Topic: The Communication Process

What is Communication?
 “the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures and
graphs” (Berelson and Steiner, 1964)
 “all those planned and unplanned processes through which one person influences the behaviour of others” (Kar)
 “the interactive transfer of shared meaning between intelligences” (Brown, 1976).
Elements of Communication
 Senders/Source – person or entity from which the message is expressed.
 Message – the information which is to be expressed.
 Channel/Medium – the means by which the message is communicated.
 Receiver – the target for the message.
 Feedback – the receiver’s response to the message.
The Process of Communication
 (Sender) Conceptualization – mental activity in the creation of the message.
 (Sender) Encoding – the language to be used (verbal/non-verbal)
 (Sender) Medium/Channel – how the message is sent, what is used to send the message (e.g. Letter)
 (Receiver) Decoding & Interpretation – deciphering and applying meaning to the message.
 (Receiver) Provides feedback (by starting the process all over again..hence receiver then becomes the sender).

Topic: Barriers and Hindrances to Communication

Barriers – anything that detracts from the message being sent and prevents effective communication.
Facilitators - these aid in the passing of communication for a mutual understanding. E.g. effective medium,
language, additional visual prompts.

There are two main types of barriers otherwise knows as noise:-

 Channel Noise – any disturbance which affects the physical transmission of the message (e.g. static, ink blotting,
font too small to read in the magazine, loud talking etc.)
 Semantic Noise – results in the wrong interpretation of the message even though it is received as exactly how it
was sent. (difficult words, difficult subject, choice of word versus meaning) e.g. “What is noxious effluvium permeates
the atmosphere” – which simply means, “What is that foul/stinking smell”
 Effective Communication – both sender and receiver understands (shared meaning).
 Ineffective Communication – sender’s intent is not what is understood by the receiver.

Topic: Modes of Writing

Like speaking, writing allows you to structure your language in ways that enable others to understand and relate to what
you are trying to communicate. The primary goal of writing is to convey a message. Whether you are writing for yourself
or an audience, you are writing with a purpose in mind. Each mode of writing has a specific purpose and clearly
discernible characteristics that suit that purpose. The basic modes of writing are literary ( descriptive/narrative),
expository and persuasive.

In Paper 2, Section 1 of the examination, students are often required to read an extract taken from a passage, and then
write an essay in which you not only state the writer's main point but also comment on the strategies used by the writer, as
well as discuss the suitability of the extract for a specific audience. In order to respond adequately to such a question,
students ought to be able to identify each type of discourse. Generally, this is done according to the writer's purpose, the
intended audience and the writer's style.
Narration (tells a story, Description (gives Exposition (makes an idea Persuasion (Psychological to
details a series of related sensuous details about clear, analyses a situation, convince by using emotional/
events) people, places, times of day, defines a term, gives non-rational appeals.
feelings and so on) instructions) Argument to convince by
appeals to reason/logic/the
To entertain, to inform To identify, to construct a To explain, to identify the intellect)
verbal picture, to express subject in a number of
what a thing looks, alternative ways, to inform To cause belief or action
sounds, feels, smells or
tastes like. Analysis, classification, Repetition, rhetorical
Action Verbs definition, illustration, cause questions, emotional appeal,
Dialogue Adjectives and effect, comparison and Evidence facts, authoritative
Narrative point-of-view Sense data contrast, analogy opinions, personal
First/third person narration experience, Refutation of
 counter argument

Textbooks, reference books, Advertisements, political

Novels, biographies, short Descriptive sequence training manuals, essays, speeches, sermons, Essays
stories and autobiographies Catalogues, travel books, reports
scene settings, word
portraits

Topic: Language (Purpose and Characteristics)

