0 (n  n1 )   n 0 ( p  p1 )
• Where  are the constant related with the density and
activity of the traps and is called minority carrier lifetime
and n1 and p1 is given as:
( Ev  Et ) / kT
n1  N c e ( Et  Ec ) / kT p1  N v e

5
 Continuity Equation:
Taking in account all carrier actions

6
 Continuity Equation
The rate of hole build up
(per unit volume)
Jp(x) Jp(x+dx)
R G = increase of hole
concentration –
x recombination rate
x x+dx
As the ∆x approached
p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  x) p 0, current can be
  G
t q x p written in derivative
form
p( x, t ) p  1 J p p
   G Continuity equation
t t q x  p for holes
7
 Diffusion equation
• If there is only diffusion process of charge transfer (no
electric field) then continuity equation can be simplified to
diffusion equation
n 1 J n n dn
  J n  qDn When ξ=0
t q t  n dx
n  n n2
minority carriers
 Dn  G
t x 2
n diffusion equation
• Very useful to solve the problems when excess carriers move
in semiconductor through diffusion and disappear through
recombination
• Assumptions: ξ=0, minority carriers, low level injection
8
 Diffusion Eq. Solution:Case-1
n  2n n
 Dn  G
t x 2
n

Situation Steady state condition, no light

Modification n  2n n

0 0  Dn 
t x 2
n
Solution x x
n p ( x )  Ae Ln
 Be Ln L n  Dn n

Ln is diffusion length of electrons

9
 Diffusion Eq. Solution:Case-2
n  2n n
 Dn  G
t x 2
n

Situation No concentration gradient, no light

Modification n p n p

t n
Solution  t
n
n p (t )  n p (0)e

10
 Diffusion Eq. Solution:Case-3
n  2n n
 Dn  G
t x 2
n

Situation Steady state, no concentration gradient

Modification n p
0  GL
n
Solution
n p   nGL

11
 Problem
Problem: ND= 10 16 cm-3, uniformly
doped, hole are created at x=0
N-type Si
only with 1010 cm-3s-1 , determine
∆pn(x), diffusion length of holes is
100 microns.
∆pn(0)

∆pn(x)

x
12
 Quasi Fermi level
• Quasi Fermi level are the energy level used to specify the
carrier concentration under non-equilibrium condition

light
Ec Ec
EF FN
Ei Ei
FP
Ev Ev

n
n  ni e ( FN  Ei ) / kT
 FN  Ei  kT ln  
 ni 
• Similar expression can be written for excess hole conc. in
terms of hole quasi Fermi level
13
 Gradient in Quasi Fermi level
dn
J n  qn n  qDn n  ni e ( FN  Ei ) / kT
dx
n  dFN dEi 
J n  qn n  qDn  dx  
kT  dx 
d ( FN / q) d ( FN )
J n  q n n  n n   n nFN
dx dx
• Gradient in the quasi Fermi level indicates the flow of drift
and / or diffusion current or FN=0 current flow is zero
14
P-N Junction

15
 Formation of P-N Junction

P N For analysis
we will
assume a
NA-ND step junction
Doping concentration

Metallurgical
ND junctions
NA

Depth from surface, x

Depth from surface

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 P-NN junction
-N
energy bands
D A

ND

x
-
NA N-side
P-side
Ec EF
Ei
EF
Ev
Fermi level
remains
EF Ec invariant at
Ei the
Ev equilibrium
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 Space charge region
 
  q( p  N d  n  N a )
Time, t=0 + - - +
+ - + - +- + - +- + -
+ - + - + - + - +- + - +- + -
Fixed charges - + - +
+ - + - +- + - +- + -
Mobile charges + - + - + - + - +- + - +- + -

N-side P-side

t>0 - +
+ - + - + - + - + - +- + -
+ - + - + - + - + - +- + -
+ - + - + - + - + - +- + -
+ - + - + - + - + - +- + -

4/21/2018 © IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Space charge

Solar Photovoltaic region
Technologies 18
 Vb Field & voltage
EF Ec
1 dEi
Ei

q dx
E Ev
x dV
 
dx
V
Emax
V    dx
x E
, resistivity V 
q
+ d 

- dx  o K s
Poisson’s eq:Ks-dielectric constant, εo-permittivity of space
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 Junction at Thermal Equilibrium

