BOILER QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. What is boiler?

Ans. According to Indian Boiler Act 1923, a boiler is a closed

pressure vessel / steam generating unit with minimum
capacity of 22.70 liters, including all mountings and
accessories or we can say that the boiler is a steam generator
which convert chemical energy of fuel into heat energy which
is utilized for steam generation .The steam can be generated as
per desired pressure and temperature.
Types of boiler :-There are generally three types of boiler
used as.
i) Shell type of boiler - It is the most oldest technology has a
simple shell with a feed pipe and steam outlet mounted on a
brick setting called furnace.It has very low steam generating
capacity and low efficiency as compared to other boiler.
ii) Fire/smoke tube boiler - This boiler was used as a steam
engine in 18th century.Here the fire/smoke passes through the
tube which is immersed in water and heat transfer takes place
water converted to steam , collected through steam pipe.This
boiler has the disadvantage that gasses choke the tube path and
restrict the gas flow.
iii) Water tube boiler - This boiler is considered as the most
efficient boiler and mostly used now days. Here the water
passes through the tube and flame on the surrounding of the
tube.Very large capacity of steam can be generated in this type
of boiler.

Q. What is circulation ratio of a boiler?

Ans.
It is the ratio of the quantity of water-steam mixture
flowing through the circuit to the quantity of steam
produced in the circuit , The circulation ratio of once
through / super critical boiler is one because all water Is
converted to steam.More circulation ratio means less
efficient is the Boiler.
The circulation ratios of,
1. Natural circulation industrial boiler - 10
to 25
2. Natural circulation utility boiler - 7 to
9
3. Assisted circulation boilers - 2 to
4
4. Forced circulation / once through boiler - 1

Q What are the boiler mountings?

Ans. The boiler mountings are used for safe and efficient
operation of boiler, these are placed in out side of the boiler.
1. Safety valve.
2.pressure gauge.
3.Water level gauge glass.. Pressure gauge.
4. Start-up vent.
5.Air vent.
5.Manhole.
Q. What are boiler accessories?
Ans. These are the integral part of boiler which help to run the
boiler most efficiently These are,
1. Super heater.
2. Economizer.
3.Air pre- heater.
4.ID and FD fans.
5. Ash handling system.
6.Dosing system.
7. Soot blower.
8.De super heating system.
Q. What is turn down ratio of boiler?
Ans. It is the operating range of boiler from maximum
capacity to minimum capacity in which the boiler can run
efficiently without any external fuel support . The higher turn
down ratio greater the efficiency of boiler. For example if the
boiler is designed 80mw and can operate up to 20mw without
any external fuel support and any variations of parameter then
the turn down ratio is 80/20=4.
Q. What is boiler efficiency?
Ans. It is the ratio of heat output to heat input of the boiler.
Boiler efficiency= Heat output / heat input *100.
=steam flow (enthalpy of steam -enthalpy of feed water) /
coal flow * gcv.
For example if there is a 80mw boiler with 540 dig centigrade
of main steam temperature, feed water temperature of 300 dig
centigrade , coal flow 56 ton, gcv 4000 kcal/kg then the boiler
efficiency will be =307(826.28-242.58)/56*4000=80%.
Q. What Is turbine heat rate?
Ans. It the ratio of heat input to MW generated in kcal/kWh.
= steam flow(enthalpy of steam-enthalpy of feed water) /
MW.
 Q. What is evaporation ratio?
Ans. It the quantity of heat generation in kg/hr to quantity of
fuel consumed in kg/hr for example quantity of steam Is 310
ton/hr and fuel is 55 ton/hr then the evaporation ratio is 5.63.
Q. What is stoichiometric combustion?
Ans. It is defined as the theoretical combustion in which fuel
is burnt completely. It is used to determine the actual
theoretical air required for a proper combustion.
Q. What is foaming of boiler?
Ans. It is the generation of foam In boiler due to high
concentration of solids, organic matter, bubbles are build up
on the surface of boiler water and passed out with the steam.
This is generally caused due to high concentration of solids in
boiler.
Q. What is priming of boiler ?
Ans. It Is the carrying amount of droplet water in the steam,
witch leads to carryover of Salt crystals on the super heater
and turbines. priming may be caused due to sudden change of
load and maintaining of high level of water.
Prevention of priming and foaming :-
The best remedy for foaming and priming carryover is
the proper blow down of TDS. The continuous blow
down should be regulated to maintain the TDS at
3,000 to 4,000 ppm. More blow down means less TDS but
more blow down is the more loss of the boiler so the blow
down should be within control level

Q. What are boiler losses?

A. Generally the boiler efficiency is considered as 85%,here are the

boiler losses considered as,
1. Heat loss in dry flue gas loss-10.7%.
2. Heat loss due to moisture in fuel - 2.2 %.
3. Heat loss due moisture in air - 0.38 %.
4. Heat loss due to formations of water from H2 in fuel - 4.4%
5. Heat loss due to conversion of C to CO- 0.53%
Q. what is critical point of steam?
Ans. It is the point at which all water vapor converts to steam .The
critical point occurs at a temperature of 374 deg & 224.6 kg/cm2 .The
point is called critical point and the pressure, temperature at this
corresponding saturation temperature is known as critical pressure and
critical temperature.Here the density of steam and water will remain
same.

Q. what is acid due point in boiler ?

Ans.The temperature at which the formation of sulfuric acid in the
boiler is known as acid due point,It is generally in between 130-140
deg celsius. As fuel contain sulfur dioxide (SO2) & H2O at certain
temperature both are condense together and sulfuric acid(H2SO2) is
formed.
It will corrode the boiler tubes.To avoid acid due point we can use,
1>FD fan re circulation system.
2> By using steam coil air pre-heater (SCAPH).
3> FD air bypass system.
 Q. What is slagging or fouling in boiler ?
A. Slagging is the formation of molten or partially fused deposits on
the furnace surface or radiation zone . Fouling is the deposition of
fused particle on convection zone such as super heater & re- heater.
Q. What is proximate analysis of coal ?
Ans. it is the analysis of coal in which we can find moisture,volatile
matter,fixed carbon & ash.we can found above parameter as,
moisture-Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 105 deg for 01
hr.
Moisture + volatile matter- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven
at 950 deg for 07 minute.
Ash- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 720 deg until the
coal is completely burnt.

Q. What is the ultimate analysis of coal ?

A. This is the most accurate method of coal analysis.In this analysis
we can found the components of the mass of
carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,sulfur,moisture,ash.
so (c+h+o+n+s+m+a)= 100% mass.

Q. What is gross calorific value and net calorific value of coal?

Ans.
1.calorific value:- It is the amount of heat liberated with a unit mass of
coal for 1g Kcal.
2.Gross calorific value:-It is the amount of heat liberated by the
complete combustion of unit weight of fuel with subsequent cooling
of product(moisture/water vapor) . G.C.V is more than N.C.V.
3. Net calorific value :- It is the heat produced in complete combustion
when the product of combustion are allowed to escaped.
N.C.V = G.C.V - Latent heat of water vapor.
 N.C.V = (G.C.V-0.09x587)cal/gm.
Q. What is steam turbine?
Ans.The turbine is a rotary machine which converts heat
energy of steam into mechanical energy. The steam contain
both pressure and temperature known as enthalpy .
Working- When steam allowed in the turbine the kinetic
energy of steam at the expense of (enthalpy) is convert to
mechanical energy. As the steam moves over the blades due to
change of direction and centrifugal force of isometric
expansion causes to rotate the blade.

Type of steam turbine:- There are generally two types of

steam turbine.
1. Impulse turbine- Here the steam is expanding in the fixed
nozzle and the pressure drops at each stage. The high velocity
of steam entering in the nozzle does work in the moving
blades which causes shaft to rotate. The main features of this
turbine are maximum pressure drops in the nozzle.
2. Reaction turbine- In this type of turbine the pressure is
dropped in both fixed and moving blades. The both fixed and
moving blades act like a nozzle. Work done is obtained due to
impulse effect (Reversal of direction of high velocity steam)
plus reaction effect of (Expansion of steam) trough the moving
blades. The velocity of steam is proportional to the square root
of heat drop in the nozzle.
Q.What are Classifications of steam turbine:-
Ans. The steam turbine are classified as under,
1. According to number of cylinder-
a) Single cylinder.
b) Double cylinder.
c) Three cylinder.
2. According to steam flow :-
a) Axial flow turbine-Here the steam flows parallel to the axis
of turbine.
b) Radial flow turbine- Here the steam flows perpendicular to
the axis of the turbine.
3. According to the method of governing:-
a) Throttle governing-Steam enters trough the throttle valves.
b)Nozzle governing- steam enters through two or more
nozzles.
c) Bypass governing- Here the steam is divided two or more
stages of turbine.
4. According to the principle of action:-
a) Impulse turbine.
b) Reaction turbine.
5. According to the heat balance arrangement:-
a) Condensing turbine-Here the steam is condensed through a
condenser .
b) Back pressure turbine- The exhaust steam is used in the
purpose of industrial or process heating purpose.
6. According to pressure used:-
a) Low pressure turbine.
b) Medium pressure turbine.
c) High pressure turbine.
7. According to shaft arrangement.
a) Tandem compound -Here the shaft are arranged in single
shaft.
b) Cross compound – Here the shaft are arranged to drive
different generators.
8. According to casing:-
a) Single shell casing.
b) Double shell casing.