In order to master language we must be able to master the use of language for all its purposes. Communication is the aim
of Language, the conveyance of information and concepts. Language acts like a code, the rules need to be understood
before communication can be achieved.
Research Definitions of Language
1. “Language is both a body of symbols (most commonly used words) and the systems for their use in messages that
are common to the people of the same speech community” (Kathleen & Rudolph Verderber, Communicate, 11th
Edition).
2. “Language is a medium of communication” (Lall, Communication Skill for CAPE Students)
Dictionary Definitions:
1. “system of communication between humans, through written and vocal symbols”
2. “speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group”
3. “words, especially employed in any art, branch of knowledge or profession”
4. “a person’s characteristic mode of speech
Terms Relating to Language Characteristics
1. Systematic – use of different systems eg.sounds & grammar to communicate effectively
2. Symbolic – words being used as representations or symbols of ideas (dictionaries are usually records of the
symbolic meaning of the words in a language)
3. Evolutionary – it changes over time, hence the invention of new words or changes in meaning occurs
Terms Relating to the Purpose of Language
1. Expressive – allows for venting, to express one’s ideas or attitudes without necessarily taking a reader or listener
into consideration. When language is issued in this way the speaker or writer is not trying to effect change in an
audience or elicit responses (diaries and journals are obvious examples of language used for expression purposes).
2. Informative – facilitates the conveying of information to others eg. news broadcasts, bulletin board and textbook.
3. Cognitive – the intention of affecting the audience in some way in order to evoke a response eg. Language used to
persuade, entertain, stir to anger, or arouse sympathy (jokes, political speeches, horror stories are also always in
which language is used cognitively).
4. Poetic – focuses on structure and pattern and places emphasis on how the language is manipulated. Literary,
stylistic and imaginative ways are considered poetic. The focus here is on the way and not form.
5. Phatic – this is the language being used to establish or maintain contact and not necessarily seeking to generate a
meaningful response. This is not popular in written communication though the ‘greeting’ and ‘closure’ of letters
are usually phatic.
6. Metalinguistic – language being used to comment on language (eg. critiquing on essay, speech etc.)

Topic: Elements of Language (Part 1) - Registers and Dialectal Variations

A Creole is a Language that came into being through contact between two or more languages. When people who speak
different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate with each other for purposes of trade,
business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of language communication, called a Pidgin. A Pidgin which
becomes the native language of a people having acquired a more complex grammar is referred to as a Creole. Creoles are
classified based on the dominant language structure (eg English Creole, French Creole etc).
Elements of Language
REGISTERS – a systematic variant of a language appropriate to a particular setting. It also speaks to the level of
formality used in written or spoken language. There are six(6) Language Registers :
1. Frozen Register: This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen” in time and content.
e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic
reference, laws .
2. Formal Register : This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually
follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are
speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.
3. Consultative Register: This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure
of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse.
e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client,
lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client,
 4. Casual Register: This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are
normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and
emails, and blogs, and letters to friends.
5. Intimate Register: This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g.
husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

Dialectal Variation - speaks to the idea of having a variety of one language common to a particular speech community
(which is mutually intelligible). Difference in accent does not indicate a different Dialect because Dialects differ from
each other in terms of semantics(word choice), syntax(sentence structure), grammar and morphology(word forms)
whereas accents refer to pronunciation. The Dialect spoken by the dominant group in the society commands the most
prestige. Education, publishing and an established body of Literature enhances the status of of the prestigious dialect and
it becomes the STANDARD. In this regard one can speak about the Language/Dialect Continuum - this is the range of a
language spoken by a speech community.
Acrolect Mesolect Basilect

BASILECT is the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on
the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
MESOLECT is the form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the
continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
ACROLECT is the Jamaican Standard English and it is the last point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal
situations.

Topic: Elements of Language (Communicative Behaviours)

Communicative Behaviours – this is conduct, it speaks to one being conditioned to act in ways they perceive and know to
be correct. One may communicate with touch, smiles, clothing, sounds, movements etc. The use of the body is prominent
in Communicative Behaviour.
1. A student pouts when told to switch off a cellphone during a lesson.
2. Teenage boys bounce as they walk.
3. People greet each other with a kiss on the cheek.
4. A student changes his seat when a classmate enters the class and sits next to him.
Verbal Communication – is that type of communication which is spoken or written.
● Oral – talking to oneself, dialogue, telephone calls.
● Visual – communication through maps, graphics, traffic signals, advertisements.
● Written – memos, letters, reports, papers.
● Electronic – facilitated by the interface with a computer, modem, telephone, fax, email, etc.
Non-Verbal Communication – message sent not using words. Physical gestures, art forms, facial expression, voice, etc.
Body Language – the use of the body to communicate meanings (intentionally or otherwise). E.g. how you sit, stand, your
eyes.
● Proxemics – the use of space to indicate/communicate a message. One’s personal space is highly considered in this
regard. Distance can communicate anxiety or relaxation. (this can be linked to Introduction Activity 2)
● Kinesics – the interpretation of the body language. People communicate through posture, gesture, stance and movement.
Ray Bird Whistell (1952) noted that only 30-35 percent of the social meaning of conversation or an interaction is carried
by words. This means that non-verbal communication carries 65 – 70 percent of the meaning of communication.
● Chronemics – use of time, waiting or pauses to send a message. It may be used to get the attention of the listener as well
as to make the message more effective or signal that what is being said or to be said is important.
● Dress – dress can communicate many messages about an individual/group. It is often times used as the basis for making
judgements. How you dress can communicate social standing etc. e.g. the wearing of a genuine Louis Vuitton bag may
communicate one’s wealth.
● Graphics & Symbols – sign language falls in this category as well as mathematical and science related symbols.
● Paralanguage/Vocalics – the use of non-verbal elements to modify meaning and convey emotion. They may be
consciously or unconsciously expressed. Pitch, volume and intonation are all paralanguage features which all reveal
information or certain feelings.