Net current is zero, J=0

Ec
EF Jn=0, Jn,drift+Jn,diff=0
Ei Jp=0, Jp,drift+Jp,diff=0
Ev

Particle flow Current flow

Hole Diffusion Hole Diffusion
Hole Drift Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift Electron Drift
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 Carrier conc. at Thermal Equilibrium
Transition region
p = pp0  NA
n = nn0  ND
ln(n), ln(p)

p = pn0  ni2/ ND
n = np0  ni2/ NA
x

There are vary few carrier in transition region at any given

time. Carriers are swept away by the electric field

4/21/2018 © IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies 21

 Built-in Potential-1
Quasi-neutral P-region Quasi-neutral N-region
ξ 0 ξ0 ξ0
- +
P - + N
- +
-xpo xn0 x

xn 0

V0    dx  V ( xn 0 )  V ( x p 0 )
 x po

xn 0
dp
J p  qp p  qD p  0 & V0    dx
dx xp0

4/21/2018 © IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies 22

 Built-in Potential-2
How this expression can
kT  p( x p 0 )  be written in terms of donor
V0  ln   and acceptor concentration
q  p ( xn 0 ) 
levels ?
kT  p p 0  p p0 qV0
V0  ln   or e kT
q  pn 0  pn 0
kT  N A N D 
V0  ln  
q  ni2 
nn 0 qV0
 e kT The ratio of electron and hole conc. at
n p0 either side is related to the built in voltage
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 Exercise
Problem: A P-N junction is fabricated by diffusing N-type
impurities (1018 cm-3 in to a P-type semiconductor with
doing density of 1016 cm-3. Assume a step junction.
(1) Draw the band diagram,
(2) Show the position of intrinsic energy levels with respect to
Fermi level, &
(3) Find out the built in voltage

V0
EF Ec

Ei
Ev
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 P-N Jn under forward bias-1
Forward bias is applied such that the potential barrier
across the junction is reduced, =V0-V(applied)
Depletion region width decreases
Negligible voltage drop
Negligible voltage
(neutral region, high doping)
drop (ohmic contact)

P N

V
V Most of the voltage applied
P N x appears across the depletion
region
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 Junction at Thermal Equilibrium

Net current is zero, J=0

Ec
EF Jn=0, Jn,drift+Jn,diff=0
Ei Jp=0, Jp,drift+Jp,diff=0
Ev

Particle flow Current flow

Hole Diffusion Hole Diffusion
Hole Drift Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift Electron Drift
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 P-N Jn under forward bias-2
In
(V0-V)

Ec

EFp EFn
V
Ei
= EFn-EFp
v E
Direction of current
Hole Diffusion
Ip Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion
Electron Drift
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 P-N Jn under reverse bias
Reverse bias is applied such that the potential barrier
across the junction is increased, =V0 + V(applied)
Depletion region width increases

In
Direction of current
V0 + V
EFp Hole Diffusion

Ec Hole Drift
EFn Electron Diffusion
Ei Electron Drift
Ev
Ip
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 Comparison of voltage bias
P N P N P N

V=0 V>0, V<0

Vf , -Vr
V0+Vr
V0
V0-Vf
x x x

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 Diode Current: Qualitative Solution
Total current crossing the diode is sum of the diffusion and
drift current
Under equilibrium there is no current flow
In forward bias current flow mainly due to diffusion of carriers,
which increases exponentially
In reverse bias both electron and hole diffusion components
are negligible due to large barrier. Current is relatively small
(due to generation of carrier) and it independent of voltage.

At equilibrium
I = I (diffusion) – I (generation) = 0 when V = 0
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 Diode Current: Qualitative Solution
In forward bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across
junction is proportional to exp(qVf / kT)

In reverse bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across

junction is proportional to exp(-qVr / kT)

Forward bias current, diffusion current = Igen* e(qVf / kT)

 Current in the reverse bias, drift current = Iequi=Igen=I0

Total current = I (forward) – I (reverse)

I  I gen e ( qV / kT )
 I gen I
Reverse
I (diffu.) saturation

I  I 0 (e  1)
qV / kT current
V
I (gen.)
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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution
Depletion region
Quasi-neutral region