Q. What are the turbine losses?

A. The turbine losses are mention here as,
a)Tip Leakage loss- This loss is happen due to the clearance
in between the fixed and moving blades.
b) Friction loss- This loss is due to the fluid friction in nozzle
and rotor blades.
c) Leaving loss- This loss is considered due to the leaving of
steam in last stage of blade without doing further useful work.
Q. why maximum steam turbine double shell casing is
provided?
Ans.The double shell is preferred because,
. a) For quick start up of turbine.
 b) Less stress developed in the casing due to double casing.
Q. What are the types of condenser used in steam turbine?
Ans. There are two type of condenser is general used in steam
turbine as,
a) Jet condenser: - In this type of condenser exhaust steam
and cooling water is directly mixing together. Here very high
quality of cooling water is needed. The quantity of cooling
water required is very less as compared to surface condenser.
b) Surface condenser:- Here the cooling water is flowing
through tube shells and the exhaust steam is cooled through
the contact of cooling water tubes.
Q. What is vacuum?
Ans. The vacuum can be defined as a state of very low
pressure or we can say that a space of no matter. It is below the
atmospheric pressure and measured in (mmHg).
Q. What is the effect of high vacuum in Turbine?
Ans. We can't maintain very high vacuum in steam turbine
because,
a) Turbine last stage is designed with 12% wet steam ,very
high vacuum will lead to increase wetness in last stage so it
will reduce the mechanical strength of turbine last blade as the
volume of steam increase.
b) Due to high wetness corrosion of last blade will increase.
c) The condensate water will goes to under cooling due to low
saturation pressure so more coal and sensible heat required to
rise the temperature of condensate.
d) Due to high vacuum condenser tube may be compressed.
Q. What is the effect of low vacuum in a steam turbine?
Ans. By maintaining vacuum in a turbine the work done of
turbine will be increase because vacuum will reduce the back
pressure of the turbine hence there is more pressure difference
in between the turbine and more work done.Vacuum helps to
convert of steam to water by providing low saturation
temperature.

Q. What is gauge pressure and absolute pressure?

Ans. Absolute pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero-
referenced against
vacuum.
The absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure.
Gauge pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero reference to
atmospheric
pressure.
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure.
Q. What is Electro - Hydraulic governing control of
turbine?
Ans. Now a days most of the turbine speed is controlled
through this type of governing. It is the governing system in
which the turbine speed is controlled by electrical sensing and
hydraulic control. This type of governing provides very faster
speed response than the other governing. The turbine speed is
measured through a electrical speed transducer mounted on the
HP end of the turbine rotor.
Q. What is eccentricity of steam turbine?
Ans. It is defined as the deviation between the center axis of
the shaft to outer diameter of the turbine rotor .This happen
due to uneven cooling of turbine after shutdown condition.
Due to this effect the shaft may be got permanent damage and
the fixed blade may touch to moving blades. The eccentricity
is measured when the turbine speed is <240 rpm .
Q. What is the NAS value of oil ?
Ans. The NAS stands for National Aerospace Standard, is
used to find the contamination of oil. The NAS value is
maintained 6 for turbine oil servo-46.The water concentration
of oil should not exceed more than 300 ppm.
Methods of oil sampling:- The oil sample is always taken from
a upward pipe with continuous flow. The sample taken
between the pump and filter.
Q. What is diaphragm of a steam turbine?
Ans. The diaphragm is used in steam turbine to prevent
leakage steam passing through fixed and moving blades. It is
the partition in between the fixed blade and moving blade of
steam turbine. Generally labyrinth seals are used for
diaphragm. One half of diaphragm is fitted into the top casing
and another half is fitted into the bottom casing. It works as a
seal in between fixed and moving blade. It increase the turbine
efficiency.
Q. What are the heat transfer mediums
Ans. There are generally three medium as,
a) Conduction:- Here the heat is transferred through
molecules. The molecules move from one part to another part
of the substance. Liquid are the good conductor where as
vapor and gaseous are poor conductor of conduction medium.
b) Convection: - Here the heat is transferred through
movement of heated medium. The heated medium moves from
one place to another place due to density difference. This
medium is used in boiler furnace.
b) Radiation: - Here the heat is transferred through gasses or
vacuum. The heat transfer depends on the fourth power of
body’s absolute temperature.
Q. What is boiling?
Ans. There are two boiling process used in medium heating.
a) Nucleate boiling: - Here the heat added in such a manner
that the heat received from the inner wall of the container and
the droplets are individually converted into steam bubbles. As
the bubbles grow the size they move to upward due to lighter
density. Other bubbles take their space and the process
continues till the container heated.
b) Film boiling: - This is called film boiling, because a bubble
film is created at the inner surface of the container. If the heat
flux added is greatly increase to a certain value the bubbles
are adjacent to each other instead of detached and a film is
formed at the inner wall of the container. This bubble film act
as a poor conductor of heat. The bubbles get super heated and
finally increase the temperature of container and may lead to
failure of container / tube. The deviation of boiling process
from nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as departure
from nucleate boiling (DNB).
Q. What are the circulations are used in boiler?
Ans. There are three types of circulation is generally used in
boiler as,
a)Natural circulation:- This circulation happen due to density
difference of the two medium. In boiler the two medium are
water and steam, as steam is lighter than the water it pushes to
upwards flow of water steam mixture, the steam is separated in
drum and water comeback through down comer to again water
wall. This circulation use thermo- siphon principle. This
circulation limited to operating pressure below 175 kg/cm².
b) Assist circulation:- In this circulation the medium moves
through a mechanical pump. The pump overcome the frictional
loses in the tube. This type of circulation used pressure beyond
175 kg/cm² .The pump is placed in between the down comer
and bottom ring header of water wall.
c) Forced circulation / once through system:- This system
used in boiler above critical pressure. Here the feed water is
directly fed from the beginning of the circuit to end of the
circuit without circulation. No drum used in this system. Super
critical boilers are designed for once through system.

Q. What are the types of boiler?

Ans. There are two types of boiler is generally used,
a) Water tube boiler:- Here water is flowing through the tube.
The hot gasses pass through tube and heat transfer takes place.
Now a day’s most of boiler are water tube boiler.
b) Fire tube boiler:- Here hot gas passes through the tube and
tube is immersed with water. Heat transfer takes place from
the hot flue gasses and steam is collected from top of cell. This
boiler used in for small steam demand. The solid combustible
hot gas settle inside the tube which reduce heat transfer.
Q. What are the types of economizer is used in boiler?
A. There are two type of economizer used in boiler as,
a) Steaming economizer:- Here some of the water is converted
to steam and the steam-water mixture flows through the
economizer. This type of economizer used in high percentage
of feed water to avoid scaling inside the tube.
b) Non-steaming economizer:- In this type of economizer only
water flows through the circuit.
Q. What is the draft and types of draft used in boiler?
Ans. The draft is defined as pressure difference in between a
system. There are generally three types of draft used in boiler,
a) Forced draft: - Here force draft (FD) fan is used to
maintain the draft in boiler. Here the draft inside the boiler
would be always positive draft.
b) Induced drought: - Here induced drought (ID) fan is used
to maintain the draft in boiler. The pressure inside the boiler
would be always negative.
c) Balance drought:- Here both FD and ID fan is used to
maintain the drought inside the boiler. The drought at the tip of
the burner will be zero. This type of drought is used in
maximum boiler.
Q. What is super critical boiler?
A. The boiler which works the pressure above the critical
pressure is known as super-critical boiler. This boiler works in
the principle of once through system. There is no drum only
separator is used for separating steam from water during
partial load
Q. What is (HGI) Hard Grove Index of coal?
Ans. It is the measuring unit through which the hardness of coal can
be determined. Higher value of HGI means coal can be easily grinded.
The HGI of lignite coal is up to 120 where as the HGI of bituminous
coal is 45 to 60 so lignite coal can be easily grinded than bituminous
coal. The HGI is inversely proportional to grinding power.
Q. What are the factors affecting for a coal mill performance?
Ans. This depend on the no of factors such as,
a) Grindability index of coal.
b) Fineness of coal
c) Moisture content of the coal
d) Size of raw coal.
e) Mill component wear.
Q. What are the advantages of (PF) pulverized coal fired boiler
than the other boiler?
Ans. Here is the advantage of using pulverized coal fired boiler as,
a) Pulverized coal burners act like gas so the fire can be easily
controlled.
b) Cheaper low grade coal can be burnt easily.
c) High combustion efficiency.
d) Load can be varied quickly.
e) Quick and smooth light up of boiler.
f) Flexibility in firing to meet fluctuating load.
Q.What is soot blowers and their types?
Ans. The soot blower is a equipment through which the deposition of
soot in boiler is removed. There are two types of soot blower is
generally used,
a) Steam inject soot blower:- Here the steam is used as the cleaning
medium. The steam flow through a pipe and nozzle, strikes at the
surface of tube and removes the soot. Here three soot blowers are
generally used as i) long retractable soot blower ii) Wall soot blower iii)
Rotary soot blower.
b) Sonic soot blower: - This type of soot blower is used to remove
soot by using low energy and high frequency sounds. They produce
non-destructive sound waves which hit at the surface of tube wall and
remove the deposited soot. By using this type of soot blower erosion
and corrosion of tube can be avoided. Steam loss can also be
avoided. The frequency of sound in this type of soot blower is ranging
from 60 HZ to 350 HZ.
Q. what is the effect of soot deposits in a boiler?
Ans.
a) The deposited soot act as a poor conductor of heat which reduce
the heat transfer rate and increase flue gas temperature.
b) The deposits block the flue gas path which increase the drought
loss.
c) The deposit may lead to corrosion.
d) Due to falling of large size of soot it damage the tube in dry ash
conveying system.