Topic: Effectively Researching for Data

Research - “disciplined process of investigating and seeking facts that will lead one to discover the truth about something”
(Markham et.al. 2001). When we speak of researching information, we refer to various ways of sourcing knowledge for
varying purposes.
Data/Information – collected facts that allows the researcher to come to a conclusion
Primary Research – designed/original research carried out by ‘you’
There are two types of Primary Research (Qualitative and Quantitative)
Qualitative- relies heavily on findings taken from observation, interviewing and tracing patterns of behaviour.
 This type of research helps us understand how people feel and why.
 Samples tend to be smaller and the duration may be longer.
  Examples of qualitative research are :
 Historical Research (study of past events eg. The effect of dancehall music on clothing styles in the 19 th to 20th
century)
 Ethnographic Research (study of current events in a naturalistic setting eg. The effect of dancehall music on the
behaviour of school children)
Quantitative – uses surveys to assist the statistical analysis.
 This may require a larger sample and the researcher may not come in contact with all the participants.
 Examples of quantitative research are: Descriptive Research (data in order to answer a question about the current
status of a subject or situation)
 This type of research is concerned with ‘the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns or interest of some group or
people.
 Correlation Research (seeks to establish a relationship or lack thereof between two variables
 eg. How does the performance at Gsat correspond to the performance of students at CSEC General?)

Topic: Evaluating Sources

Selecting an appropriate source
 Learning how to determine the relevance and authority of a given resource for your research is one of the core
skills of the research process.
 Appraise a source by first examining the bibliographic citation. This is the written description of a book, journal
article, essay or some other published material that appears in a catalogue or index.
 Bibliographic citations characteristically have three main components: author, title and publication information.
These components can help you determine the usefulness of this source for your research. If you are using a
website, examine the home page carefully.
 * When was the source published?
* Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic?
 * Is this a first edition of this publication or not?
* If you are using a web source, do the pages indicate revision dates?
Primary Research
 Designed/original research carried out by ‘you’
Secondary Research
 Accessing data on the topic which has already been researched (books, internet etc). You must cite from sources that
are authoritative and scholarly
Instrument
 Method used to gather the data (questionnaires, tests, interviews etc.)
Population
 Group of individuals/ items the researcher intends to study
Credibility
* What are the author's credentials/institutional affiliation?
* Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise?
* Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies?
* Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organisation?
* Is the source published by a university press? If so, the information is likely to be scholarly.
* Is this a popular or scholarly journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in
conveying ide
Validity
* Does this information relate directly to my topic.
* Is the source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs?
*Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda?
* Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence?
* Is the author's point of view objective and impartial?
* Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias?

Reliability
* Are the ideas and arguments more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic?
* Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? You should
explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints.
Can similar results be yielded or found in other settings/ environments?