P -x xn0N
p0

V
Assumptions:
Steady state operation
Low-level injection
No recombination in the depletion region
Zero electric field in the quasi-neutral region
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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution
Carrier Injection
The minority carrier concentration on each side varies with
the applied bias due to variation in diffusion of carriers across
the junction, minority carrier injection

p p0 qV0 p p ( x p 0 ) q (V0 V )
e kT e kT

pn 0 p n ( xn 0 )
At equilibrium At applied bias

pp0 qV0  qV
e kT
e kT
p n ( xn 0 ) qV
p n ( xn 0 )  e kT
Assuming low
pn 0
level injection
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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution
Carrier Injection
Excess hole concentration at xn due to carrier injection

pn ( xn 0 )  pn ( xn 0 )  pn 0
qV
pn ( xn 0 )  pn 0 (e kT
 1)
Excess electron concentration at –xp due to carrier injection

n p ( x p 0 )  n p ( x p 0 )  n p 0
qV
n p ( x p 0 )  n p 0 (e kT
 1)

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 Diode Current: Qualitative Solution
In forward bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across
junction is proportional to exp(qVf / kT)

In reverse bias, the probability that a carrier can diffuse across

junction is proportional to exp(-qVr / kT)

Forward bias current, diffusion current = Igen* e(qVf / kT)

 Current in the reverse bias, drift current = Iequi=Igen=I0

Total current = I (forward) – I (reverse)

I  I gen e ( qV / kT )
 I gen I
Reverse
I (diffu.) saturation

I  I 0 (e  1)
qV / kT current
V
I (gen.)
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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution
Carrier Injection
Excess hole concentration at xn due to carrier injection

pn ( xn 0 )  pn ( xn 0 )  pn 0
qV
pn ( xn 0 )  pn 0 (e kT
 1)
Excess electron concentration at –xp due to carrier injection

n p ( x p 0 )  n p ( x p 0 )  n p 0
qV
n p ( x p 0 )  n p 0 (e kT
 1)

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 Recombination of excess minority
carriers
Definition of the coordinates for the carrier diffusion current
Direction xn is the x direction & xp is in the opposite x direction
n(xp) p(xn)

np0 + np pn0 + pn

pn0
xp np0 xn
-xp0=0 Xn0=0

P N

V
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 Recombination of excess minority
n(xp) p(xn) carriers
np0 + np pn0 + pn

pn0
xp np0 xn
-xp0=0 xn0=0
Carrier will diffuse and recombine with the electrons
x x
n p ( x p )  n p e Ln
pn ( xn )  pn e Lp

qV x variation in minority carrier

n p ( x p )  n p 0 (e kT
 1)e Ln conc. With bias and depth from
the junction

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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution

Minority hole diffusion current

The hole diffusion current at any point in N-side can be
calculated as (electric field is zero in quasi neutral region):

dp( xn ) Dp
I p ( xn )  qAD p  qA pn ( xn )
dxn Lp
The total hole current injected into N side at the junction can
be obtained by putting xn = 0 (I.e. at xn0, junction edge) in
above equation

Dp Dp
I p (at xn 0 )  qA Pn  qA pn 0 (e qV / kT  1)
Lp Lp

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 Diode Current: Quantitative Solution

Minority electron diffusion current

With similar analogy, we can calculate the current at the
junction at P-side (at xp=0, junction edge) due to injection of
electrons from N-Side
Dn Dn
I n (at x p 0 )   qA n p   qA n p 0 (e qV / kT  1)
Ln Ln
Total current is the sum of the two diffusion current,
There is no recombination of carrier in the depletion region,
therefore current remains constant there
I  I p ( xn  0)  I n ( x p  0)
The minus sign for In(xp) has taken because xp is defined
in the negative x direction
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 Total Diode Current
There is no recombination or
J, Minority

generation in the depletion region,

P N which means, dJ/dx = 0 or J is
constant (from continuity
equation).
-xpo xn0 x Total current is constant inside the
device at all points

Jtotal
Majority carrier current

Minority carrier current

Hole current
Electron current
-xpo xn0 x
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 Total Diode Current
Dn Dp V=-Vr for
I total  qA( n p 0  pn 0 )( e qV / kT  1) reverse bias
Ln Lp case, current in
reverse bias
Dn Dp
I total  qA( n p 0  pn 0 )(e  qVr / kT  1) would be
Ln Lp
Dn Dp
 qA( n p 0  pn 0 ) when Vr  few kTq
Ln Lp

Dn Dp
I 0  qA( n p 0  pn 0 ) Reverse saturation current
Ln Lp

I total  I 0 (e qV / kT
 1)
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