CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literature that is direct and indirect idea about the present study.

Class Types in Philippine Education

With the unabated increase in the population of the Philippines, is a continuous increase in

the number of classes in the elementary level. Many of these classes are monograde, particularly

in places where population is dense. But when enrolment per level is insufficient to form a single

class, multigrade classes are organized.

The types of classes in the Philippines can be classified according to the number of grade

levels in a classroom. Thus, there are monograde and multigrade classes.

Monograde classes. Typically, a single grade or monograde classroom groups

pupils/students by age and assigns them to a particular grade level. The pupils of one group though

of the same age may have different abilities and are all taught by one teacher in a classroom.

Monograde classrooms are the types of classrooms that most people experience in the

elementary school. While curricula, teaching strategies, and learning techniques have changed,

monograde classrooms have proven to be a practical and efficient type of grouping for most public

schools. The teacher mainly focuses on one lesson for the grade she is handling. She concentrates

more on providing for the different abilities of the learners and works on their strengths and

weaknesses. Classroom management in a monograde class is a matter of undertaking planned

activities well, providing for varied pupil abilities and interests, and maintaining discipline.

Multigrade classes. There have been multigrade classes in the Philippine Educational

System since the 1920’s (http://www.orionbataan.com/component/content/article/68-

education/279-multi-grade-classes-in-philippine-education-.html) because such classes were

organized whenever there was a need for it. But it has not been regarded as a very viable alternative

delivery system to provide access to basic education, as well as quality education. It was only

under the leadership of Secretary of Education Armand Fabella (1993-1994) that the multigrade

program was launched as a systematic and viable means of meeting the goal of education for

all. Multigrade teaching as a national strategy in the Philippines to improve access to and the

quality of primary schooling was formalized with the launching of the Multigrade Program in

Philippine Education (MPPE) in 1993.

The MPPE aims to improve quality by increasing teachers’ ability to work with more than

one grade simultaneously through training and instructional materials. The program works in five

areas: curriculum and materials development, staff development, physical facilities, community

support, and research, monitoring and evaluation. It has developed a guide for minimum learning

competencies for multigrade classes, a budget of work and lesson plan for multigrade teachers to

follow, a handbook for teachers with sample lessons, materials to be used at different grade levels

within the same classroom and other instructional materials, such as a 100-book library, drill cards,

and other teacher-made materials. These efforts have resulted in the production of a handbook for

pre-school teachers and a workbook for preschool children. Teachers are encouraged to develop

their own materials suited to their pupils.

(http://www.orionbataan.com/component/content/article/68-education/279-multi-grade-classes-

in-philippine-education-.html)

There are certain conditions when a multigrade class may be organized. These are:1) In

schools in areas of low population density where schools are widely scattered and inaccessible and

enrolments are low, and where there are only one or two teachers responsible for all grades; 2) In
schools that comprise a cluster of classrooms spread across in different locations, in which some

classes are multigrade for the same reasons as in number 1, and some are monograde; 3) In schools

in areas of where student and teacher numbers are declining, and where previously there was

monograde teaching; 4) In schools in areas of population growth and school expansion where

enrolments in the expanding upper grades remain small and teacher numbers few; and 5) in schools

in areas where parents send their children to more popular schools within reasonable travel

distance, leading to a decline in the potential population of students and teachers in the less popular

school.

Multigrade Instruction

Multigrade teaching is all about classroom organization, student management, and,

ultimately, the successful transmission of grade-specific curricula. It is the responsibility of a

multigrade teacher to plan and organize the classroom to get the best results from the space and

resources available.

Basic principles. Multigrade teaching is based on two basic principles about how children

learn and how teachers can teach effectively (Bautista, 1994 in Martinez (2001). These are as

follows: 1) Children are unique; no two children are alike physically, emotionally, socially and

intellectually, so teachers must understand them in their uniqueness; and 2) Children learn better

by doing, using their senses, exploring their environment with people, things, places and events -

they learn from first-hand and concrete experiences.