Topic: Evaluating the spoken word - Listening (Part 1)

 Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages.”
International Listening Association (Judi Bromwell, 2002. p.48)
Incorporated within this definition are the processes of (1) attending (2) understanding (3) evaluating (4) remembering
(5) responding.
Attending – The process of selecting and focussing on specific stimuli (an agent or action that elicits a response). We can
be more effective in attending if we (a) get ready both physically and mentally (posture, lean slightly forward, stop
extraneous activity, block out miscellaneous thoughts by telling yourself that what is being said is most important). (b) Do
not pre-empt your response as the listener. Make the shift from speaker to listener a complete one.
(c) Hear out the person before you react. Allow your mind to process the information before providing a response. Do not
stop listening before the speaker is finished speaking.
Understanding – The process of decoding the message so that the meaning accurately represents/reflects that intended by
the speaker. Empathy can allow you to increase understanding as well as questioning.
Remembering – The process of retaining the information so it can be recalled when it is needed. Repeating the info or
using mnemonics as well as taking notes can increase the likelihood of you remembering.
Evaluating – Critically analysing to determine its truthfulness. This is especially important when a speaker is asking you
to believe or act upon a statement.
Responding – Provide alternative interpretations and provide additional insights into what has been said or offer support.

Topic: Research Methodology (The advantages and disadvantages)

Research - “disciplined process of investigating and seeking facts that will lead one to discover the truth about something”
(Markham et.al. 2001). When we speak of researching information, we refer to various ways of sourcing knowledge for
varying purposes.

QUESTIONNAIRE
STRENGTHS:
1. Easily and reliably scored
2. Quick access to information
3. Primary source
4. Facilitates survey of large population
5. Easily administered
6. Allows for anonymity
WEAKNESSES:
1. Limited scope for the personal and the subjective
2. Limited scope for probing responses
3. Inflexible
4. Responses can be misleading
5. Limitations posed by literal responses
INTERVIEW
Strengths
1. Allows the interviewer to yield a lot of data
2. Allows for greater clarity on issues (that questionnaire would not provide
Weaknesses
1. Time consuming
2. The data is difficult to measure/quantify/analyse

Observation
Strengths
1. Provides first hand data
2. Allows the researcher to clarify things that he/she may be ignorant of

Weaknesses
1. If sample knows that they are being observed they may not be ‘natural’
2. The researcher may misinterpret what he sees due to ignorance of a particular culture/context/setting.

Topic: RECOGNIZING FLAWS IN ARGUMENTS

1. HASTY GENERALISATION

The writer/speaker bases the argument/conclusion on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence. For example, 'I have met
many Jamaicans and I am convinced that the average Jamaican does not wish to be told what to do.'

2. NON SEQUITUR (IT DOES NOT FOLLOW)

The writer's/speaker's conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts presented. For example, 'Affirmative action
programmes have been established to provide access to educational and professional opportunities that have been denied
to certain groups in the past. Since black Rastafarian males have often been at a disadvantage during the last twenty years
or so, I feel that I, as a member of this group, deserve special consideration under affirmative action guidelines.'

3. BEGGING THE QUESTION:

The writer/speaker presents as truth (or as a fact already proven) a statement(s) that is yet to be proven by the argument
presented. For example, 'Do you think that the recent escalation of violence was politically motivated?'

4. RED HERRING

The writer/speaker introduces an irrelevant point to divert the reader's/listener's attention from the main or relevant issue.
For example, 'Government funding for the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) should be discontinued. Taxpayers do
not want and should not be expected to pay for so-called 'art' such as Brown's sexual perversions and Smith's sacrilegious
trash. It is inexcusable that such things have been supported by tax money through the NEA, which because of such
irresponsible decisions should itself be eliminated.'

5. POST HOC (AFTER THIS, THEREFORE, BECAUSE OF THIS)

The assumption of a causal relationship between two things simply because one event follows another in time. The second
event is being thought to be caused by the first which preceded it. For example, 'The belief that a teacher's absence from a
class will result in a fight among students in his/her classroom.'

6. ARGUMENT AD HOMINEM (TO THE MAN)

The writer/speaker attacks the opponent's character rather than the opponent's argument. For example, 'I don't know if it is
the minute size of his head which makes him think we are too small to lead.'

7. ARGUMENT AD POPULUM (TO THE PEOPLE)

The writer/speaker evades an issue by appealing to the reader's/listener's emotional reaction to certain words/subjects. For
example, using the term 'bloated-capitalist' for 'wealthy business man'.

8. EITHER/OR SYNDROME

An attempt to convince the reader/listener that there are only two ways of viewing or understanding an issue one right,
one wrong. For example, 'Were you drunk and not responsible for your actions? I want a straightforward 'yes' or 'no'!'

