Sfpe Handbook 5th Ed Index

Index for SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fifth
Edition
Index
A Aircraft hangars Alkynes, 913, 1211, 1212, 3461,

ABAQUS computer program, 1111, low-level application of AFFF, 3473
1112, 1945, 2001 1683–1685 ALOFT numerical model, 1059,
Acceptable risk, defined, 2821 new hangar design concepts, 1687 1060
Acetone (CH3COCH3), heat of overhead sprinkler protection, Alumina trihydrate, arc tracking
combustion, 143 1681 reduction with, 673
Acetylene. See Ethyne (C2H2) video image flame detection, 1689 Aluminum
Acid rain, 688 Aircraft rescue and fire-fighting combustion of, 662
Action, 15, 152, 158, 167, 181, (ARFF) vehicles, 1673, 1677, electrical wiring overheating,
230–233, 273–274, 325, 1679 678, 680
329–330, 335, 344, 346, 450, Airport Services Guide (ICAO), American Nuclear Society (ANS),
676, 681, 693, 1040, 1057, 1663–1665, 1667, 1669, 1673, 3334–3336, 3338, 3339, 3354
1137, 1245, 1247, 1307, 1315, 1674 American Society for Testing and
1366, 1469, 1485, 1589, 1591, Air, thermophysical properties of, Materials (ASTM). See
1593, 1604, 1635, 1772, 1816, 95 ASTM entries
1847, 1849–1852, 1864, 1865, ALARM 1.0 fire risk indexing Ammonia (NH3), heat of formation,
1872–1873, 1879, 1883, 1884, model, 3178 145
1891, 1892, 1899, 1900, 1906, ALARM 2.0 fire risk indexing Amorphous material, 171, 177, 178,
1917, 1943, 1966–1968, 2013, model, 3178 278
2021, 2023, 2039, 2040, 2071, Alarms and alarm systems AnalyticaT decision analysis model,
2076–2084, 2088–2095, 2097, fire alarm audibility 3025, 3026
2103–2108, 2263, 2299, 2301, and intelligibility, 1368 ANSI/AISC, Specification for
2347, 2435, 2436, 2448, 2461, scenarios, 1362, 1367, 1368 Structural Steel Buildings,
2462, 2781, 2821, 2877, 2893, sound pressure level, 1360, 1362, 1889–1890
2920–2924, 2926–2928, 2952, 1363, 1367, 1368, 2031 ANSYS computer program,
2964, 2965, 3048, 3056, 3088, fire alarm visibility, 1370–1374 1055–1057, 1111, 2687
3108, 3120, 3125, 3133, 3173, hearing-impaired persons, 1372, Apparent stresses. See Reynolds
3187–3190, 3194, 3198, 3321, 1373 stresses
3331, 3352, 3384, 3391 voice alarm system, 1361 Aqueous film-forming foam
Active error, 2921 ALARP (as low as reasonably (AFFF)
Adams-Bashforth method, solving practical) risk assessment and aircraft hangar protection,
initial value problems, 1096 method 1680–1681
Adiabatic flame temperature buildings, 2952 application rates, 1667–1673
calculation, 147–149 mass transportation, 3383 aspiration, 1665, 1666, 1675, 1688
and dissociation, 148 Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 1211, 2277, hybrids, 1647
lower flammability limits (LFL), 2278 portable fire extinguishers, 1709
536–538, 547 Alkanes, 198, 213, 337, 382, 530, protection of flammable/
premixed flames, 388, 389 536, 542, 559, 913, 1168– combustible liquid storage,
ADINA computer program, 1111 1170, 1189, 1211, 1212, 2739, 1691, 1695
Aerosol(s) 2755, 3460, 3472 protein foams compared, 1647,
defined, 1303 combustion of, 3460 1665, 1668, 1700
in smoke, 1343 Alkenes, 170, 182, 198, 199, 213, spill fire data, 1657, 1659, 1687,
AFFF. See Aqueous film-forming 214, 559, 913, 1211, 1212, 1691, 1694, 1709
foam (AFFF) 3460, 3461, 3472 spreading coefficient, 1657–1659
M.J. Hurley (ed.), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0, © Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2016
2 SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering
Arc fault circuit interruption ASTM E1355, Standard Guide for Autoignition (cont.)