There are several requirements for effective multigrade teaching. Instructional delivery and

grouping should be systematic and well-organized. The classroom should be well-managed so

that it is conducive to learning; this means that the necessary resources are available and the
necessary discipline among the pupils has been developed so that they can focus on learning. There

must be a cooperative learning environment where self-directed learning is balanced with teacher-

directed activities, peer teaching and group work. The teacher should be well-prepared to serve as

facilitator of learning and should apply a variety of instructional strategies and techniques to suit

the varied needs of learners. Lastly, there should be a well-designed curriculum that allows

integration of subject matter areas and a variety of learning experiences for the pupils (Bautista,

1994 in Martinez (2001).

Classroom discipline. Maintaining discipline in the classroom is a critical element of

classroom management and successful instruction and it requires good organizational ability and

consistency. Pupils come into the classroom expecting the teacher to give them guidance and

direction about rules and procedures and how the classroom is organized for instructional use.

Having a uniform and predictable set of rules and procedures simplifies the task of being

successful. Having clear and efficient routines makes classroom life run smoothly. Because there

are so many different levels in a multigrade classroom, the need for clear, consistent rules and

procedures is even more critical than in traditional, single-grade classrooms.

Instructional methods. Different instructional methods, techniques and strategies

are used for pupil achievement. Bautista, 1994 in Martinez (2001) emphasizes that cooperation

and peer support among teachers are critical to effective multigrade teaching. In addition, the

multigrade teachers should know how to form and organize “working” groups, how to structure

learning experiences for group of pupils, and how to teach the needed skills for successful

cooperation within the groups and among the different groups in the class. These can be carried

on if the multigrade teachers utilize appropriate and effective instructional methods.

 Recitation can be effective when the teacher carefully plans the lesson, is patient and shows

genuine interest in what the pupils have to share by listening well to them. Pupils should be given

time to prepare their own questions, instead of the teacher asking all the time. Pupils can be allowed

to work in pairs to ask and answer each other’s questions. A wait time of three to five seconds

should be allowed so the pupils can think about their answer. All pupils should be given chances

to recite and they should be called on when they are ready. Allowing pupils to confer with one

another before answering is also effective since recitation is not an oral exam and, more

importantly, a multigrade classroom is a cooperative learning environment. Teachers should assist

the pupils to arrive at the correct answer and rephrasing the question is also encouraged instead of

negative feedback.

Discussion, like recitation, involves using questions, but the purpose and the types of

questions used are different. Questions asked during the discussion do not require only one single

correct answer, since it involves interchange among all the members of the group. The teacher acts

as a group leader or facilitator. He/she prepares questions that stimulate discussions and give them

a sense of direction. To have a meaningful and productive discussion within the group, pupils must

be prepared also to participate by reading about the topic assigned to them.

Independent study is another effective instructional strategy in a multigrade classroom. The

teacher records observations and thinks of the appropriate activity that will effectively respond to

pupil’s needs. During the implementation of activities, the teacher monitors progress of individual

pupils and identifies the pupils’ weaknesses, which can be considered for the next planning.

Self-directed learning is another method used in a multigrade classroom. Pupils are

developed to become self-managed and independent learners. It involves a fully focused learner

who can assume responsibility from start to completion of work or activity assigned to him or her.
 In the multigrade classroom, peer teaching is also an important and effective instructional

strategy. One pupil can assume the role of teaching a skill or helping another pupil to understand

a concept. Both pupils can also assist each other to be able to understand a topic.

Whole class teaching can also be used in a multigrade classroom. As clearly indicated by

its name, the class is considered as a whole and the teacher teaches students within a common

framework. This is the simplest approach for a teaching multigrade class. The teacher has only one

lesson to prepare, so both time and effort is saved. Fewer teaching preparations have to be made

and less supporting materials have to be prepared. But this can only be done with students with

average level of ability. If planned well, this strategy can help students develop cognitive skills

and facilitate their learning, as well as, improve their relationships with one another. This can result

to a situation which is not as competitive as the monograde class often is. The children also benefit

from exchanges of ideas, opinions and skills far broader than those found in the normal straight

class. These collective discussions can be an enriching experience for children at all levels.

Functions and roles of a multigrade teacher. A combined class of students differs a lot

from the conventional type of a single grade. That means that the way that the students of the

multigrade class should be taught must be different as well. The function of the teacher in the

multigrade classroom is multidimensional or much more complicated and demanding than the role

of the teacher in the monograde School.