Q. What are the methods are used for steam temperature control
in boiler.
A. We can control steam temperature by,
a) Using gas recirculation method-Hot flue gas is circulated for
maintain steam temperature.
b) By providing excess air- By providing excess air it reduce the
furnace temperature for some timing hence control temperature.
c) Burner tilting method- Here the tilting of burner are provided by a
pneumatic cylinder. The burner can be tilted 30° up and down for
control temperature.
d) Attemporation control-This is the best method for temperature
control in boiler. Here the attemporator are provided to spray water in
steam in steam pipe line. Ceramic thermal sleeves are provided to
avoid thermal shock due to temperature difference of steam and
spray water.
e) Elevation of fuel firing – The temperature is controlled by choosing
upper or lower elevation of fuel burner.

Q. what are the Turbine losses?

A. Here are the turbine losses are defined as,
a) Tip leakage loss: - This loss is happen due to small
amount of steam passing in between the clearance of fixed
blade and moving blade. The labyrinths are provided for
sealing of fixed and moving blades. Some steam passes
through this labyrinth clearance without any work done.
b) Disc windage loss:- This is the friction loss due to the
surface friction created on the disc.
c)Secondary loss:- This loss is due to friction on the casing
wall and tip of the blade.
d) Wetness loss:- The turbine is designed for 12 % of
exhaust steam. If the wetness of steam increase id absorb the
energy due to water droplets and second thing is it make
erosion at the last stage of the blade.
E) Loss due to lancing wire:- As the lancing wire is provided
at the last stage of turbine blade to provide mechanical
strength , the production of losses in blade efficiency because
of passage area they block.

Q. What is the function of a condenser in turbine?

Ans.
:-It save the DM water as the steam is converted to water and
reuse.
:- It provide high vacuum so that heat rejection takes place
from steam to water.
:- It give space for storage of condensate.
Q. What is dummy / balancing piston in steam turbine?
A. It is one part of the turbine used to neutralizing the axial
thrust of turbine rotor.As the pressure drop at each stage of
turbine blade it produce axial thrust at the same direction of
steam flow. So it is necessary to balance the shaft. It is placed
before the first stage of turbine. This is fixed with the turbine
shaft. The steam enter in between the balance piston and
first stage of turbine and give a reaction force to the balancing
piston opposite to the axial thrust hence it counter balance the
turbine shaft.The diameter of the balancing disc is designed in
a such manner is that it can oppose the force acting on
turbine shaft.
Q. What are the types thrust bearing are used in rotating
machine
A. There are generally four types of thrust bearings are used
as,
a) Tapered bearing.
b) Babbitt faced bearing.
c) Tilting pad bearing.
d) Roller bearing.

Q. What is the critical speed of turbine.

A. It is the speed at which the natural frequency of turbine
shaft is close/near to the operating frequency of the shaft.
The turbine shaft material has its own natural frequency,
when we rotate the turbine rotor at some speed the both
frequency are near equal so it produce a high vibration and
noise at this particular frequency. To avoid critical speed we
have to accelerate the turbine speed if the turbine speed hold
at this frequency then a high vibration occurs in the shaft. The
value of critical speed is defined by the designer of turbine.
For example we can say that critical speed of a 150 MW ,
3000 rpm steam turbine may be 1800 rpm , 2200 rpm and
2500 rpm.
Q. What are the couplings used in steam turbine.
A. There are three types of coupling are generally used as,
a) Flexible coupling:- This couplings are used where there is
small misalignment and axial movement of shaft .This
coupling require lubrication.
b) Semi flexible coupling:- These couplings are generally
used in between turbine and generator. No lubrication require
for this coupling.
c) Rigid coupling:- This couplings are provided in between
the cylinders such as in between HP- LP and between LP- IP
cylinders
Q. Why turbine kept in turning gear after shutdown?
A.To avoid hogging (bending downwards) or sagging (bending
upwards) effect of turbine turning gear is used after shutdown .
There is a temperature difference in lower casing and upper casing
of turbine after shutdown if we kept turbine shaft stationary then it
will bent turbine rotor, to avoid this the turbine should be rotate in
slow speed. There are generally three type of turning gear used ,
a) Electrical turning gear – Electrical motor is used in this type of
turning gear to rotate the turbine less than 30 rpm . A reduction gear
is used to reduce the speed.
b) Hydraulic turning gear- In this system a hydraulic turbine
wheel is mounted on the shaft of the turbine. High velocity oil is
supplied from jacking oil pump which rotate the blade of hydraulic
turning gear hence the turbine rotor. This system will start after the
starting of JOP. Most of advanced turbine use this system.
c) Hand barring system – If the electric or hydraulic system fails
then hand barring is done with slow speed through a lever and
handle.
Q. What is turbine stress evaluator (TSE)?
A. It is the instrument used to online monitor of turbine mechanical
stress. It calculate the temperature difference of turbine upper and
lower casing. It is the algorithm system based on the comparison of
actual calculated stress.
Q. Why gland steam system is provided in steam turbine?
A.The main function of gland sealing system is , it prevent the
escape/leakage of steam at the HP side of turbine and prevent the
ingress of air at the LP side of turbine. It is provided at the turbine
shaft. Labyrinth seals are generally used for sealing purpose. It is
generally made of aluminum, bronze and mild steel. Radial and
axial clearance is provided in between the seal. Steam throttled in
every stage and gain kinetic energy at the expense its pressure
energy. So pressure dropped in every stage and it provide sealing of
shaft. By providing the labyrinth clearance very small the loss can
be minimized. Collecting pockets are provided at other end of
sealing in which the steam can be collected and can be used in gland
steam blower.
Q. What is the differential expansion of steam turbine?
A. It is the difference of expansion in between the turbine shaft and
turbine casing. The thermal emanation of rotor is happen because of
mass of casing is more than the mass of rotor. This is happen due to
sudden loading of turbine or rate of steam inlet in turbine is very
high. If the rotor expansion is more than casing then it is known as
positive explanation and if the casing expansion is more than rotor is
known as negative expansion .The expansion value for turbine
tripping is generally provided as +- 6 mm. It is measured by LVDT (
linear variable differential transducer).
The differential expansion = Change in shaft length into change in
turbine casing length.
Q. What is axial shift of turbine?
A. The axial shift of turbine can be defined as the physical shifting
of turbine rotor from the center point. This shifting is happen due to
thrust on blade of rotor. Thrust tapered bearing is provided to
prevent the axial shift of rotor. The tripping value for turbine axial
shift is generally provided with +- 0.6 mm. The possible causes of
axial shift is due to,
a)Sudden drop in vacuum
b) Sudden drop in steam temperature
c) Sudden change in load
d) Sudden closer of extraction NRV.
e) Lube oil failure in thrust bearing.
f) Scaling in turbine blades.
Q. What is TSE (turbine supervising panel)?
A.This is the integrated combine logic provided to observe the safe
operation of turbine. This supervisory panel observes,
a) Turbine casing explanation during roiling.
b) Turbine differential expansion.
c) Turbine rotor eccentricity.
d) Turbine vibration.
e) Rate of loading of turbine.

Q. What is over speed of turbine?

A. It is the increased speed of turbine due to grid failure or islanding
condition. Over speed happen due to sudden unloading of turbine.
The over speed of turbine tripping is generally provided with speed
> 110 % of rated speed. The machine should not be allowed to cross
that limit. The over speed tripping can be provided by a over speed
governor or mechanical governor.
Q. What is turbine tripping condition?
A. A turbine may be tripped due to this reasons,
a) Boiler trip/generator trip
a) Due to over speed- >110 %
b) High axial shift - +- 0.6 mm.
c) High differential expansion - +- 6 mm.
d) Condenser vacuum very low - < 0.6 kg/ cm²
e) Main steam temperature low - <485 deg c.
f) Main steam temperature high - > 565 deg c.
g) Press of emergency push button.
h) Main steam pressure and temperature low low and high high.
i) Turbine bearing temperature high- >120 deg c.
g) Turbine vibration high - > 165 micron.
h) Turbine lube oil temperature high - >65 deg c.
i) Mot oil level low - < 30 %.
j) Malfunction of sensing device
Q . What is steam trap and it's function?
Ans. function of steam trap- It is a device is used in steam
pipe line to discharge condensate and gasses, prevent to
escape of steam through the line. It ensures that steam is not
wasted. This is a self contained valve which automatically
drains the condensate from a steam containing device. This is
generally provided in steam drains or before steam drain
valve.

You tube video of mechanical steam trap

Types of steam trap:-

1> Mechanical trap – Works in the principle of difference in
density between steam and condensate. This type of trap
operate according the condensate level in the port if the
condensate level increase the float operates and allow to
condensate pass through the pipe ,when condensate level
decrease is close the valve and doesn’t allow the condensate.
Types of mechanical trap i) Float type, ii)Float with lever type,
iii)Inverted bucket type, iv)Open bucket type.
2> Thermodynamic type steam trap - Works in the principle of
difference in between thermodynamic property of steam and
condensate.This types of traps operate due to velocity change
in flow of compressible and non compressible fluids.As the
steam starts condensate there is a temperature difference
which allow the trap to operate. Types of Thermodynamic
type steam trap i) Disc type ii) orifice type.
3> Thermostatic type steam trap- This trap works in the
principle of difference of temperature in between steam and
condensate. Types of Thermostatic type steam trap i)
Bimetallic type, ii) Metallic expansion type.

