CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Java is an island bordering the Java sea to the north and to the south
bordering the Indian Ocean. Javanese tectonic activity is dominated by the
Australian plate subduction under the Eurasian plate. The Australian plate subducts
with depths ranging from 100-200 km beneath the island of Java and about 600 km
north of Java. The consequence of these plate subduction is high seismic activity,
active volcanoes, and the formation of incompatible rock formations (Damanik et
al., 2012).

2.1. Geological Overview of Research Areas

Central Java generally consists of various units of rock, starting from rock
which is Quaternary Holocene to Cretaceous. The lithology division and description
of each rock unit refers to Amin et al. (1999) which the authors simplify based on
rock lithology age. Geological explanation is divided into seven zones, namely:

1. Alluvial lands north of Java and alluvial south of Java

The unit of this zone is Holocene alluvial with lithology compiler in
the form of loose material such as cobble, gravel, sand, clay produced from
river sediment, beaches and swamps. The north alluvial land extends from
west to east and is bounded by the Rembang zone. While the southern
alluvial plain extends from west to east and is bounded by the Southern
Mountains zone.
2. Rembang Zone
The northern Rembang zone has two Pleistocene volcanoes, Mount
Muria and Lasem. This extinct volcano has an older lithology age compared
to the volcano ranks in the Solo zone (Merbabu, Merapi and Lawu).
Lithological composition in the form of tuff, lava, breccia, lava, andesite
and andesite rocks. While the non-volcanic Rembang zone unit was formed
during the Middle Miocene-Pleocene which was the edge of the northern
 part of the Java Sea so that there are many types of clastic and carbonate
sedimentary rocks. The oldest clastic sediments in the Rembang zone
belong to the Ngrayong Formation which have age Tertiary Late Miocene-
Pliocene. The rock type in this formation is claystone at the top followed by
crossing claystone-sandstone to limestone at the bottom. In addition, there
are young clastic sediments aged in the Plio-Plistocene Quaternary in
Formations of Lidah and Tambakromo.
The western part of the Rembang zone contains carbonate rocks
which are included in the Bulu Formation and Wonocolo Formation. This
formation is of Middle-Late Miocene age, with precipitated rock types in
the form of repetition between Napal, Napal clay and Napal sandy
(Wonocolo Formation) and sandy limestone which is coated in Napal inserts
(Bulu Formation).

Figure 2.1 Division of the geological zone of Central Java regionally (Amin
et al., 1999).

3. Kendeng Zone
The Kendeng zone generally consists of clastic sediments of Late-
Pliocene Miocene age in the form of solid Napal at the top, Napal with tuff
sandstone-limestone sandstone insert at the bottom which is deposited in the
deep sea environment to the shallow sea. Then there are also carbonate rocks
that are Pliocene-aged, with lithology in the form of tuff and Napal in the
upper part. Both are included in the Kalibeng Formation.
Whereas older carbonate rocks are scattered in the western part of
this zone. The unit is included in the Pelang Formation which is in the Late-
Middle Miocene Oligosin. The lithology of this formation is limestone with
limestone insertion. The southern part of the Kendeng zone contains non-
marine deposits, namely volcanic deposits, each with Early-Middle
Miocene and Middle-Late Miocene. These sedimentary rocks are scattered
in the southern part with lithology in the form of sandstones, tuffs, clay
stones, sandstone limestone and sandy limestone produced by the activities
 of Merabu, Merapi, Lawu and Ungaran mountains. The lithology is in the
Kalibeng Formation and the Kerek Formation.

4. Solo Zone
The Solo Zone is generally composed of young Quaternary
volcanoes and alluvial land between volcanoes. The series of volcanoes is
called the Central Volcano zone with lithology in the form of volcanic
eruptions including: agglomerates, lava, lava, breccia, and basalt. Whereas
morphologically, the inter-volcanic area is a depressive zone (basin) of the
Solo zone which extends along Central Java in the east-west direction.
Depression zones cause Holocene (Merbabu, Merapi, lawu) material
flowing during the Holocene age to settle in this zone and mix with alluvial
sediments with constituent lithology in the form of loose material such as
cobble, gravel, sand, clay produced from the Opak river and surrounding
sediments.

