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Network Layer
Computer Networks
The slides are made by J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross,
adapted by Phuong Vo
segments to transport
physical physical
network
data link
layer network
physical
application
transport
network layer protocols network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1
3 2
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
Network Layer 5-10
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
VC number can be changed on each link.
new VC number comes from forwarding table
1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #
1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …
application application
5. data flow begins 6. receive data
transport transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
1. initiate call network
data link 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical
application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical
destination IP address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2
otherwise 3
examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 5-17
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 static routing
5.2 virtual circuit and 5.6 routing algorithms
datagram networks link state
5.3 what’s inside a router distance vector
5.4 IP: Internet Protocol hierarchical routing
datagram format 5.7 routing in the Internet
DHCP RIP
ICMP OSPF
IPv6 BGP
forwarding data
plane (hardware)
high-speed
switching
fabric
physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 5-20
Switching fabrics
transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
three types of switching fabrics
memory
datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)
switch
switch
fabric
fabric
physical layer
…
in: one large datagram
different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net reassembly
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
“reassembled” only at
final destination …
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 5-27
IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
223.1.3.0/24
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server!
yiaddrr:Here’s an IP
223.1.2.4
transaction
address youID:can
654 use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: 68
OK. You’ve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
got that IPID:
transaction address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 5-32
DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
address of first-hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever
network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
Network Layer 5-36
IPv6: motivation
initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
data
32 bits
Network Layer 5-38
Other changes from IPv4
checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 5-40
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
data data
A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 5-42
IPv6: adoption
US National Institutes of Standards estimate [2013]:
~3% of industry IP routers
~11% of US gov’t routers
IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2
.1 .1 .2 .1 .2 .1
RTA#show ip route
Codes: C - connected,.. <Other codes and gateway information omitted>
C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
RTB#show ip route
Codes: C - connected,.. <Other codes and gateway information omitted>
C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial1
RTC#show ip route
Codes: C - connected,.. <Other codes and gateway information omitted>
C 10.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Ethernet0
C 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial1
(*)This slide and next 05 slides is from CCNA 3.0 curriculum. Network Layer 5-46
Directly Connected Networks
and the IP Routing Table
192.168.2.0/24 172.16.0.0/16 192.168.1.0/24 10.1.0.0/16
RTA RTB RTC
e0 s0 s0 s1 s1 e0
.1 .1 .2 .1 .2 .1
RTA#show ip route
C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
RTA#ping 172.16.0.1
!!!!!
RTA#ping 172.16.0.2
!!!!!
RTA#ping 192.168.1.1
.....
RTA#ping 192.168.1.2
.....
RTA#ping 10.1.0.1
.....
.1 .1 .2 .1 .2 .1
Network/subnet route
Intermediate-Address
RTA#show ip route (usually “next-hop”)
Codes: C - connected, S - static,
C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0
S 192.168.1.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.0.2
C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
.1 .1 .2 .1 .2 .1
Network/subnet route
Outgoing interface
RTA#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static,
C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0
S 192.168.1.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0
C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0
10.1.1.1/24
ISP
Any packets not matching the routes 172.16.0.0/16 or 10.1.1.0/24 are sent to the router 10.1.1.1
– where it is now their “problem.” Network Layer 5-51
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 introduction 5.5 static routing
5.2 virtual circuit and 5.6 routing algorithms
datagram networks link state
5.3 what’s inside a router distance vector
5.4 IP: Internet Protocol hierarchical routing
datagram format 5.7 routing in the Internet
DHCP RIP
ICMP OSPF
IPv6 BGP
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
notes: 5 7
4
construct shortest path tree by
tracing predecessor nodes 8
ties can exist (can be broken u
3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 5-59
Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
v w
u z
x y
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + d v (y) }
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from
y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞
node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 5-70
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1
from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from
y 2 0 1
from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 5-71
Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
node detects local link cost change y
4 1
updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
if DV changes, notify neighbors
e.g. , focus on the y’s and z’s entries to
destination x:
“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.
1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
1
C C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS algorithm
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 5-79
Inter-AS tasks
suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of AS1: reachable through AS2,
router should forward which through AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
3c
x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
3c
x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 5-82
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet
x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.
z
w x y
A D B
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 5-87
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 5-88
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)
backbone
area
border
routers
area 3
internal
routers
area 1
area 2
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d