(AFCI) devices, 672 Evaluating the Predictive critical ambient temperature
Archimedes’ principle, 77 Capability of Deterministic (CAT), 410, 411, 557, 604,
Architectural Acoustics (Ginn), 1360 Fire Models, 2039, 2919 610, 629, 630
Arcs, electrical ASTM E1776, Standard Guide for critical stacking temperature
arc extinguishment, 669 the Development of Fire- (CST), 605, 609, 626
arc flash, 668–669 Risk-Assessment Standards, examples, 572, 625, 649
arc tracking 3212 Frank-Kamenetskii theory
and creepage, 673 ASTM E2067, Standard Practice (see Frank-Kamenetskii
dry/wet, 671 for Full-Scale Oxygen theory, autoignition)
scintillations, 372 Consumption Calorimetry hot stacking problem, 609
break-arcs, 668 Fire Tests, 937 iodine number, 576
defined, 666–667 ASTM E698-01, Standard Test liquids in porous materials,
make-arcs, 668 Method for Arrhenius 575–578
means of creating Constants for Thermally and parallel reactions, 620–622
arcing across carbonized path, Unstable Materials, 630 and presence of water, 620
668, 671–673 ASTM E1529, Standard Test Method reference texts, 2694
contact arcs, 668 for Determining Effects of self-accelerating decomposition
glow-to-arc transition Large Hydrocarbon Pool temperature (SADT), 629
glow-to-arc transition: ionized gases Fires on Structural Members Semenov theory (see Semenov
between electrodes, 667, 668 and Assemblies, 1867 theory, autoignition)
glow-to-arc transition: raising ASTM E1354, Standard Test thermal runaway, 583, 605
voltage across electrodes, 667 Method for Heat and Visible time to ignition (TTI)
temperature, 667, 696 Smoke Release Rates for other chemically kinetic
Area sample, 2871 Materials and Products Using difficulties, 624
Areas of refuge, 1266, 1748, 2023, an Oxygen Consumption theoretical treatment, 623–624
2097 Calorimeter, 925 Autoignition temperature (AIT),
Arenes, 913, 1211, 3461, 3473 ASTM E1515, Standard Test 373, 531–537, 539, 554, 560,
Aromatic hydrocarbons, 198, 220, Method for Minimum 561, 573, 574, 576, 578, 579,
326, 1211, 2210, 2221 Explosible Concentration of 607, 625, 648, 1569, 2225,
Arrhenius expression, Combustible Dusts, 2791 2226, 2693, 2779, 3450,
decomposition reactions, 1041 ASTM E2257, Standard Test 3451
Arundel Park Hall fire (1956), Method for Room Fire Test of Automobiles. See Motor vehicles
2099 Wall and Ceiling Materials Availability
ASCE/SEI, Minimum Design Loads and Assemblies, 935 equations for calculating, 2900
for Buildings and Other ASTM E84, Standard Test Method instantaneous/average, 2900
Structures, 1889 for Surface Burning Markov modeling
ASET. See Available safe egress time Characteristics of Building characteristics, 2901–2902
(ASET) Materials, 791–792 developing, 2902–2903
ASET-B zone fire model, 3039–3040 ASTM E119, Standard Test Methods solving continuous time model,
ASET zone fire model, 1027 for Fire Tests of Building 2907–2909
ASME flow nozzle, 1402, 1403 Construction and Materials, solving discrete time model,
ASME orifice meters, 1402–1403 1866, 1867 2904–2907
ASTM D1331, Standard Test time-temperature curves, 789, 1102, transition matrix, 2903–2904
Methods for Surface and 1866, 1867, 1911, 1957 Availability analysis, 2876, 2877,
Interfacial Tension of ASTM, Standard Guide for 2900, 2928, 3202
Solutions of Surface-Active Evaluating Predictive Available safe egress time (ASET),
Agents, 1657 Capability of Computer Fire 1066, 1067, 1099, 2115,
ASTM E2058 fire propagation Models, 3010 3133
apparatus, 926, 1148, 1167, Atria. See Large-volume spaces, impact of tenability on, 2145–2148
1170, 1189–1191, 2242, 3471 smoke management in Available time/time available, 368,
ASTM E691, Practice for Authority having jurisdiction 1211, 1252, 1588, 2100, 2120,