9. BANDWAGON APPEAL

The writer/speaker attempts to validate a point by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone else believes in it; the
idea is acceptable and sound because it enjoys widespread currency. For example, 'It is common belief that the politicians
are self-serving.'

10. STRAW MAN

The writer/speaker selects the opposition's weakest or most insignificant point to argue against, in order to divert attention
from the real issues. For example, 'Dr. Parchment favours drug legalisation, but this is a view held by very few Jamaicans.
Indeed, no responsible citizen wants to encourage drug addiction or the crime associated with the use of illicit drugs.'

11. FAULTY ANALOGY

The writer/speaker uses an extended (often irrelevant) comparison as proof of a point. Analogy might suggest similarities
but by itself it cannot prove anything. For example, one might refer to a battle as if it were a game and perhaps a game of
chess may be like a battle in several respects, but the comparisons cannot be pressed far.

12. ARGUING IN A CIRCLE

In the course of a discussion the writer/speaker uses the actual statement in question to prove either that the statement is
true or that another statement is true. For example, 'A maintains that Christians lead better lives than others. B then
mentions some Christians who lead disreputable lives. Whereupon A denies that these are Christians.'

15. TABLOID THINKING

A form of generalisation by which the writer/speaker tends to over-simplify complex issues by labelling and putting
things into convenient categories for easy solutions. For example, 'Communists want to make everybody the same.'
Topic: Technology and Communication
Technology – “Those physical tools that allow us to understand our environment” (Aggrey Brown,
1976). The technical means that people use to improve their surroundings. Communication,
technology and culture are inextricably connected. Culture influences the ways in which
people communicate and the technology they select as part of that Communication. The ways
in which we communicate evolve out of the nature of our culture and the type of technology
available to us. Technology alters and shapes our culture while it influences the decisions and
choices people make regarding communication.

The Impact of Technology on Language

 The Printing Press is the first major technological phenomenon associated with communication – 15th C. It
was the first mass communication vehicle and is credited with ushering in “The Age of Enlightenment”.
 1825 creation of the Electromagnet heralded the advent of : Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, and eventually the
“miracle of television”.
 However the internet is what has revolutionized communication.
 Bill Gates in 1999 referred to modern business transaction as “business at the speed of thought”.
 Technology has changed how, when and with whom we communicate.
 Virtual classrooms enables us to gain certification without stepping through a school door.
 Eg. UWI Online degrees
 Games can be played without sitting across the table from our partners eg. Monopoly
 Telephone allows for you to hold conference calls with several persons across the world.
 You can send the info. to hundreds at the click of a button eg. Emails

#CYBERCULTURE
“Netlingo” – this is the language used in instant messaging whether by phone or social sites. It is used to facilitate
speed in the conversation
Eg. of “Netlingo” instant message
Partygirl101 says : hey wassup? LTNS
Bobbybear says : samehere. u’ve been AWOL recently!
Partygirl101 says : LOL b/c I have tons of hw 2 do
Bobbybear says : yea me 2
Partygirl101 says : lab 2 finish. BTW did yours?
Bobbybear says : nah
Partygirl101 says : FYI its due mon!
Bobbybear says : OMG. I 4got. Will do B4 mon
Partygirl101 says : neway , GTG. C ya!
Bobbybear says : K tty

NEW WORDS Old Words...New Meaning/Context

selfie windows
diskette home
omg mouse
mp3 icon
ipod key
ipad page
iphone tweet
cd rom bar
html virus
lol brain
emoticon monitor
internet trojan
email spam
download trash
bit
bite
port
PLASMA
input
output
hack

Topic: Exam Preparation: Language Techniques and Organizational Strategies

POP QUIZ
1. Explain the difference between the main point and the purpose.

Main Point – what the piece is about/ summary. Purpose – writer’s intention.
2. What is the rule governing the writing of the purpose? In essence, what integral component must be included?

There MUST be a verb

3. List the four main types of discourses

Expos, Persuasive, Narrative, Descriptive

4. For the four categories of writing states, state three verbs that can be linked to each.
Expos – highlight, inform, expose
Pers- sensitize, critique, raise awareness
Narrative – entertain, tell, relay
Descriptive – describe, classify, illustrate
5. State one characteristic that differentiates the narrative from descriptive.