5. North Serayu Zone

According to Asikin et al. (1992) and Condon et al. (1996) say that
the North Serayu volcanic path emerged in the Late Miocene era. The North
Serayu Zone is developing more modestly compared to the South Serayu
zone. The North Serayu Zone consists of only one east-west trending
mountain track. The eastern end starts from Mt. Sumbing and Sindoro
northwest-southeast, followed by the presence of the Dieng volcano
complex to the west-northwest and Ungaran volcano east of this zone. The
western end of the North Serayu zone is marked by the presence of Mount
Slamet (Husein et al., 2013). The constituent units of the volcanoes are
Holocene-aged material with andesite and basalt lithology which is spread
up to the foot of the volcano. While further towards the west this zone is
composed of volcanic rocks formed from the activity of the Holocene
Slamet mountain. Further north the sediment thickens, followed by a more
horizontal morphology. This unit is included in the Kaligates and Payung
Formations.
 The more to the west of this zone are found Early-Middle Miocene
sedimentary rock units with shale lithology, Napal, limestone sandstone.
This unit is included in the Rambat Formation and Pemali Formation.
Furthermore, the Middle Miocene-Plistocene volcanic sedimentary rocks
are formed from volcanic activity and are located in the western part of the
North Serayu zone.

6. South Serayu Zone

In general, the South Serayu zone has a West-East direction. The
physiographic boundary to the east of this zone is not very strict, where this
zone joins the northern tip of the Kulon Progo mountain range, which lies
north-northeast-south-southwest and is covered by Sumbing volcanic
deposits. The South Serayu Zone has the oldest rocks which are Cretaceous
to Paleocene known as a group of Melange Luk Ulo. This rock group is part
of a group of Melange which is a mixture of schist, basalt lava with pillow
structure, gabbro, red limestone, black clay which are flakes, all of which
are tectonic-controlled mixtures. Tectonic activity that occurs is the rise of
the mid ocean ridge strip during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene
(Asikin et al, 1992). Then followed by the Waturanda Formation composed
of volcanic breccia, sandstones and limestone of Middle-Late Miocene age,
which were deposited in harmony with the Luk Ulo group. In the same
formation there are shallow marine sediments in the form of clastic
sediments and carbonate rocks, each aged Late Miocene -Pliocene and Late
Miocene -Pleistocene.

7. Southern Mountain Zone

The Southern Java Mountain Zone stretches from Yogyakarta to
East Java with steep beach morphology. This created a significant
morphological difference from the Central Java Depression Zone on the
west side. This zone has experienced folding and appointment in the
Miocene era. Outline, lithology in this zone includes: clastic sediments,
volcanic rocks and carbonates which generally have a slope towards the
south (Clements et al., 2009). The Southern Mountains Zone can be divided
into three sub-zones, namely the Baturangung sub-zone, the Wonosari
subzone and the Thousand Mountains subzone. The Baturagung Subzone
forms the crudest relief and is almost entirely composed of volcanic rocks.
The Wonosari Subzone is high land, while the Thousand Mountains
subzone is a karst hills which has a morphologically higher height than the
Wonosari Subzone which is generally composed of limestone (Hartono and
Bronto., 2007).
The complete lithology of this zone consists of:
1) Baturagung Sub Zone
The Baturagung Subzone is mainly located in the northern part of
the Southern Mountains zone which stretches from west to east. In the
eastern part of this zone, the Baturagung subzone forms a slightly
separate height, because it is bounded by the Gajahmungkur Reservoir.
Baturagung Subzone forms the crudest relief and is almost entirely
composed of volcanic rocks. The lithology is Middle-Late Miocene and
Oligocene-Middle Miocene. Volcanic rock lithology unit of Middle-
Late Miocene are breccias, agglomerates and tuffs, generally in
andesite-basal composition. This unit is included in the Nglanggeran
Formation, Semilir Formation and Wuni Formation. Whereas older
rocks found in this subzone are Oligocene-Middle Miocene. This
lithology unit is in the form of breccias with components of claystone,
sandstone, limestone, basalt and granite. This unit is included in the
Totogan Formation and the Kebobutak Formation.

2) Wonosari Sub Zone

Wonosari Subzone is a highland located in the middle of the
Southern Mountains zone. This land is bounded by the western and
northern Baturagung sub-zones, while in the south and east it is bordered
by the Thousand Mountains subzone. The morphology is in the form of
high land with an altitude of 50-300 meters and a slope of 0-8% (Van
 Bemmelen, 1949). The formations that are in this subzone are the same
as those in the Thousand Mountains subzone.