Conducting an acceptable risk and, 2821 2146, 2213, 2214, 2220, 2230,
Interlaboratory Study to aviation fire protection, 1673 2262, 2299, 2320, 2328, 2337,
Determine the Precision of a building fire risk assessment, 2976 2402, 2435, 2771, 2921, 2922,
Test Method, 3093 Autoignition 2924, 2926, 2964, 2965, 2994,
ASTM E1546, Standard Guide for ASTM E698-01 and, 630 3004, 3189, 3231, 3232,
Development of Fire-Hazard- criticality concept 3234–3237, 3359, 3360, 3373,
Assessment Standards, 3212 body size, 625 3389
Index: Fifth Edition 3
Aviation fire protection Bernoulli equation, 21–22, 67, 84, Building aerodynamics
agent quantities/standards, 1673–1679 1383, 1384, 1405 Building assemblies and frames,
foam concentration, 1675–1679 Beta distribution, 2850, 2854 fire resistance
loam expansion and drainage, Beverly Hills Supper Club fire fire protection materials/systems
1674–1675 (1977), 675, 2072, 2077, 2096, concrete/masonry, 1877
underlying principle, 1673 2406, 3143 flame shielding, 1917
Avogadro’s hypothesis, 140 Binomial distribution, 2847–2849, gypsum, 314, 315, 1817
2863, 2867, 2930 intumescents/mastic coatings, 1817
Biot number, 26, 31, 33, 34, 606, spray-applied materials,
B 618, 622–623, 640 1915–1916
Bagasse, spontaneous ignition, Blackbody radiation, 105, 2616 water-cooled columns, 919
605, 628 Boiling liquid expanding vapor floor systems, 1885
Balcony spill plume, 992, 1092, explosion (BLEVE), 558, 2646, frames, 1884, 1890–1895
1834–1839 2664, 2745, 2758, 2792–2814 heat transfer/temperature profiles
Barriers defined, 2792 composite steel-concrete
fire, analysis of, 3350 Boltzmann constant. See Stefan- members, 1950
smoke, 1750, 1786, 1813, 1817, Boltzmann constant concrete members, 1949–1977
2022, 2413, 3167, 3170 Bookcases, heat release rates, 816, steel members, 289, 1112,
Bayes’s law, 2830, 2855 2397 1909–1945
Beams Bougher’s law, 1081 temperature variation along
concrete, 1957, 1960 Boundary layers, convection heat members, 1852
critical stress in steel, 1941–1943 transfer thermally protected steel
critical temperature determination boundary layer approximation, 65, members, 1917
in steel, 1938–1939 66, 68, 70, 83 timber members, 1979–2005
fire resistance in steel, 1931, 1985, laminar flow over flat surface, 67–71 unprotected steel members, 1105,
1994, 1996, 2001 Boundary layers, fluid flow 1118
heat transfer to I-beams, 765, 766, thickness, 17, 18, 65, 69, 73, 76–79, 90 high-temperature thermal
768, 769 Bourbonnais (III.) grade crossing degradation
statically indeterminate, 270 accident (1999), 3373 concrete/masonry, 301, 311, 1877
steel spandrel, 1929–1930 Bourdon gauge, 1381–1382 steel, 1877
Bedding fires Boussinesq approximation, 64, 78, 98 thermal strains, 1876
cigarette smoldering and, 2396 Boxes, heat release rates, 816, 837, timber, 290
heat release rates, 599, 2400 842–844, 846 individual members
Behavioral response to fire/smoke. Bradford stadium fire (1985), 706, bending along the span, 1883
See also Occupants 714, 2406 bending strength in concrete
altruistic behavior, 2073 BRANZFIRE two-zone fire model, sections, 1885
awareness of cues, 2106, 2108 1028, 2968 bending strength in steel-concrete
ambiguous cues, 2462 Breathing effect, compartment sections, 1885
British/U S. populations compared, fires, 985 bending strength in steel sections,
2104 Brick 1885
cognitive decision processes, compressive strength, 305 bending strength in timber
2077, 2928 density, 305 sections, 1885
convergence clusters, 2097 dilatometric/thermogravimetric with concrete in compression, 1884
emotional instability, 2198 curves, 305 with concrete in tension, 1884
emotional state, 2197 modulus of elasticity, 305 elements in compression, 1884