Q. What is (NRV) Non Return Valve?

A. This is also known as one way valve which allow the fluid
flow in one direction only. As its name implies non return
means there is only one direction flow.All the assembly are
provided with a valve bonnet.This valves are generally used in
pump discharges and steam water pipe lines.This device
ensures there is no back flow of fluid from the source. It has
two lines one is inlet line and other is outlet line.There is a
direction symbol provided on the valve which show the
direction of flow fluid.
Types of NRV:-
i> Tilting disc check valve-This is a disc type check valve.The
disc provided fixed with a hinge which swing up and down.
As the fluid flow in the line it lift by the fluid force and allow the
fluid to flow in the pipe . When there is no fluid flow in the
circuit it closes due to gravitational force.
ii> Ball check valve- Here a spherical ball is used to fervent
the fluid flow. The ball is spring loaded which close the valve
when there is no fluid flow in the line. The pressure of fluid lift
the ball and let the fluid to flow.
iii> Diaphragm type NRV – This is consists of a rubber
diaphragm clapper ,Which works on the differential pressure
When the pressure in the upstream is more it open the
diaphragm and allow the fluid to flow and when the pressure
is equalize is closes diaphragm and prevent to fluid.
iv> Stop check valve- It’s construction is same as the swing
check valve except that here is a external control mechanism
of handle or lever provided.
v> Lift check valve- Here a lift or disc is provided which
operates on the working pressure of the fluid.

Q. what is Pressure relief valve(PRV) ?

A.

Image of pressure relief valve.

The relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or
limit the pressure in a vessel or system during an
overpressure of the system. The primary purpose of a
pressure Relief Valve is protection of life and property by
venting fluid from an over pressurized vessel. Many
electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic systems exist today to
control fluid system variables, such as pressure, temperature
and flow. Each of these systems requires a power source of
some type, such as electricity or compressed air in order to
operate. A pressure Relief Valve must be capable of
operating at all times, especially during a period of power
failure when system controls are nonfunctional. The PRV is
provided on the on the main steam line to control the line
pressure. The PRV is generally operated through pneumatic
pressure.The PRV operated according to the set pressure of
rhe controller. The valve set down when the pressure reach to
normal value.

Q. What is the difference between safety valve and

pressure relief valve?
A. Difference between safety valve and relief valve
Relief Valve –The relief valve is used on a filled vessel. For
such a valve the opening is proportional to increase in the
vessel pressure. Hence the opening of valve is not sudden,
but gradual if the pressure is increased gradually. A relief
valve is meant to relieve pressure to prevent an over pressure
condition. A relief valve may have an operator on it to assist
in opening the valve in response to a control signal. The
capacity of PRV are generally small.
Safety Valve – This device is used to relief on a
compressible filled vessel. For such a valve the opening is
sudden. When the set pressure of the valve is reached, the
valve opens almost fully. A safety valve is meant to relieve
pressure without operator assistance and a safety valve, or
combination of safety valves, must be have a capacity to
relieve more than the energy input to the volume being
protected.
Q. What is the cold startup procedure of boiler?
Ans.
Pre check up for cold start up of boiler :-
1) Check all maintenance work are completed and all
permit are returned.
2) Check all foreign materials has been removed vfrom
the pressure parts
3) Check all access doors are closed.
4) Check all equipments are trial run successfully.
5) Check all interlock test and prior test to startup are
completed.
6) Check no jamming in rotary equipment , lubrication oil
, cooling water system is normal.
7) Check all the oil level meter are in operation.
8) Check all the position of valve is normal.
9) Check HFO & LDO pump are running in re
circulation.
10) Fill the deaeretor with initial filling line.
Conform the position of the following valves:-
1) All blow down and drain valves on boiler and water
wall should be closed condition.
2) All boiler and super heater filling valves are closed
condition.
3) Soot blower master steam valve should be closed
condition.
4) Main steam line stop valve should be closed condition.
5) De-super heater spray valve should be closed
condition.
6) Drum vents should be open condition.
7) Super heater header drains should be open condition.
8) Fill the boiler with initial filling line and observe the
water coming from the vent of economizer, drum vents,
and super heater vents sequentially.
9) CBD and IBD drains should be closed condition.

Start Boiler light up:-

1) Start the (ACW) industrial cooling water system.
2) Start the instrument air compressor.
3) Start the APH motor it that is rotary APH.
4) Put the auxiliary steam system (PRDS) in operation for
oil heating.
5) Start the ID and FD fan.
6) Start the scanner air fan.
7) Start the HFO/LDO pump with recirculation.
8) Adjust the fan speed and opening of dampers , increase
the air flow up to 30% of total air flow.
9) Maintain the furnace draft of approximately -4 mm.
10) Start boiler feed water pump and keep drum level as
per purge permissive.
11) Make sure all purge permissive are satisfying and
start purge for 5 minutes.
12) Start the oil burners by maintaining furnace draft.
13) Visually check the flame of the oil burner is that
healthy or not.
14) When prepare for heavy fuel firing, be sure that
atomizing steam is in service and oil temperature reach to
permissive value.
15) Change the position of oil guns on each elevation for
uniform heating of furnace.
16) Increase the furnace temperature by 5 deg c per
minute.
17) The firing should be continued nearly 08 hours.
18)Start the HP dosing pump with minimum stroke.
19) Observe the drum upper and lower metal temperature
increase uniformly.
20) Close the drum vents when drum pressure reaches to
2 kg/cm2.
21) Observe the expansion reading of boiler within limit.
22) Close the main steam line vent when the pressure
reaches to 5 kg/cm2.
23) Charge the auxiliary steam line and connect to
common header if available.
24) Check all drains of the boiler should be closed
condition.
25) Slowly open the main steam line bypass valve.
26) Observe all condensate removed from line and open
slowly main steam valve to turbine and observe
hammering of steam line.
27)Charge the sample cooler line and ask D.M plant
operator to check all the parameter of water and steam
Q. Procedure of turbine cold startup?
Ans. The startup condition of the turbine is considered as per
inner casing temperature of the turbine such as,
a) Cold start up – If the casing temperature is < 200°C.
b) Warm start up - If the casing temperature in between
200-300°C.
c) Hot start up- If the casing temperature is > 450°C.
Pre checklist for cold start up:-
1) Check all work completed and all permit is returned.
2) Confirm all interlock test of turbine is completed.
3) Check all level gauges and pressure gauges in operation.
4) Check cooling tower sump level should be normal level.
5) Check the oil level of MOT tank and control oil tank should
be normal.
6) Check the generator cooling water and lube oil cooling
system is normalized.
7) Check the compressor is system in running .
8) Check the ACW pump in running.
9) Check the circulating water pump(CW) in running.
10)Check the turbine lube oil pump is running and turbine is
in barring gear.
11) Check the generator air cooling system is in operation.

Procedure for turbine rolling:-

1) Start the CEP with minimum re circulation.
2) Start the gland steam system with auxiliary PRDS.
3) Start the gland steam blower and normalize Gland steam
drain system.
4) Maintain the gland steam temperature in between 121 to
177 deg c.
5) Start the vacuum pump or ejector for vacuum pulling.
6) Ensure the boiler develop rated pressure above 15 kg/cm2
& temperature >360deg c
7) Put the HP and LP bypass system in operation for line
warm-up.
8) Ensure all turbine drains are open condition.
9) Check the turbine lube oil temperature is in-between 38-42
deg c.
10) Check the differential expansion and eccentricity is
normal.
11) Reset the turbine from governor panel.
12) Press the latching or start bottom to open the ESV.
13) Give command for rolling of turbine.
14) Check the turning gear and JOP automatically stopped
when speed reaches >300 rpm.
15) Press the hold button of turbine and hold the speed in
500rpm to check the eccentricity < 0.076 mm, axial shift +- 1
mm and differential expansion +- 6mm of turbine.
16) Continue the speed of the turbine with 40 rpm/min and
speedup the turbine speed during critical speed of 1850,2000
and 2200 respectively (as per designer).
17) Check the main oil pump comes in service and AOP is
stopped condition.
18) After turbine reached to full speed hold for some time and
ensure upper and lower casing temperature difference is
within limit.
19) Ask the electrical people for synchronization.
20) Close all turbine drains after synchronization.
21) Increase load by follow of turbine cold startup load curve.
22) When the load is increase to 20% of full load charge the
Extraction line gradually.
23) Finally check all parameter of turbine is ok and increase
turbine load to full.
Q. What is the function of ejector in condenser and it’s
working principle ?
Ans. Function of ejector:- The main function of the ejector is
to extract air and no condensate gasses from a closed system
. It removes air from the condenser and provide vacuum. The
amount of air extracted at the time of starting is more as
compared to running unit.
Parts of ejector:- It generally consists of converging nozzle ,
diverging nozzle , diffuser throat , inlet and outlet pipes, Rota
meter for measurement of air flow , cells with tube for
regeneration heat transfer , Steam traps for drip control .

parts of a steam ejector

Working principle of ejector :- When a high pressure motive
fluid( steam/liquid) enters the steam nozzle , this result in a
decreasing pressure and increasing velocity of the fluid again
the fluid enters in the diffuser which result in a increasing
pressure and decreasing velocity of the fluid so due to
pressure difference vacuum is created in between the nozzle
and diffuser we can say venture throat . So due to pressure
difference or vacuum it sucks no condensable air and fluid
from the system. The mixture then enters to an inter
condenser where the steam is condensate. The inter
condenser are designed with a special inter condenser baffles
of tubes where heat transfer takes place . The second stage
ejector handles the non condensate gasses of first stage
ejector and through a vent opening to the atmosphere. The air
flow can be measured by the rota-meter. The condensate
water of steam send back to re use through steam traps.
Types of ejector :-
There are generally two types of ejector generally used as ,
i > Hogger ejector :- This ejector is known as the starting
ejector which is used to pull the gasses at the time of starting
of system. It has high capacity of air extraction. This ejector
operates with parallel with the running ejector till the vacuum
reaches 500-600 mm of HG column , then the hogger ejector
is switched off and main ejector will remain in service. The
main disadvantages of this ejector is the steam escaped to
atmosphere and can't reuse.