3) Thousand Mountains Sub Zone

In physiographic the Seribu mountainous region occupies the
southern part of Java. The Thousand Mountains are dominated by
carbonate rocks which are of Middle-Plistocene Miocene age which is
included in the Wonosari (Punung) and Sentolo Formation. According
to Van Bemmelen (1949) the morphology of the Thousand mountains is
small hills with heights ranging from 0-400 meters and slopes of 8-40%.
This formation consists of layered tuff limestone, marl with tuff
sandstone insertions. According to Said (2010) limestone which has a
hard character in general forming a pointed karstic cone and spread in
the southern part of this subzone. Lime Limestone generally forms a
karst topography. Lime Limestone is scattered in the northern part of
this subzone.

2.2. Previous research

The study of soil response analysis (site local effect) has been carried out
by Nakamura (1989) to determine the geological response to earthquake
amplification. Based on research conducted by Nakamura, concludes (1) the
earthquake response is closely related to geological conditions, (2) records at
stations located on hard rock produce a maximum value H V close to one (

H V  1 ),(3) recordings at stations located on soft rock produce a maximum value

H V showing greater than one ( H V  1 ) (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 Maximum ratio of horizontal to vertical spectrum at several observation

stations in Japan and Mexico (Nakamura, 1989).
 Based on the assumptions above, it can be concluded that in hard rocks, the
motion of particles in horizontal and vertical components approaches the same
value whereas in soft rocks the horizontal component experiences reinforcement.

Nakamura (2000) made direct observations with a seismometer which aims

to examine the characteristics of subsurface response. The results show a consistent
value from several measurements of the spectrum ratio, namely the peak value of
the spectrum and the dominant frequency value. So Nakamura formulated the
HVSR method as one way to find out the characteristics of local soil in an area.

Herak (2008) introduces the HVSR Model program created with MATLAB
software. This program aims to inverse the HVSR curve from the results of a single
station microtremor (passive seismic) measurement to get a geotechnical model.
Various studies using inversion of the HVSR Model have been carried out by
several researchers in various aspects of research.

Gosar et al. (2008) used a method developed by Herak in 2008, to estimate

the velocity of shallow subsurface shear waves in the Ljubljana region, Slovenia
which is geologically distributed with soft sedimentary rocks. To obtain the shear
wave velocity profile (Vs) three different methods are used, namely passive
MASW, active MASW and HVSR Model microtremor. The measurement results
show that the three methods are effective in determining the shear wave velocity
profile at shallow depth (Figure 2.3). The velocity profile correspondence obtained
showed similar results, namely Vs30 active MASW 145 m / s, Passion MASW 120
m / s and HVSR microtremor of 120 m/s. Values obtained by active MASW are
20% greater than values obtained by passive MASW and HVSR microtremor
modeling. This difference does not greatly affect the determination of soil type.
Based on the velocity values obtained in the range of values 120-145 m / s, the study
area is classified in type E (soft soil type).

Figure 2.3 Shear wave velocity profiles of (a) active MASW, (b) active
MASW and (c) HVSR model microtremor.
 Mufida (2013) inversed the HVSR curve to estimate the distribution value
of Vs30 based on microtremor data at 39 points in the Surabaya area. The results
obtained are the Vs30 map of the Surabaya region with a range of values of 40 to
179 m / s which are included in the classification of type E (<180 m / s) type of soft
soil and type D (180 - 360 m / s) of solid soil types. Based on the VS30 zoning,
estimates of areas vulnerable to infrastructure damage caused by the earthquake
were found in almost all of Surabaya except the western part of Surabaya. The
estimated level of infrastructure damage is high, because the area is distributed with
soft soil types with low Vs30 distribution and alluvial lithology (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 VS30 distribution map of Surabaya region (Mufida, 2013).

Brigita (2015) carried out subsurface modeling of the Kuwu Bledug mud
volcano based on micrototremor data from a 3 component seismometer recording
using the HVSR curve inversion method. This modeling aims to determine the
shape and depth of the bedrock beneath the surface of the Bleduk Kuwu mud
volcano. The results of the study are three-dimensional subsurface profiles of
Bleduk Kuwu that show Bleduk Kuwu mud pools in sediment layers with a depth
of 300 meters which are estimated to have a shear velocity of approximately (100-
500) m / s in the form of clay sediments included in the type of loose material
(alluvial). As for the Bledug Kuwu bedrock layer, it is composed of shale material
with shear speeds of more than 500 m / s.