fire-fighting behavior, 2072 specific heat, 306 elements in tension, 1884
gender, response by, 2103–2105 thermal conductivity, 288, 306 section bending strength, 1884
high-rise office buildings, 2087 British Standards Institute (BSI). steel in compression, 1884
hotel fires, 2085–2087 See BS entry steel in tension, 1884
identified characteristics, 2084 Browns Ferry nuclear plant fire timber in compression, 1884
nonadaptive behavior, 2073 (1975), 2923, 3328, 3331 timber in tension, 1884
panic behavior, 2072–2073 BSI (British Standards Institute). input/modeling uncertainties
anxiety/fear distinguished, 2073 See BS entry Bernoulli hypothesis, 1904–1905
perception of incident BS 7974, “Part 7-Probabilistic Risk boundary conditions, 1902
stress model, 2916 Assessment”, Code on the connections, 1905
re-entry behavior, 2084, 2085 Application of Fire Safety fixed geometry, 1898–1899
Bending, structural, moment, 1883 Engineering Principles to the lack of convergence, 1903–1904
Bernoulli beam finite element, 1904 Design of Buildings (BSI), limitations of tests, 1905–1906
Bernoulli distribution, 2846–2847 2977–2979 localized fire effects, 1900–1901
Building assemblies and frames, Building materials. See also specific Buildings, fire risk analysis (cont.)
fire resistance (cont.) materials (cont.) uncertainty/variability/unknowns,
mechanical calculations, fire performance groupings 2956–2957
1901–1905 Group I (insulating), 280 Buoyancy forces
perfect contact, 1899–1900 Group I/F (insulatin/fuel), 280 center of, 500
spalling, 1902–1903 Group L (load-bearing), 280 and convection heat transfer, 71–73,
thermal calculations, 1897–1901 Group L/I (load-bearing/ 77, 81, 98
thermal properties, 1897–1898 insulating), 280 fire plumes, 400
very large structures, 1901–1902 Group L/I/F (load-bearing/ smoke movement, 1045
limit states design insulating/fuel), 280 and vent flows, 467, 469, 470
collapse prevention, 1874 homogeneous/heterogeneous, Burning rate, 145, 151, 236, 354,
fire exposures, 1866–1868 277–278 361–364, 378, 390, 398, 400,
and heat transfer analysis, information sources, 291 403, 434, 490, 499, 508, 520,
1868–1871 mass loss, 284–285 524, 525, 740, 799, 800, 808,
reliability, 1865–1866 material-specific properties, 281–283 813, 828, 830, 857, 867, 883,
resistance, 1864–1865 mixed composition, 279 920, 929, 931, 943, 985, 986,
and structural analysis modulus of elasticity, 281–282 996, 997, 999–1002, 1010,
(see Structural analysis and moisture sorption, 278–279 1013, 1027, 1272, 1273, 1356,
fire resistance) porosity, 278–279, 285–286 1591, 1592, 1606, 1659, 1666,
load combinations, 261, 1874–1875 and reference condition, 281 1786, 1849, 1856, 2390, 2553,
structural analysis specific heat, 286–287 2556–2558, 2571, 2572,
before fire, 1877–1878 stress-strain relationships, 281 2574–2583, 2585–2587,
during fire, 1878–1881 structure-sensitive/-insensitive 2593–2595, 2600, 2612, 2622,
at required resistance time, properties, 278, 288, 292, 293 2629, 2638, 2741, 2750, 2810,
1881–1882 thermal conductivity, 287–288 2964, 3006, 3074, 3246, 3356
utilization of substructures, thermal diffusivity, 288 Burning velocity, flames, 376, 377,
1882–1883 thermal expansion, 284 2739, 2742
structural steel design criteria, thermal properties, 284–288 BURNSIM model, 2384
1889–1890 ultimate strength, 281–282 Burns, skin
walls, 1886–1889 yield strength, 281–282 classifications, 2380
load-bearing, 1886 Building Research Institute conducted heat, 2377
separating function in fire (Japan). See National consequences, 2379–2380
conditions, 1886 Research Institute for Fire and convected heat, 2377–2378
separating function in normal Disaster (Japan) over large areas, 2379
conditions, 1886 Buildings pain and, 2378–2379