Multigrade teaching represents a more demanding teaching situation and special attention

should be given to it. For children to learn effectively in multigrade environments, teachers need

to be well-trained, well-resourced and hold positive attitudes to multigrade teaching. Multigrade

teachers perform a multi-faceted role (http://www.ea.gr/ep/muse/data/meth_function.html)

 1) As a teacher. The main function of the multigrade teacher is to teach students by

imparting knowledge not just following a curriculum. Teacher must be able to develop skills and

inculcate desirable values and attitudes among pupils. The teacher is expected to be versatile and

utilize different strategies to make learning meaningful and effective for all students in his/her

classroom, no matter what individual differences may exist among the students.

2) As facilitator. The teacher should be able to understand differences between pupils,

be able to motivate them to learn and guide them through their learning materials. The teacher

should be able to do this for all grade levels in the classroom, no matter what curriculum subject

is being studied. The teacher should not only be a provider of knowledge but should also be a

facilitator of learning both at a group level and on a one-to-one basis.

3) As a planner. Planning is a critical function for the multigrade teacher. Appropriate

planning by the teacher will result in classes which are more productive for the learners and easier

for them to follow. Planning in the multigrade school classroom is much more important that in a

monograde one. The teaching hour must be spent productively for student groups in grades of the

class and thus accuracy on time spending is crucial.

4) As evaluator. Another role which the multigrade teacher must carry out is to monitor

the progress of pupil's learning so as to ensure quality of education. Therefore, assessment should

be considered a continuous and integral part of the teaching process. Usually, this requires teachers

to determine the educational levels of pupils when they first enter schooling, during the school

year and at the end of each school year. Therefore, assessment should be considered a continuous

and integral part of the teaching process.

Differences Between the Two Class Types

 At first look, the skills needed to teach well in the multigrade and the monograde classroom

appear to be quite similar. Both need to consider individual differences among pupils. If a teacher

in either sort of classroom fails to address differences among students, the effectiveness

of instruction suffers. Likewise, teachers are not effective when they have not been adequately

prepared to teach students with varying ages and abilities--no matter what sort of classroom they

work in.

Instructional strategies. When student diversity increases, whether it be in a multigrade

or monograde classroom, greater demand is placed on teacher resources, both cognitive and

emotional.

Instructional grouping practices also play an important role in a good multigrade

classroom. The teacher emphasizes the similarities among the different grades and teaches to them,

thus conserving valuable teacher time. For example, whole-class (cross-grade) instruction is often

used since the teacher can have contact with more students. However, whole-class instruction in

the effective multigrade classroom differs from what one generally finds in a single-grade class.

Multigrade teachers recognize that whole-class instruction must revolve around open task

activities if all students are to be engaged. For example, a teacher can introduce a writing

assignment through topic development where all students "brainstorm" ideas. In this context,

students from all grades can discuss different perspectives. They can learn to consider and respect

the opinions of others.

Cooperation is a necessary condition of life in the multigrade classroom. All ages become

classmates, and this closeness extends beyond the walls of the school to include the community.
 Moreover, Springer’s (2006) research shows that multigrade teachers tend to teach grade

by grade. The most popular method is to teach a lesson to one group while the other group works

on follow-up activities to previous instruction (individual seatwork). This means that pupils in

multigrade classes spend more time on independent work than pupils in monograde classes.

Springer also found out that both types of classes used the same classroom organization

(pupils in rows facing the blackboard) with the exception of one multigrade class. In multigrade

classes, all pupils at the same level sat together in an easily identifiable group (mixed ability

monograde classes where pupils not usually grouped in this way). Classroom groupings in

monograde classes begin with general whole-class instruction followed by individual seatwork –

no sign of pair or small group work.

Multigrade classes were much more likely to have self-access materials in classroom –

suggesting that self-access work is promoted. Multigrade teachers had to produce separate plans

for all the grades in their class – they regarded this as an onerous task and said they would prefer

to teach a monograde group of 50 pupils. While this is a burden for teachers, it could be seen as

forcing them to differentiate between their pupils in a way that would also be useful for monograde

teachers who generally do not pay enough attention to individual needs.