Image of a main ejector

ii> Main ejector :- This is also known as the running ejector
which evacuate the air continuously at the system running
condition. This is a multi stage type ejector . The high velocity
air -water mixture enters to the shell and cooled in the first
stage of the shell by condensate. Steam is thus condensate
and the steam air mixture volume reduced and allowed to
second stage of the nozzle . In the second stage the mixture
is completely condensate and the air is vented to the
atmosphere. The drains are provided with loops or siphoned
to prevent ingress of air from the atmosphere.Here the
condensate seam is again recovered in condenser and reuse.
Q. What is liquid ring air pump or air ejector used in
condenser and it's working principle ?
Ans . As the steam ejector use steam for air evacuation this is
a loss for the plant as the pressure and temperature of the
steam is reduced to the rated parameter of the ejector , so now
a days in modern power plants rotary air pumps are used for
air extraction purpoes.The rotary air pump is more flexible as
it doesn’t depend steam and water circuit for air extraction.
Construction: - It’s construction is same like a centrifugal
pump with multiple impellers. It consists of impeller, suction
pipe , discharge pipe. Diffuser, divergent cone, fixed guide
nozzle . The impeller with a blade is attached to a center hub
located in a cylindrical body. The pump require liquid to create
vacuum. A tapping is provided at the top of the pump for air
line connection.

Working principle:- The liquid if fed to the pump through

suction pipe , due to rotary motion of the pump impeller a
centrifugal force is created in the impeller of the pump. It
consists of a multi-bladed, rotating element (impeller),
eccentricity positioned within a cylindrical casing. The
compression of the gas occurs in one or two impeller stages
depending on the ultimate vacuum required, although for this
service two/multi stage pumps are generally required. Water or
some other incompressible fluid, called service liquid,
is introduced to the LRVP. As the impeller rotates, a ring of
liquid is formed inside the pump casing from centrifugal force.
This action draws the gaseous stream into the pump through
the inlet port. The gas is compressed by the liquid ring, exiting
the first stage through a smaller area discharge port and into
the second stage of the pump. The second stage is
volumetrically smaller doing the final compression of the gas.
The gas then exits the pump usually at atmospheric pressure,
along with the service liquid.Only small amount of water
makeup required due to water leakage or evaporation.
uses of liquid ring pump:-
1) Power generation equipment (produce vacuum).
2) Petrochemical.
3) Seawater deae-ration.
4) Pharmaceutical.
5) Ground water remediation/vapor extraction.
6) Food production.
Advantages of liquid ring pump:-
These pumps can easily take care of condensable vapors and
can even handle fluids of various kinds without affecting the
performance of the pump. Based on liquid ring technology,
pumps have only one rotating or prime functioning part and
therefore are economical and much easier to maintain than the
other pumps. The repairing or rebuilding of these pumps is
very easy in comparison to other complicatedly designed
pumping units. Liquid ring vacuum pumps can efficiently be
employed as vacuum jobs and also for the compression tasks
as well which usually is not possible with ordinary pump
sets.Quick starting also another advantage of this pump.
ELECTRICAL QUESTION ANSWER

Q .What is electrical Generator .

Ans. The Generator is an electrical machine which convert

mechanical energy to electrical energy . There are two types
of generator AC generator & DC generator.

Q. Why the transformer & generator are rated in KVA

instead of KW.
Ans. Here are the following reason's.
1-The power factor of generator & transformer depend on the
power factor of load , as we don't know the power factor of
load so it is rated in KVA.
2- The copper loss depend on the current & iron loss depend
on the voltage so total loss depend on the volt-amp not on the
phase angle of voltage and current i.e is independent of load
power factor , that is why rating of transformer is in kva
instead of kw.
 Q. What is the difference between generator and
alternator?
Ans. Here is the following difference are noted as.
1> Both works on the same principle of electromagnetic
induction , generator generate D.C through commutator while
the alternator generates A.C through slip rings.
2> In generator the field is fixed and the armature is rotating
while in alternator armature is fixed and field is rotating.
3> Generator is used where small loads while alternator is
used for large loads or large power plants.
4> Operation and flexibility of alternator is more than the
generator.

Q. What are the types of winding used in electrical

machine?
Ans. There are two types of winding is generally used as
wave winding and lap winding . In wave winding the no of
parallel path is two, where as in lap winding the no of parallel
path is equal to no of poles.
Q. What is the power factor ?
Ans. It is the cosine angle between voltage and current in an ac
circuit.There are generally three types of power factor as,
1.Active power factor = v*i*cosɸ.
Q. Causes of low power
factor? Ans.Here
are the reason of low power factor ,
1.Most of A.C motor are induction type which have low
lagging power factor.
2.Arc lamps,industrial heating surface, electrical discharge
lamps operate at low lagging power factor.

Q .What is the classification of transformer?

Ans. The transformer is classified as,
1. According to voltage- High voltage transformer ( H.T) and
low voltage transformer(L.T).
2. According to winding - Core type winding and shell type
winding.
3. According to cooling – Natural oil cooling, natural oil
forced air cooling, forced air forced oil cooling.

Q. What is corona effect?

Ans. It is the phenomena of hissing sound, production of
ozone gas, radio interference and power loss in overhead
transmission line. At higher voltage corona loss will be found
more.
Theory of corona :-Generally air contains some ionized
particles due to ultraviolet radiation & cosmic rays . In normal
condition air contains free electron and + ve ions when ever
the voltage increase to a certain value in between the
conductor , The potential gradient is setup in the air . Under
the presence of potential gradient the ionized air occurred
more velocity and air starts conducting in between the
conductor. The air starts conducting when the potential
gradient of the surface increase to 30 v/cm . More voltage
more free electron available in between the conductor hence
more corona effect. Due to this result either corona will
formed of spark occurred in between the conductor.
Factors affecting corona :-
1.Atmosphere- Corona depends on the physical condition of
atmosphere . In a rainy or stormy weather corona will be more
at less voltage.2.
2.Space between the conductor- Spacing between the
conductor is also depend on the corona more space in between
the conductor less electrostatic effect and less corona.
3. Line voltage- Line voltage is also affect on corona, greater
the line voltage more corona will be formed.
4.Surface of the conductor- Irregular and rough surface have
more corona than the smooth surface.
Advantages of corona:-
1.Due to formation of corona surrounding conductors starts
conducting, hence the diameter of the conductor is increased.
2.The effect of transient produced by surges is also reduced.
Disadvantages of corona:-
1.It increase line loss and decrease transmission efficiency.
2.Non sinusoidal voltage drop across the line as the current
drawn by the corona is non sinusoidal .
3.Corrosion of conductor may cause due to production of
ozone gas.
Methods of reducing corona effect:-
1.By increasing conductor spacing
2.By increasing conductor size
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ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER WORKING

Q. What is electrical Transformer?
Ans. The transformer is a static device which step up or step-
down the voltage with constant frequency. Its name is
defined transformer because it transforms energy from one
circuit to another circuit. Since it has no moving parts, so it is
called static device. There is no physical contact in between
two winding. Transformer require less maintenance as
compared to other rotating device. When the transformer raises
voltage higher than input voltage then it is called step-up
transformer and vice versa.
Construction of transformer:-
It consists a soft iron or silicon steel core and two winding
name as , primary & secondary. The winding are insulated to
each other. A transformer tank is provided to support all
assembly parts. The core is built up of thin soft iron and some
%ge of silicon generally 0.35 to 0.4 % is added to reduce
eddy current loss.The core is laminated each other to reduce
iron loss. Electrical bushings are provided to connect winding
terminals and external wire. Protecting device are provided to
protect transformer from overloading. The winding are
immersed with mineral oil its trade name known as
(ASKARELS) for cooling. They are nonflammable and do not
decompose to produce inflammable gasses. External cooling
finned pipes are provided to cool transformer oil. Oil indicator
provided to indicate oil level. Breather is provided to supply
moisture free air to transformer tank. A conservator tank
provided to show oil level of the tank.
 Image of Transformer

Types of transformer:-
i) According to construction – core type , shell type
transformer.
ii) According to cooling- Natural air cooling , natural oil
cooling , force oil cooling, natural oil and natural air cooling.
iii) According to voltage – Step-up and step down transformer.
iv) According to phase-Single phase and three phase
transformer.
v) according to loading – Power transformer and distribution
transformer.
vi) according to installation – Indoor transformer and outdoor
transformer.
vii) According to connection – Star and Delta connection.

Working principle of transformer:- It work in the principle

of faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that is, The
changing flux link is directly proportional to the induced EMF
( e= Mdi/dt ) . If the secondary circuit is closed, a current
flows in it thus the electrical energy is transferred from
primary coil to secondary coil .The E.M.F equation of a
transformer E= 4.44ɸF N volt.
 you tube video of transformer

Transformer tests:-
i) Open circuit tests – This test of the transformer is done to
determine the core loss or no load loss of the transformer. Here
low voltage winding is supplied with normal voltage and high
voltage winding is kept open. There is an ammeter, voltmeter
and watt meter is connected in high voltage winding’s hen
there is a normal voltage applied to the primary of the
transformer , normal flux will be setup in the core as there is
no load connected in secondary only normal iron loss recorded
in the secondary by watt meter. The iron loss is two types as
iron loss as eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. Copper loss
is negligible as there is very small current in primary.
ii) Short circuit test – This test is known as impendance test
is done to determine copper loss of the transformer. This loss
is used to calculate efficiency of transformer. The copper loss
is directly proportional to load sometimes called I²R loss. Here
high voltage winding is supplied with 5 – 10 % of the normal
primary voltage and low voltage winding is short circuited
with a thick copper conductor. There is an ammeter, voltmeter
and watt meter is connected in high voltage winding to
measure power. As the supply voltage is applied very small
percentage so the flux produced is also very lo percentage
hence core loss is very low , the result is that the watt meter
reading shows only copper loss or I²R loss.
What is regulation of transformer:- This is known as change
in terminal voltage from no load to full load =V2-V1 . When
the transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, t he
secondary voltage decrease because of its internal resistance
and leakage reactance. Lesser is the regulation more stable of
the transformer and more efficient.
%ge regulation is defined as V2-V1/V2 *100.
Whereas v2 secondary voltage and V1 primary voltage.
Transformation ratio of transformer:-
This is the voltage transformation ratio of the transformer is
defined as,
K= v2/v1 * n2/n1 * i1/i2 .
K is known as transformation ratio.
Efficiency of the transformer:- The efficiency of the
transformer in particular and power factor is defined as the
output divided to input .The transformer is highly efficient
because there is very small loss and there is no rotary part.
generally the efficiency of transformer is designed 98 %
Efficiency = output/input or Output/output +loss .
Condition of maximum efficiency – The condition of
transformer maximum efficiency is Copper loss = Iron loss.