thermal gradient across thickness, smoke movement in tall, 1789, 1791 radiant heat, 2378
1888 vent flows in, 474 Bushes, heat release rates
Building Code Requirements for Buildings, fire risk analysis, natural, 861–863
Reinforced Concrete approaches/methods/models, plastic, 863
(American Concrete 2957–2962 Business protection, goals, 1315
Institute), 1964 event tree analysis, 2960 Butane, boiling point, 537, 559
Building Envelope assessing probabilities, 2981
exterior wall and enclosure systems, data-gathering methods
3248 causal relationship of initiating C
exterior wall openings, 3272–3276 events/hazards/consequences, Calorimeters
Fire spread between buildings, 2948–2949 industrial-scale, 937, 943, 946
3242–3245 consequence analysis, 2944 intermediate-/large-scale
loss history, 3276–3279 hazard assessment, 2944–2948 furniture calorimeter, 932–934
risk assessment factors, 3279–3281 as low as reasonably practicable intermediate-scale calorimeter
vertical fire spread, 3245–3248 (ALARP), 2952 (ICAL), 931–932
Building Fire Simulation Model, 2987 fire risk characterization, 2943 room/corner test, 934–936, 938
Building materials. See also specific fire safety concepts tree, 2949–2950 single burning item test,
materials FN curves, 2951–2952 936–937
burnable/nonburnable, 279 guidance documents, 2975–2980 standard hood/exhaust duct,
classification, 277–278 risk-cost assessment models 930–931
composite materials (see also specific models) open-burning calorimeters,
porosity, 286 building fire safety evaluation 799–802, 852
creep, 282–283 method (BFSEM), 2973–2975 oxygen consumption calorimeter
density, 285–286 hazard/risk matrices, 2969–2970 (see Oxygen consumption
elevated temperatures and, 280–281 performance matrix, 2970–2973 calorimeter)
Calorimeters (cont.) Carbon dioxide (CO2) (cont.) Ceiling fires

small-scale heat of formation, 144, 145 CFD model application to coffered
comparative studies, 929–930 incapacitation from, 2243, 2244 ceiling, 1059, 1060
cone calorimeter (see Cone oxygen consumed and amounts corridor flame spread, 713–714
calorimeter) generated, 1201–1202 corridor heat transfer, 761–765
fire propagation apparatus, specific heat, 1537, 1539 flame spread, 713–714
926–927 systems heat transfer beneath, 765–769
Ohio State University (OSU) fire extinguishing mechanisms, Ceiling jet flows
calorimeter (see Ohio State 1536 buoyancy and, 429, 430, 449
University (OSU) calorimeter) health and safety, 1540–1545 confined ceilings
use/application of heat release rate local applications, 1531, 1532, channel configuration, 445–446
data, 937–943 1534, 1567–1573 general enclosure configurations,
Calorimetry nozzle selection, 1575–1584 447–449
combustion bomb calorimeter, 142 thermal-physical properties, convective heat transfer
factors affecting small-scale 1536–1540 ceiling jet region, 439
measurements total applications, 1554–1567 weak plume impingement
airflow, 922 Carbon dioxide generation region, 438
edge effects, 921–922 calorimeter, 571, 1144–1147, development in corridors, 449–451
open/closed configuration, 918–919 1149, 1183, 1184, 1187, 1188 entrainment and, 434, 445, 451
other measurements, 922 Carbon monoxide (CO) excess temperature, 430–435
specimen orientation, 922 CO2 and generation efficiency, excess velocity, 430–435
specimen size, 920–921 1206–1208 flame length, 437
type of heater, 919–920 fire product yields, 1196, 1200, friction factor, 439
type of ignition pilot, 920 1202, 1203, 1210, 1211, 1215 heat release rates, 431, 432, 434,
heat release rate measurement fire ventilation and, 1202–1204 435, 437–444, 446–450
techniques heat of combustion, 143 nondimensional relations, 435–437