Narrative has dialogue, descriptive does not have. Narrative tells a story, develops a plot, descriptive only states
what the writer observes from his perspective.
6. State four elements that will allow you to distinguish a persuasive piece of writing

Use of repetition, use of emotional appeal, rhetorical questions, statistics.

WRITER’S PURPOSE

yield illustrate illuminate reveal employ mean suggest

clarify indicate represent prove insist propose imply
assert postulate consider infer state extrapolate estimate
define classify invoke analyze compare hypothesize synthesize
summariz
disagree generalize narrate evaluate simplify measure
e
note predict introduce report challenge delineate depict
acknowledg
construe interpret provide distinguish inform specify
e
determin
restrict detail sum up designate point out set forth
e
deduce derive characterize guide maintain believe speculate
present organize investigate assess determine calculate support
 devise construct evaluate attribute obtain argue reiterate

Organizational Strategies
ANSWERS TO HYBRID CARS
 Periodic development
a. The essence of the piece is that while Hybrid cars are
 Classification
good for the environment there are some negatives
 Problem & Solution associated with it/them. It is also of note that Hybrid
 Compare & Contrast cars may soon be replaced by more advanced
 General to specific technology.
 Time order b. The writer’s purpose is to point out/inform/provide
 Spatial order details about Hybrid cars- their benefits and pit-falls.
 Personal experience c. Organizational Strategies - compare + contrast,
 Analysis analysis
d. Language Techniques – figures, expert opinion

Language Techniques
 Figures of speech/Figurative Language
 Repetition
 Rhetorical questions
 Emotive language
 Generalizations
 Expert opinion
 Figures/scientific data
 Jargons
 Satire
 Colloquial language
 Flashback
 Stream of consciousness
 Dialogue
 Foreshadowing

Topic: Creole Grammar 101 - (Understanding the features of creole)

Jamaican Creole is considered a language like any other for two basic reasons: It possesses the characteristic features
of a language and it performs the functions of a language.
PHONOLOGY: Sound
1. Jamaican Creole does not use the 'th' sound but substitutes with two other sounds: the 't' sounds as in 'tik' for the
English 'thick' and the 'd' sounds as in 'dem' for the English 'them'.

2. Jamaican Creole does not pronounce the 'h' sound at the beginning of English words. Therefore English 'hour'
becomes 'our'. Similarly, there is the tendency to hyper-correct and pronounce the 'h' sound at the beginning of
words that do not require it, therefore English 'egg' becomes 'hegg' and 'exam' becomes 'hexam’.
LEXICON: Vocab
1. Although the lexical items of Patois are English based, many are used in non-English ways.
2. Some Patois words that appear to be similar to English words do not carry the same meaning, e.g. 'Ignorant'.
3. Some English words are compounded to create nouns not present in English for example 'Foot bottom' and 'Eye
water' for tears.

MORPHOLOGY: Word formation

1. Some Creole words are formed by reduplication (base words are repeated to form new words). For example friedi
friedi to mean fearful or timid, chati chati to mean talks excessively or out of turn.

GRAMMAR: Usage
1. Pluralization is signalled by the addition of the 'dem' after the noun eg. The people dem. Or to emphasize the
numerical marker- 'de two book dem'.
2. Possession is not signaled, as in English, with the apostrophe 's' suffix but by the word 'fi' as in 'A fi mi handout'
3. Zero Copular construction. A Copular links the subject to the predicate. It is derived from the verb 'to be'. Creole
can have a zero copular structure eg. Jane sick for Mary is sick in English or Jane de home for Jane is at home.

SYNTAX: arrangement of words in a sentence

1. Patois mainly uses syntax to highlight certain elements within a sentence while English often uses pronunciation
by verbally stressing that which is to be emphasized.
2. For example Creole: Is Susan eat di chicken? versus English Susan ate the chicken? Creole: Is di chicken Susan
eat ? versus Susan ate the chicken?

Linguistic Insecurity:
 This anxiety or lack of confidence experienced by both speakers and writers results from the belief that their use
of language does not conform to the principles and practices of Standard English.
 Therefore, when they do attempt to ‘conform’ to the standard they end up ‘failing’.
 Though this failure is unacceptable for the standard, it is an accepted feature of the non-standard.