Q. What is corona effect?

Ans. It is the phenomena of hissing sound, production
of ozone gas, radio interference and power loss in
overhead transmission line. At higher voltage corona
loss will be found more.
Theory of corona:- Generally air contains some ionized
particles due to ultraviolet radiation & cosmic rays. In
normal condition air contains free electron and + ve
ions whenever the voltage increase to a certain value in
between the conductor, The potential gradient is setup
in the air . Under the presence of potential gradient the
ionized air accrue more velocity and air starts
conducting in between the conductor. The air starts
conducting when the potential gradient of the surface
increase to 30 v/cm . More voltage more free electron
available in between the conductor hence more corona
effect. Due to this result either corona will formed of
spark occur in between the conductor.
Factors affecting corona:-
1. Atmosphere- Corona depends on the physical
condition of atmosphere. In a rainy or stormy weather
corona will be more at less voltage.2.
2.Space between the conductor- Spacing between the
conductor is also depend on the corona more space in
between the conductor less electrostatic effect and less
corona.
3. Line voltage- Line voltage is also affect on corona,
greater the line voltage more corona will be formed.
4. Surface of the conductor- Irregular and rough surface
have more corona than the smooth surface.
Advantages of corona:-
1.Due to formation of corona surrounding conductors
starts conducting, hence the diameter of the conductor
is increased.
2. The effect of transient produced by surges is also
reduced.
Disadvantages of coron:-
1. It increase line loss and decrease transmission
efficiency.
2. Non sinusoidal voltage drop across the line as the
current drawn by the corona is non sinusoidal .
3. Corrosion of conductor may cause due to production
of ozone gas.
Methods of reducing corona effect:-
1. By increasing conductor spacing
2.By increasing conductor size.

Q. What is the advantage of star delta starter than the

DOL starter?
Ans. In star-delta starter the staring current is reduced
3-4 times than the DOL starter. At the time of starting
the motor starts with star connection and after some
time it switches to delta. The voltage during star is
reduced to root (3) times of normal voltage. It increases
the life of the motor. Starting torque is also increased in
star-delta starter.
Q. What happen if D.C voltage is applied to an A.C
induction motor?
Ans. If we apply D.C voltage to ac induction motor first
thing is that the motor will not rotate and second thing
is it will born the motor winding because the reactance
of the motor winding will be zero . The reactance of the
coil is given as XL= 2*π*f*l as the frequency is zero in
D.C supply so total reactance will be zero and the motor
takes heavy current. The reason for motor not rotating
is as we apply D.C supply it produce constant flux hence
no E.M.F is induced in the rotor conductor.
Q. Why the A.C supply is preferred than the D.C supply?
Ans. Here is the following advantages of using ac
supply,
1. The voltage can be easily step up or step down as per
requirement.
2. A.C equipment and circuit breaker is cheap.
3. A.C substation is cheap and easy for installation.
4. Maintenance cost of A.C substation is less as
compared to D.C substation.
Q. What are the advantages of D.C transmission system?
Ans.
1. There are two conductor required in D.C transmission
system.
2. There is no skin effect on D.C transmission line.
3. There is no inductance and surge impedance in D.C
transmission line.
4. Due to less impedance there is less voltage drop in
line.
5. Less interference in communication system.
6. The speed control is easy in D.C system.
7. D.C system is stable for high power transmission line.
8. There is less corona loss in D.C transmission line.
Q. what is the disadvantage of D.C transmission line?
ANS.
1>Electric power can’t be generated in high voltage.
2>There is limitation of D.C switches and circuit
breakers.
3>The maintenance cost of D.C equipment is high.

4> D.C voltage can't be step up or step down as per

requirement
Q. How can we change the direction of rotation of a single
phase induction motor?
A.We can change the direction of rotation of motor either by
interchanging the terminal of winding or by changing the
terminal of capacitor.
Q. what is the speed control method of induction motor?
A. We can vary the speed by
1. By varying the voltage.
2. By varying the current.
3. By varying the frequency.
4. By changing the no of poles of motor.
The most effective method from the above is variable
frequency control method. Now a days most industries used
variable frequency drives for speed control of induction motor.
Q. What is the working principle of orifice plate used for
flow measurement?
A. It is a device used to measuring flow rate by reducing
pressure or restricting flow. it works in the Bernoulli’s
principle , as per this theory the pressure of the fluid is
inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid means if the
velocity of the fluid increase then the pressure will be
decrease. It is a thin plate with a hole which is placed at the
center of the pipeline. When fluid passes through the orifice
there is a presser difference in between before and after of the
orifice. By taking the pressure difference across upstream and
downstream the flow rate can be obtained.
Q. What is the load curve used in transmission line?
A. It is the measurement of variation of load on the
transmission line with respect to time. The load in a power
station/ transmission line is never constant it varies according
to time ,so it is recorded hourly or half –hourly on the graph.
The curve obtain is known as daily load curve and show the
variation of load on the whole day. It is observed that the load
on a Power Station is maximum in 6 P.M evening and
minimum at 12 A.M midnight. The load curve can be
calculated ad monthly load curve and yearly load curve.
Importance of load curve:-
a) The load curve shows the maximum demand of the station.
b) The load curve helps the Power Station staffs to calculate
peak load demand of station.
c) It helps to observe the variations of load in Power Station
during different hours of the day.
d) It helps to calculate the average load of station on that day.
Average load = Area in daily load curve in (KWH) / 24
hours.

Q. What is difference between load factor and demand

factor of Power Station?
A. The load factor is defined as :- The ratio of average load to
maximum demand during a defined period. Load
factor=Average load/Max. demand.
The demand factor is defined as:- The ratio of maximum
demand to connected load of the Power Station .Demand
factor = Maximum demand/connected load.
Q. What is tariff in a Transmission system?
A. It is the rate at which the electrical power is supplied to the
consumer is known as tariff. It include the cost of producing
power and profit. It is used to calculate the capital investment
in transmission & distribution system with profit earned in that
system.
Types of tariff:-
a) Simple rate tariff:- This type of tariff , the price is constant
per unit .It does not depend on the increased or decreased
consumers energy demand.
b) Flat rate tariff:- In this type of tariff the consumers are
charged different per unit rate. In this system the consumer
are charged with different groups such as lighting load and
power load. A charge is applied for lighting load and another
price is set for power load.
c) Block rate tariff: - Here the energy is divided with
different blocks and the price is charged as per the specific
block. For example, the first 50 units is charged with 1 rupees
and the next 30 unit may be charge for 80 paise .This tariff
give a relief to large consumer.
d) Two part tariff: - In two part tariff the unit is charged with
the maximum targeted demand of the consumer to the actual
energy consumed by the consumer. Here the tariff divided into
two part as fixed charge and running charge.
Q. What is the method used for improvement of power
factor?
A. As most of the power load is inductive so it is necessary to
install power factor correction equipment in the system. The
power factor correction device are draw the leading current
from the circuit and improve power factor. Here is the
following power factor correction equipments used for power
factor correction,
a) Static capacitor:- This is a device which is connected in
parallel with the circuit , draws leading current and improve
power factor. It consists of two parallel plate with dielectric in
between the plates. In three phase circuit the capacitor can be
connected star or delta. They have easily installed and require
less maintenance.
b) Synchronous condenser:- Here a synchronous motor is
connected in parallel with the circuit. It consists a rotor and
stator same as construction of A.C slip ring induction motor.
The stator is supplied with three phase ac supply where as the
rotor is supplied with D.C supply. The motor require initial
rotation through eternal rotating device, when it reaches to
synchronous speed then D.C supply is switched on and the
motor starts rotating at synchronous speed. By varying the
excitation of rotor the power factor can be adjusted. An over
excited synchronous motor act as a condenser. It has the
disadvantage that it requires high maintenance cost and more
loss.
c) Phase advancer:- This is a device used improve the power
factor of the induction motor. It is mounted in the same shaft
of the motor. It improves the power factor of the motor by
providing extra ampere turns. Its terminal is connected in
series with the rotor circuit .We can say this is a simple A.C
exciter. By providing extra ampere turns it operates on leading
power factor as an over excited synchronous motor.