Assessment, likewise, is more of a bureaucratic burden for multigrade teachers who have

to produce tests for several levels. Again this was seen to have positive benefits for the learners

as more attention was paid to individual needs.

In another research on class type, Springer (2006) concluded that in multigrade classrooms,

more evidence of a greater variety of independent work (e.g. pupils going to fetch dictionaries

when they needed them) – probably because the teacher was not as available to them. Much more

interdependent work was evident in multigrade classes. Despite a reduction in direct instruction
pupils in multigrade classes did not necessarily suffer, partly perhaps because of the input they

were receiving passively from the instruction of other levels. Learning-to-learn skills were more

likely to be developed in multigrade classes, especially where self-access materials are available

in the classroom.

Organizational techniques. Skill in organizing and managing a classroom makes more

demands on a multigrade teacher than on one handling a monograde class. In the multigrade

classroom, more time must be spent in organizing and planning for instruction than in the

monograde classroom. Extra materials and strategies must be developed so that students will be

meaningfully engaged. This additional coordination lets the teacher meet with small groups or

individuals, while other work continues.

Since the teacher cannot be everywhere or with each student simultaneously, the teacher

shares instructional responsibilities with students. A context of clear rules and routines makes such

shared responsibility productive. Students know what the teacher expects. They know what

assignments to work on, when they are due, how to get them graded, how to get extra help, and

where to turn assignments in.

Students learn how to help one another and themselves. At an early age, students are

expected to develop independence. The effective multigrade teacher establishes a climate to

promote and develop this independence. For example, when young students enter the classroom

for the first time, they receive help and guidance not only from the teacher, but from older students.

In this way, they also learn that the teacher is not the only source of knowledge.

Evaluation in the multigrade classroom. Evaluation in a multigrade classroom is

similar to that of a monograde class. There are two ways of evaluating pupil learning which both
should be in constant use in multigrade classroom (Bautista, 1994 in Martinez (2001). These are

informal and formal evaluation. Informal evaluation includes some of the following useful

strategies: (1) observing pupils while working in different kinds of situation, (2) engaging in

individual, informal interaction with children as they are working on assigned tasks, (3) providing

follow-up activities that encourage application of skills or concept learned and observe how

children are able to apply these concepts and skills, (4) asking children to design a variation game,

(5) asking children to write about what they have learned, (6) carefully looking at every piece of

child’s work, and (7) assigning homework to provide information on how much children have

learned from it.

On the other hand, formal evaluation includes such tools as tests, like unit tests, short

quizzes, long examinations and national examinations. These are most widely used means of

formal evaluation. To arrive at a good constructed tests as a means of formal evaluation, it is

important to consider the following: (1) Test should be designed or constructed for a specific grade

or ability levels; (2) Children should be made to understand the purposes of test; (3) Children

should also be taught testing skills; (4) A test should be given under relaxed condition; (5) Test

should be the only means of evaluation in a multigrade classroom.

Time Management

The efficient use of time is an important variable in helping students achieve learning goals

and making the classroom a pleasant pace for teachers and students. Institutional strategies must

be planned to fit into fixed time frames, where it is the clock and not the teacher’s assessment of

whether students need more time on the topic that dictates the beginning and end of a lesson. The
present emphasis on standard and high stakes assessment also affect how time is allocated in the

school day (Ahaiwe and Olawolu, 2011).

Without a doubt, the effective teacher ensures that students are appropriately engaged in

instruction for as much of the available time as possible. Time is important. Teachers’ approach

to the use of time is often tied to their assessment of a teacher’s relative value in the classroom. If

teachers feel that the time they spend with students has considerable value, they will work to

increase the amount of time spent interacting with students.

The research on the characteristics of effective teachers has yielded a consistent profile of

a teacher actively teaching, rather than depending on less direct approaches in which there is less

instructional activity and less teacher contact with students.

Later research studies explored how time can be more efficiently used in classrooms and

the instructional practices that lead to active student learning (http://feaweb.org/time-on-task-a-

teaching-strategy-that-accelerates-learning). The California Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study

(BTES) of grades 2 through 5 in a large number of elementary schools identified teaching activities

and classroom conditions that advanced student learning. BTES findings highlighted three

important time concepts: allocated time, engaged time and academic learning time.