Hypercorrection:
 In linguistics or usage, hypercorrection is a non-standard usage that results from the over-application of a
perceived rule of grammar or a usage prescription.
 A speaker or writer who produces a hypercorrection generally believes that the form is correct through
misunderstanding of these rules, often combined with a desire to appear formal or educate
 In essence, the attempt to be “correct” leads to an “incorrect” result.
 Example: I went to the restaurant to buy some Fry Chicken = fried*
I feel so boring at the moment. = bored*
Intensifiers:
 These serve the purpose of adverbs, adjectives or modifiers in creole.
 Infact, they sometimes modify or even describe the adjective itself by showing extent/degree/comparisons.
 As the name suggest, these words help the reader/ listener to understand the intense/ emotional ‘degree’ of the
situation being described.
 Example: Di bwoy face ‘well’ ugly. You too ‘damn’ craven.

Consonant Clusters:
 Consonant clusters may appear at the end of words, for example, -nd is replaced by -n, as in han, san . Whereas
Standard English uses voiced clusters at the end of words, for example, -nd, as in hand, sand.
 No voiced 'th' sound at the beginning of words or syllables; a 'd' sound instead, for example in dey, dem, la-der.
Whereas CSE uses the voiced 'th' sound at the beginning of words or syllables, for example, in they, them and
lather.

Double Negatives:
 When two forms of negation are used in the same sentence.
 This is normally unacceptable for English Language, however in other languages the double negative serves the
purpose of “intensifying” the negation.
 Example: Mi uh gat no money (emphasis on the financial status of the speaker is evident).

Front Focusing:
 This refers to any sentence construction in which a word group that normally follows the verb, is placed at the
BEGININNING of a sentence.
 This a type of focus strategy often used to enhance expression and provide emphasis.
 It is used BOTH in standard English as Creole for the same purposes.

Standard English:
o A good boy is Brian.
o Strange people they are!
o What I'm going to do next, I just don't know.

Creole
o Is lik she lik me dung yesterday {Rather than Yesterday she hit me}
o A nuff she nuff mek she deh ya every day.
o Saka she, mek we get detention.

Reduplication:
Reduplication is when a word, an element of a word, or a phrase is repeated. This can often result in change of
meaning or tone.
Examples: - Why the place so chaka chaka? What a girl licky licky! Why di porridge haffi look so cake up
cake up?

Topic: Listening Comprehension ( Part 2)

Tips for responding to the passages in the questions for Paper 01/B:
 Prepare for the exam by reviewing the literary devices and language strategies that you have learned – make sure
you have a good understanding of the literary devices such as metaphor, simile and personification
 Use the 5 minutes before the passage is read to read the questions wisely, so that you are ready to listen
 When the passage is read for the 1st time, try to listen for a sense of the entire passage;
 On the second reading make notes on the relevant points
 DO NOT attempt to transcribe the entire passage

NB:- When you are asked to comment on the effectiveness of a literary device, DO NOT explain its meaning. You
must state why the choice of the device appeals to the listeners’ senses or state what imagery it conveys in relation
to the purpose of the writer.
FAQs

 The writers PURPOSE/MAIN IDEA (these should not be confused_ students should be asked to state the
difference)
 Details used to identify/justify the writers main purpose/idea
 A question based on the emotions evoked/experience in the piece or/and Figures of speech and their effectiveness

Effective Listening

 Maintain eye-contact with the reader (this ensures that you are involved in the reading exercise)
 Focus on content, NOT delivery
 Avoid emotional involvement
 Treat listening as a challenging mental task (you need to concentrate on what is said so that you can process the
information into your notes and eventually into correct answers)

LITERARY DEVICES COMMONLY USED IN PAPER 1A (LISTENING COMPREHENSION)

CONTRAST
The two widely differing elements are contrasted using a common value to convey further information about one or
both elements. The differences between them often intensify either their positive or negative qualities. They frequently
will be opposites. E.g the warmth of the Caribbean with the cold of a New York Winter (comparison point
temperature). Contrasts also can be metaphorical.
IRONY
Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is. For example A clumsy
ballet dancer.