Q. What is the advantage of star delta starter than the

DOL starter?
Ans. In star-delta starter the staring current is reduced 3-4
times than the DOL starter. At the time of starting the motor
starts with star connection and after some time it switches to
delta. The voltage during star is reduced to root (3) times of
normal voltage. It increases the life of the motor. Starting
torque is also increased in star-delta starter.
Q. What happen if D.C voltage is applied to an A.C
induction motor?
Ans. If we apply D.C voltage to ac induction motor first thing
is that the motor will not rotate and second thing is it will born
the motor winding because the reactance of the motor winding
will be zero . The reactance of the coil is given as XL=
2*π*f*l as the frequency is zero in D.C supply so total
reactance will be zero and the motor takes heavy current. The
reason for motor not rotating is as we apply D.C supply it
produce constant flux hence no e.m.f is induced in the rotor
conductor.
Q. Why the A.C supply is preferred than the D.C supply?
Ans. Here is the following advantages of using ac supply,
1. The voltage can be easily step up or step down as per
requirement.
2. A.C equipment and circuit breaker is cheap.
3. A.C substation is cheap and easy for installation.
4. Maintenance cost of A.C substation is less as compared to
D.C substation.
Q. What are the advantages of D.C transmission system?
Ans.
1. There are two conductor required in D.C transmission
system.
2. There is no skin effect on D.C transmission line.
3. There is no inductance and surge impedance in D.C
transmission line.
4. Due to less impedance there is less voltage drop in line.
5. Less interference in communication system.
6. The speed control is easy in D.C system.
7. D.C system is stable for high power transmission line.
8. There is less corona loss in D.C transmission line.

Q. what is the disadvantage of D.C transmission line?

ANS.
1.Electric power can’t be generated in high voltage.
2.There is limitation of D.C switches and circuit breakers.
3.The D.C voltage can’t be change easily.
Q. How can we change the direction of rotation of a single
phase induction motor?
Ans. We can change the direction of rotation of motor either
by interchanging the terminal of winding or by changing the
terminal of capacitor.single phase induction motors usually
have2 windings, a run winding connected all the time and a
start or auxiliary winding that is only connected for a few
seconds at start up. to Reverse a single phase induction motor
the flow of current in one of the windings needs to be reversed
not both so reversing the supply will not work. As both
windings are effectively in parallel when supply is switched
on.
Q. what is the speed control method of induction motor?
Ans. We can vary the speed by
1. By varying the voltage.
2. By varying the current.
3. By varying the frequency.
4. By changing the no of poles of motor.
The most effective method from the above is variable
frequency control method. Now a days most industries used
variable frequency drives for speed control of induction motor.
Q. What is the working principle of orifice plate used for
flow measurement?
Ans.It is a device used to measuring flow rate by reducing
pressure or restricting flow.it works in the Bernoulli’s
principle , as per this theory the pressure of the fluid is
inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid means if the
velocity of the fluid increase then the pressure will be
decrease. It is a thin plate with a hole which is placed at the
center of the pipeline. When fluid passes through the orifice
there is a presser difference in between before and after of the
orifice. By taking the pressure difference across upstream and
downstream the flow rate can be obtained

What is a servo motor ?

Ans.
A Servo is a small device that incorporates a three wire DC motor, a
gear train, a potentiometer,an integrated circuit, and an output shaft
bearing .It has three wires that stick out from the motor casing, one
is for power, one is for ground, and one is a control input line. The
shaft of the servo can be positioned to specific angular positions by
sending a coded signal. As long as the coded signal exists on the
input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft.
If the coded signal changes, then the angular position of the shaft
changes.

Servos come in different sizes but use similar control schemes and
are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small and are
extremely powerful for their size. It also draws power proportional
to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore, doesn’t
consume much energy.

A very common use of servos is in Radio Controlled models like

cars, airplanes, robots, and puppets. They are also used in powerful
heavy-duty sail boats. Servos are rated for Speed and Torque.
Normally there are two servos of the same kind, one geared towards
speed (sacrificing torque), and the other towards torque (sacrificing
speed).

Servos are constructed from three basic pieces; a motor, a

potentiometer (variable resister) that is connected to the output
shaft, and a control board. The potentiometer allows the control
circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo motor. The motor,
through a series of gears, turns the output shaft and the
potentiometer simultaneously. The potentiometer is fed into the
servo control circuit and when the control circuit detects that the
position is correct, it stops the motor. If the control circuit detects
that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct
direction until the angle is correct. Normally a servo is used to
control an angular motion of between 0 and 180 degrees. It is not
mechanically capable (unless modified) of turning any farther due to
the mechanical stop build on to the main output gear.The amount of
power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to
travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will
run at full speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor
will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control.

Working principle of servomotor ?

Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width.

The control wire is used to send this pulse. The parameters for this
pulse are that it has a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse, and a
repetition rate. Given the rotation constraints of the servo, neutral is
defined to be the position where the servo has exactly the same
amount of potential rotation in the clockwise direction as it does in
the counter clockwise direction. It is important to note that different
servos will have different constraints on their rotation but they all
have a neutral position, and that position is always around 1.5
milliseconds (ms).
The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse that is applied to
the control wire. This is called Pulse width Modulation. The servo
expects to see a pulse every 20 ms. The length of the pulse will
determine how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5 ms pulse will
make the motor turn to the 90 degree position (neutral position).

When these servos are commanded to move they will move to the
position and hold that position. If an external force pushes against
the servo while the servo is holding a position, the servo will resist
from moving out of that position. The maximum amount of force
the servo can exert is the torque rating of the servo. Servos will not
hold their position forever though; the position pulse must be
repeated to instruct the servo to stay in position.

When a pulse is sent to a HS-311 that is less than about 0.6 ms the
servo does not rotates to any position and holds its output shaft at
zero degree. If the pulse is wider than 0.6 ms the servo rotates. For
example, if pulse width is equal to 1,5 ms HS-311 will rotate 90
degrees and for pulse width is equal or greater than 2 ms, HS-311
will make rotation of 180 degrees. The minimal width and the
maximum width of pulse that will command the servo to turn to a
valid position are functions of each servo. Different brands, and
even different servos of the same brand, will have different
maximum and minimums. Generally the minimum pulse will be
about 1 ms wide and the maximum pulse will be 2 ms wide.
Use of ac servomotor:-

This motor is used in DVD player , Robotics , food processing unit ,

Toy manufacturing unit etc.

Working Principle of Synchronous motor:-

A synchronous motor is constructional same as alternator or ac
generator.It has one rotor ,stator and a set of brushes.

Working principle:-
In order to understand the principle of operation of a
synchronous motor, let us examine what happens if we
connect the armature winding (laid out in the (stator) of a 3-
phase synchronous machine to a suitable balanced 3-phase
source and the field winding to a D.Csource of appropriate
voltage. The current flowing through the field coils will set up
stationary magnetic poles of alternate North and South. ( for
convenience let us assume a salient pole rotor, as shown in
below Fig

. On the other hand, the 3-phase currents flowing in the

armature winding produce a rotating magnetic field rotating at
synchronous speed. In other words there will be moving North
and South poles established in the stator due to the 3-phase
currents i.e at any location in the stator there will be a North
pole at some instant of
time and it will become a South pole after a time period
corresponding to half a cycle. (after a time = 1 /2f , where f =
frequency of the supply). Let us assume that the stationary
South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole in the
stator moving in clockwise direction at a particular instant of
time, as shown in Fig. 50. These two poles get attracted and
Force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles -
resulting in production of torque in clockwise direction try to
maintain this alignment ( as per lenz’s law) and hence the rotor
pole tries to follow the stator pole as the conditions are
suitable for the production of torque in the clockwise direction.
However the rotor cannot move instantaneously due to its
mechanical inertia, and so it needs sometime to move. In the
mean time, the stator pole would quickly (a time duration
corresponding to half a cycle) change its polarity and becomes
a South pole. So the force of attraction will no longer be
present and instead the like poles experience a force of
repulsion. In other words, the conditions are now suitable for
the Force of repulsion between stator poles and rotor poles -
resulting in production
of torque in anticlockwise direction production of torque in the
anticlockwise direction. Even this condition will not last
longer
as the stator pole would again change to North pole after a
time of 1/2f . Thus the rotor will experience an alternating
force which tries to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at
twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals
corresponding to 1/2f seconds. As this duration is quite small
compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the
rotor cannot respond and move in any direction. The rotor
continues to be stationary only. On the contrary if the rotor is
brought to near synchronous speed by some external means
say a small motor (known as pony motor-which could be a
D.C or AC in- duction rotor) mounted on the same shaft as
that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles
in the stator and the rotor continues to run at the synchronous
speed even if the supply to the pony motor is
disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor cannot start rotating
on its own or usually we say that the synchronous rotor has no
starting torque. So, some special provision has to be made
either inside the machine or outside of the machine so that the
rotor is brought to near about its synchronous speed. At that
time, if the armature is supplied with electrical power, the
rotor can pull into step and continue to operate at its
synchronous speed.

Methods of starting a synchronous motor:-

To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator
to a low enough value that the rotor can easily accelerate and
lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic
field’s rotation. This is done by reducing the frequency of the
applied electric power. This method is usually followed in the
case of inverter-fed synchronous
motor operating under variable speed drive applications.
• To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of
synchronous motor near to its
synchronous speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator.
Ofcourse care should be taken to ensure that the direction of
rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic
field of the stator are the same. This method is usually
followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started
as a generator and is then connected
to the supply mains by following the synchronization or
paralleling procedure. Then the power supply to the prime
mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will
continue to operate as a motor.
• To use damper windings are provided in the ma- chine. The
damper windings are provided in most of the large
synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the
rotor whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a
periodically varying load.
Application of synchronous motor:-
1) For power factor correction:- An over excited synchronous motor
work as a condenser and improves power factor.Here the motor is
connected in parallel across supply.

2) Constant speed application:- These motors are high speed and

high efficiency can be used for constant speed loads such as paper
mills , blowers, centrifugal pumps etc.

3) For voltage regulation:-The voltage can be controlled at the end

of the transmission line where a large value of inductive load are
presents.A field regulator is provided to vary the excitation of
motor. When the line voltage decreases due to inductive load motor
excitation is increased, thereby rising its pf which compensate the
line voltage drop.