Allocated time is the total amount of time available for learning; e.g. the length of the

school day or a class period. It is the “opportunity to learn”. According to the BTES and many

subsequent studies, teachers who allocate more time to a specific content area have students who

achieve at higher levels than teachers who allocate less time to the same content. The Florida

Department of Education (FLDOE) embraced this research concept when it developed the policy

that mandated an uninterrupted 90 minute reading block for all public elementary schools. This
standardized reading time allocation guarantees that all elementary students have an equal

opportunity to learn to read.

The BTES study also noted factors that limit learning or cause students to lose interest

during the allocated timeframe, such as: Unscheduled interruptions, public announcements, fire

drills, visitors and other school management practices; Uneven transitions between activities and

inefficient classroom management procedures that disrupt the learning flow, such as disorderly

material distribution or disorganized assignment collection; and over-reliance on seatwork,

uninteresting and overly demanding lessons and other non-engaging instructional practices.

Instructional time has to do with quality of instruction that a teacher delivers. It is the

amount of time students spend actively listening to the discussion of the teacher. Success breeds

success. When a teacher targets the instruction of a new concept or skill so students can succeed

at least 75% of the time, students are more engaged and achieve at higher levels

(http://feaweb.org/time-on-task-a-teaching-strategy-that-accelerates-learning).

Engaged time is the length of time the pupils concentrate and are actively performing a

task, whether mental or physical. The BTES findings on engaged time or time on

task demonstrate that the more engaged time students have, the higher they achieve. Highly

interactive instructional styles led to greater amounts of student engaged time, and, consequently,

increased student learning.

Data from the BTES study of reading and mathematics instruction showed that students

were actively engaged in learning 84 percent of the time during teacher-led activities but only 70

percent of the time during seatwork which was the dominant pattern in the classrooms studied.
Student engagement dropped considerably lower when students spent 90% of their time doing

seatwork.

John Carroll’s (2003) paper, which directly linked learning to time, proposed that true

learning depends on the amount of time a student spends actively engaged in the learning process

compared to the amount of time the student needs in order to learn.

Moreover, one of the major implications of the research on the effective use of time lies in

the extent to which an individual teacher can manage the use of time. Rosenshine (2000) noted

that the teachers who were more successful at engaging students had their students engaged for

two hours and thirty minutes per day, or 53 percent of the in-class time. The least successful

teachers had students engaged for one hour and twenty minutes per day, or 28 percent of the in

class time.

In addition, one major finding of the research of De Guzman, Jr. and Guy (2013) was that

the performance of the nursing university professors is contributory to their ability to direct and

control students’ learning activities. The length of time they keep their students engaged is a

significant predictor of the students’ academic achievement. They thus concluded that nursing

University professors’ use of time allotted for a subject to engage students in the lessons and meet

learning outcomes highly influences the passing rate of the nursing students in their professional

subjects.

Gump (2003) documented teachers’ behavior in the classroom. He found that

approximately one-half of the teachers’ acts involved instruction (questions, feedback, imparting

knowledge, etc.). The rest of the time the teachers were involved in organizing and arranging
students for instruction and orienting them to tasks (23% average), dealing with deviant behavior

(14%), and handling individual problems and social amenities (12%) [p. 399].

Thus, McKenzie (2006), cited by Jake M. Laguador (2013) recommended that, in order to

manage the classroom better, teachers should make students aware of their learning objectives for

the day and it is sometimes helpful to put an outline of that day’s class on an overhead transparency

or in one corner of the board to indicate not only what activities the class will be doing and what

exercises/problems they will be working on, but how much time that will be allotting each part of

the class.

Pupil performance

In previous years, some significant studies have been carried out on the effects of

multigrade classes on pupils’ achievement.

Veenman, 1995 in Higgins (2005), conducted a research concerning the cognitive and

non-cognitive effects of multigrade and multi-age classes (45 of which were concerned with

multigrade classes), drawn from a wide range of countries and nations across the world, both

developed and developing. Veenman found that there were no consistent differences in student

achievement between multigrade and monograde classes.