DEVICES OF COMPARISON
METAPHOR
Compares by stating the element is the item of comparison e.g. The lawyer’s claws were out and he would not stop
until they drew blood
ANALOGY
Extends a metaphor to compare a situation or particularly to explain a complex item by using a familiar item to
structure the explanation. E.g. Exam preparation is like baking a cake all the ingredients must be used and preparations
thorough before baking. Firstly the ingredients: study which is lightened with periods of recreation, physical health,
managing stress. (The analogy would continue for several paragraphs even)
SIMILE
Compares using the like, as, resembles, looked as though etc. e.g. His exam worries even after the event were as if a
rat was gnawing at his brain.
PERSONIFICATION
Compares non-human, inanimate elements OR abstract concepts to using HUMAN qualities e.g. The building stared
down at him daring him to enter OR Justice is never kindly but it is ruthlessly fair. If the qualities are not human then
the comparison is a metaphor e.g. A beast of a car.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM
gives animals human characteristics e.g. The fox spoke to the cubs and then strolled away with a dancing step.
ALLUSION
Uses familiar classical, biblical or other well know cultural references. E.g. Anasi-like cunning

DEVICES OF EMPHASIS
HYPERBOLE
Exaggerates qualities of an element or an overstatement (sometimes for comedic effect). E.g. I could eat my shoes I’m
so hungry.
REPETITION
Uses repetition of either words, phrases or even a whole sentence. E.g What if I don’t make it, what if I can’t pass,
what if I fail

DEVICES USING SOUND

 Alliteration – similar consonant sounds

 Assonance – similar vowel sounds
 Onomatopoeia - the word sounds like the sound
Day 3 & 4: Topic: Paper 2 – Module 2 – Section 2
Question 2 of Paper 2 is tied to the Language and Community Module.
It is often the case that an extract(scenario) is given and candidates will be asked to respond to set questions which
culminates into an essay.
Here a range of questions may be asked in different ways.
 The examiner may ask for you to represent the scenario in the form of a video presentation.

Your response should take into consideration :

Time of Day (night, morning etc.), Time Period (era, early 20th century), Society (cultural practices).
The considerations must be connected with the characters, setting and scenario.
Eg. 1960s , evening, Jamaican society, young man with an afro, bellas (wide-leg pants), patterned shirt, smoking a cigar.
(Students should aim to be more descriptive while linking it with the scenario)
It must be noted that a video presentation is a visual representation, as such any depiction using words must be
pellucid.
 The Language used and its effectiveness- formal, informal(casual), Jamaican Creole(basilect), Standard English
(acrolect, mesolect).

This should be commented on in relation to the context, audience and purpose.

Topic: Communication Campaigns and Proposals

Question 3 of Paper 2 is tied to the Speaking and Writing Module. This section must be read and interpreted carefully, as
there is no single format that is tested. Sometimes you may have to write a speech as part of your response or you may be
asked to write a proposal.
The Purpose of a Proposal
A proposal is a tool used to persuade a customer to buy something or to receive funding for a project. The guidelines for
a good proposal are the same no matter what type of proposal you need to write. The most important goal of a proposal is
to get your project or suggestions approved.

The Plan of a Proposal

before you begin writing any form of technical communication, there are three questions you should consider:

 Who is my audience? You need to decide to whom you are writing the proposal. You need to make sure that you
think about your audience and what they might already know or not know about your topic.

 What do I want my audience to get from my proposal? The overall purpose of the proposal should be to get the
readers' approval. Your main purpose should be clearly stated. The readers should not have to figure out what you
are requesting in the proposal. The best advice is to state your purpose up front and then fill in details later in the
proposal.
 How can I make sure my audience understands what I want them to know? You must put yourself in the shoes of
your readers. Think about what they want to hear. Think about what they don't want to hear. Get someone else to
read your proposal before you submit it. Make sure that his or her reaction is what you expected the reader's reaction
to be.

The Style of a Proposal

The basic writing style of a proposal is the same for any type of technical writing.
For proposals to be effective try to follow these tips:

 State the purpose clearly at the beginning of the proposal.

 State the background information the reader will need to understand your proposal.
 Use language that everyone can understand.
 Use short sentences that are clear and to the point.
 Make sure that your ideas are not hidden between unnecessary words.

Make sure that the reader has all the important information needed for the final decision

1. Use of traditional media (Be Specific)

2. Use of social media (Be specific)
3. Blogging
4. Billboards
5. Advertisements
6. Celebrity endorsements
7. T-shirts and other paraphernalia
8. Flyers and posters
9. Word of mouth
10. Use of Town- Criers
11. Announcements during services or
devotions
12. Jingles and songs
13. Drama (Edu-Tainment)
14. Pamphlets