Working principle of 3 phase Squirrel cage

Induction motor ?
As it’s name indicates as squirrel cage induction motor because it
looks like squirrel cage. AC induction motors are the most common
motors used in industrial motion control systems, as well as in main
powered home appliances. It has main advantage due to Simple and
rugged design, low-cost, low maintenance and direct connection to
an AC power source.
Construction:-
It has mainly two parts as
a) Stator – It is made of number of stampings , which are slotted and
carries windings in it. The exact number of pole designed as per the
required speed. The stator is supplied with A.C supply and fixed to
casing.
B) Rotor- The rotor is of squirrel-cage type construction .It consists
of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots carrying short
circuited heavy copper/ aluminum bars. The rotor bars are brazed or
electrically welded with heavy short circuiting end-rings. The rotor
is free to rotate in between stator.

rotor construction

Working principle:-The principle of operation of the induction

motor is based on the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
that, if a short circuited conductor placed in between a
electromagnetic field an e.m.f is induced in that conductor which
tends to rotate the conductor .This is achieved by whenever a 3
phase supply if fed by 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed is setup in the
stator .The flux passes through the air gap and sweeps past the rotor
surface and cuts by the rotor conductor. Due to relative speed
between the rotating flux and the stationary conductor an e.m.f is
induced in that rotor conductor. The frequency of rotor if same as
supply frequency. Electromagnetic Force (EMF) in the rotor (just
like the voltage is induced in the transformer secondary) as per
Lenz’s law, thus generating
another set of electromagnets; Interaction between the magnetic
field of
these electromagnets generates twisting force, or torque. As a result,
the motor rotates in the direction of the resultant torque. we can
mention degrees apart it as a rotating transformer in which the
primary winding is stationary and the secondary is free to rotate.

The speed of an induction motor depends on -

Ns =120 f/P
where:
NS = the synchronous speed of the stator
magnetic field in RPM
P = the number of poles on the stator
f = the supply frequency in Hertz
Slip of the motor:-
The difference between NS and Nb is called the slip. The slip varies
with the load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down
or increase slip. A decrease in load will cause the rotor to speed up
or decrease slip.
The slip is expressed as a percentage and can be determined with the
following formula:
% slip= Ns – Nb/Ns-x100
where:
NS = the synchronous speed in RPM
Nb = the base speed in RPM

TYPES OF 3 phase INDUCTION MOTORS:-

a)Three phase induction motor-This is sub divided as Squirrel Cage
Motor and Wound-Rotor Motor
Starting of squirrel cage motor:-
The resistance of squirrel-cage motor fixed and small as compared
to reactance. The reactance is very large at the time of starting ,
because of standstill rotor and stator frequency is same as rotor
frequency. so at the time of starting the motor torque is nearly equal
to 1.5 times of full load torque and starting current is 5-7 times of
full load current.
Advantages of 3 phase induction motor:-
It has the following advantage as- Self-starting no requirement of
external torque• Less armature reaction and brush sparking because
of the absence of commutators and brushes that may cause sparks. •
Robust in construction. • Economical. • Easy for maintenance

What is gas insulated substation(GIS):-

Gas insulated substations (GIS) have been used in power systems
over the last decades. In India now it is a growing trend of GIS units
are under various stages of installation. SF6 gas insulated high
voltage switch gear has been in commercial operation for more than
30 years.The GIS can be used for a voltage range of 800 kv.
SIEMENS and ABB are leading GIS installation company .
GIS has following advantages-
■ Economic efficiency.
■ High reliability.
■ Safe encapsulation .
■ High degree of gas tightness .
■ Long service life .
■ Low maintenance costs .
■ Easy access and ergonomic design.
■ High availability .
■ Reliable operation even under extreme environmental conditions.
■Light-weight corrosion resistant aluminium enclosures.
GIS has following components:
1 Circuit breaker
2 Disconnector switch
3 Earthing switch
4 Current transformer
5 Voltage transformer
6 Bus bar & connectors
7 Power transformer
8 Surge arrester
9 Cable termination
10 SF6 / air or SF6 / oil bushing

Working of GIS:-
A fundamental feature of our gas-insulated switchgear is the high
degree of flexibility provided by a modular system. The components
are arranged in pressure-resistant gastight enclosures according to
their functions. SF6 is used in GIS at pressures from 400 to 600 kPa
.All customary bus schemes can be implemented with only a small
number of active and passive modules. The switchgear type 8DQ1
up to 550 kV is of single-phase, metal-enclosed design which
minimizes dielectric and dynamic loading. The encapsulation
material is corrosion resistant aluminum. The O-ring seals – a
proven construction principle guarantee gas tightness. Coupling
contacts capable of absorbing temperature related changes in length
link the conductors. The insulating and arc-quenching medium is
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). (SF6) is also used as a cooling medium in
between contacts. The pressure of gas is continuously monitored
and interlock also provided for tripping if any gas pressure drop or
leakage. The extremely tight casing prevents environmental
pollution. Any moisture or decomposition products are absorbed by
static filters in the gas compartments, which are attached to the
inside of the covers of the access openings. Rupture diaphragms
prevent excessive pressure in the enclosure. Diverter nozzles on the
rupture diaphragms ensure that the gas is expelled in a defined
direction in the event of bursting, which prevents danger to the
operating personnel.In GIS the SF6 is contained and can be
recycled.
Application of GIS:-
a. Urban and industrial areas (space, pollution)
b. Mountain areas (site preparation, altitude)
c. Coastal areas (salt associated problems)
d. Underground substations.
e. Areas where aesthetics are of major concern.

What is brushless excitation system of alternator?

There are generally two types of A.C excitation system used in
alternator as -
A) Static excitation- In this system all converting and inverting
equipment are fixed. The excitation voltage is controlled by (silicon
Controlled Rectifier - SCR).The voltage is supplied by a pair of
brushes and slip rings.
B) Brushless excitation-Now a days most of large capacity
generators are used Brush less excitation. In this system there is no
brushes and slip ring are used for excitation purpose, That’s why it’s
name is Brushless excitation. Here only a pair of brushes are used
for generator protection and earthing purpose. As there is no brushes
it’s maintenance cost is less as compared to static excitation.
IMAGE OF BRUSHLESS EXCITATION

Parts of Brushless excitation system:-

a) Three phase pilot exciter.
b) Three phase main exciter.
c) Rotating rectifier wheels.
d) Cooler system.
E) Metering and supervisory system.

a) Three phase pilot exciter.

The three phase pilot exciter has a revolving field with permanent
magnet poles. The controlled rectified d.c. is fed to the main exciter
field. The induced three phase a.c. voltage is rectified in the rotating
rectifier bridge and fed to the generator rotor winding through the
d.c. leads in the shaft. The pilot exciter magnets, the main exciter
rotor and the rotating diodes are all mounted on a single shaft. There
are 16 poles in the three phase pilot exciter. The output is 220 V,
10%, 400 Hz. Ten magnets are housed together in a non-magnetic
enclosure and this makes one pole. These magnets are braced
between the hub and external pole shoe with bolts.
b) Three phase main exciter.
The three phase main exciter is a six pole rotating armature unit.
The field
poles with the damper windings are arranged in the stator frame.
Laminated magnetic poles are arranged to form the field winding.
Bars are
provided on the pole shoes, and their ends are shorted to form a
damper
winding. To measure the exciter current a quadrature axis coil is
fitted
between two poles. The rotor is formed by stacking laminations
together and these are compressed by through-bolts over
compression rings. The three phase winding is inserted in the slots
of the rotor. The winding conductors are transposed within the core
length, and the ends turns of the rotor winding are secured with steel
bands. The connections are made at rectifier wheel end. A ring bus
is formed at the winding ends and the leads to rotating
rectifier wheels are also connected to the same. The complete rotor
is
shrunk fit on the shaft. The rotor is supported on a journal bearing
positioned between the main and pilot exciters. Lubrication of the
bearing
is from the turbine oil system.
c) Rotating rectifier wheels.
The silicon diodes are arranged on the rectifier wheels in a three
phase
configuration. The diodes are so made that the contact pressure
increases
during rotation due to the centrifugal force. There are two diodes in
parallel
on each heat sink and. these are protected by one fuse. The RC
suppression network consists of one capacitor and one damping
resistor each, and there are six RC circuits per wheel. The two
diode wheels are identical but differ only in the forward direction of
the diodes. The d.c. leads run through the bore of the shaft and the
connection to the diodes is made via radial bolts.
d) Cooling arrangement.
The exciter is air cooled. This is a closed loop system and the hot air
is cooled in two coolers arranged alongside the exciter. The entire
exciter is housed in an enclosure through which the cooling air
circulates. The main exciter receives the cool air from the fan which
draws the cold air through the pilot exciter. Air enters the main
exciter from both ends and is passed on to the ducts below through
radial holes. The warm air passes over the coolers and return to the
main enclosure.
e) Metering and supervisory system.
The supervision of exciter consists of the stroboscope for fuse
monitoring and rotor ground fault detections circuit. The generator
field current is measured through a quadrature axis coil mounted on
the exciter stator.

Advantage of Brushless excitation:-

 No replacement of brushes required in this excitation .
 No external power supply required during starting.
 The shaft driven permanent magnetic generator pilot exciter
provides a reliable source of exciter field power that eliminates
bulky power transformers and dependence on station battery
for field flashing.

 Short circuit sustaining capability provides fault current

support.
 No heavy bus work or cable connections are required between
excitation cubicles and the generator, thus simplifying
installations.

 Large expensive field field circuit breaker and field discharge

resistors are not required.

 Compact voltage regulator hardware for installation and

control panel or switchgear eliminates large excitation
cubicles.
 Suitable for large size generator.