Kirby’s and Mariano’s (2005) study focused on the achievement of students in multigrade

classrooms and they used a quasi-experimental method to define a plausible comparison group of

peers in a monograde classroom. It examined how these students performed compared to the

students in monograde classroom. The authors found that being in a multigrade classroom had

consistently small and negative effects on student achievement, regardless of grade or subject,

even controlling for teacher characteristics.

 Similarly, Little (2004) concluded in his research that, aside from providing access,

multigrade instruction delivers the same kind of education as monograde classes and in some cases,

improves the effectiveness of educational delivery and contributes to the mental and social

development of pupils, resulting to same performance of pupils to both class types.

Numerous studies compared the effectiveness of "open" classrooms (multigrade

organization with student-centered ethos and methods) and "regular" classrooms (monograde

organization with traditional ethos and methods). They have learned a great deal from these

innovative efforts. Working in an open, multigrade school requires serious, ongoing teacher

training and a commitment to hard work.

However, the finding of no significant difference which existed in the performance of

pupils taught using multigrade and monograde teaching was explained by Higgins (2005) as due to

the following factors: (1) Grouping alone is unlikely to have an effect; learning is more dependent

on the quality of teaching than on organizational structures; (2) Bias in selecting more capable

students into multi-grade classes, if it occurs, would deplete the proportion of those students in

mono-grade classes, producing non-equivalent samples for comparison; (3) Teachers of multigrade

classes are inadequately prepared for teaching such classes and do not have available suitable

materials for their teaching; (4) Multigrade teaching is demanding and leaves teachers with little

energy to pursue potentially more effective grouping strategies in their teaching, resulting in the

use of the same practices as in single-grade classes.

On the other hand, most teachers have been trained to work in monograde classrooms.

Their knowledge of teaching method is based on whole-class instruction and small-group

instruction (with groups often formed on the basis of ability or achievement level). When placed
in a multigrade setting, teachers discovered that the time requirements and skills needed to be

effective were simply not part of their prior training and experience.

In addition, there is greater diversity of achievement and developmental levels in the

multigrade classroom than in the typical monograde classroom. This diversity creates a greater

demand on teacher time. Therefore, multigrade teachers often find themselves having to rely more

on students to work independently and to help one another than the monograde teacher. This means

that pupils need to be self-directed, motivated, and responsible learners. They need to be able to

help one another, set and complete learning goals, follow teacher directions, and stay on task with

a minimum of teacher supervision.

Linehan (2013) stated on his study that there was no statistically significant difference

between multigrade and monograde classes on the students' reading, writing, and mathematics

scores. He likewise suggested that multigrade education is a viable alternative to monograde

education. Thus, it is recommended that continued implementation of multigrade education can

continue into the future. It is recommended that future research be conducted in others grade levels,

subject disciplines, and jurisdictions.

Moreover, Little (2004) found that learners in multigrade schools consistently

outperformed those in monograde schools in the terminal grade of primary school. In a subsequent

study, Berry, 2001 as cited in Little (2004) found that learners in multigrade schools performed

better than those in monograde schools but that the advantage was greatest for the lowest achieving

learners.

Furthermore, Talheimer’s (2010) study generally suggests that multigrade classroom

approaches are not likely to produce results that differ substantially from single-grade classrooms.
Specifically, it is likely that the quality of the learning methods utilized and the teacher’s

performance in the classroom makes more of difference than whether a multigrade or single-grade

approach is utilized. He likewise concluded that multigrade teaching is generally considered more

difficult and onerous than single-grade teaching. If a multigrade approach is utilized, then it should

be utilized with due diligence—providing teacher support and development, utilizing team

teaching, encouraging many diagnostic opportunities (so that learning can be tailored to learner’s

current levels), and so forth.

Mulryan-Kyne, (2010) also concluded that teachers in multigrade classes are less likely to

receive the support and structure they need than teachers in pedagogic multigrade classes. Thus,

multigrade classrooms are not aberrations, but are used throughout the world, and are likely to

continue and grow in use in the future.

The different studies provided a basis for the conceptualization of the problem of the

present study, as well as bases for comparing the findings with regard to time management, an

important component of classroom management, and pupil performance in both multigrade and

monograde classes.