carbon dioxide generation, 926, heat of formation, 145 sloped ceilings, 439–441
927, 1145–1147, 1149, 1183, predicting uptake in humans, 2359 steady fires
1187 and smoke generation efficiency, strong plume-driven flow field, 437
compensation method, 911 1208 weak plume-driven flow field,
oxygen consumption method, smoke management and, 429–437
911–915 1826–1827 submerged/two-layer environment,
sensible enthalpy rise method, smoldering fires, 595, 2287, 2355, 429, 431, 441, 443, 447,
907–910 2392, 2393 449, 451
substitution method, 910–911 specific heat, 140, 141, 2667 temperature, 429, 430, 435–437,
oxygen bomb calorimeter test, 906 toxicity 439–449
gross/net heat of combustion, Ct product dose, 2332 thickness, 430, 437
906–907 fractional effective dose (FED), time-dependent fires
oxygen consumption, 146, 239, 896, 2324, 2393, 2405, 2416 power-law fire growth, 442–445
912–914, 917, 918, 924, 928, fractional incapacitating dose quasi-steady assumption, 441–442
934, 945, 952, 956, 1144– (FID), 2405 Ceiling jet stage, compartment
1147, 1182–1184, 1187, 1188 interaction with carbon dioxide, fires, 1067–1068
uncertainty of heat release rate 2232 Ceiling layer, fire plumes, 414. See
measurements, 943–945 interaction with hydrogen also Compartment fires,
use/application of industrial-scale cyanide, 2222 two-layer system
data, 943 and low-oxygen hypoxia, 2292, Ceiling linings. See Wall/ceiling
use/application of intermediate- 2370 lining materials
scale data, 942 Carbon tetrachloride, as early Ceiling temperature, polymer
use/application of small-scale data extinguishing agent, 1451, decomposition, 199
analytical models, 938–939 1452 Cellulose, heat of combustion, 143
physics-based models, 939–942 Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), 1239, Cellulosics, 172, 179, 227, 502, 581,
regression models, 938 2220, 2221, 2299, 2301, 2313, 583, 591, 592, 600, 613, 615,
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 2315, 2322, 2326, 2329, 2331, 620, 622, 637, 662, 830, 890,
asphyxiant, 1540 2333, 2346, 2362, 2396, 2407 1001, 1003, 1137, 1174, 1264,
CO and generation efficiency, predicting concentrations, 2419 1301, 1456, 1511, 1533, 1589,
1206–1208 Carpeting, heat release rates, 818, 2235, 2237, 2240, 2246, 2250,
fire concentrations 866, 878 2277, 2281–2283, 2291, 2295,
and hyperventilation, 1540 Cars, passenger. See Motor vehicles 2296, 2942, 3215, 3244, 3272,
fire product yield, 1196, 1199, 1200, Case goods, heat release rates, 816 3311
1210–1211 CEFICOSS computer program, 1944 thermal decomposition, 181
Central Limit Theorem, 2835, 2862 Children, arousal by smoke Clean agent halon replacements (cont.)
CET89 computer code, 2751 detector, 2463 nozzle area coverage/height
CFAST multiroom zone model, 942, Chi-square distribution, 2839–2840, limitations, 1524
956, 1028, 1097, 1249, 1274, 2854, 2866, 2867, 2869, 2915 pressure drop due to friction loss,
1818, 2243, 2244, 3009, 3016, Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride 1522, 1523
3039, 3233–3235, 3356, 3364 (CPVC), thermal testing/approval of design
CFD. See Computational fluid decomposition, 1154, 3453, methods, 1522–1524
dynamics (CFD) models 3458 thermophysical properties,
CFX Flow3D CFD model, 1056, Chlorine, heat of formation 1505–1508
1610, 1611 (atomic), 145 toxicity, 1499–1502
Chain scission mechanisms, α-chloroacetophenone (CN), 2233, use on energized cables/equipment,
thermal decomposition, 183, 2250 1494, 1496–1498
213–216, 220 o-chlorobenzytidine malonitrile Cleanrooms, fire propagation index
Chairs (CS), 2233, 2250 for polymeric materials,
heat release rates of lightly Christmas trees, heat release rates 1162, 1163
upholstered, 818 artificial, 863, 864 Cleveland open cup apparatus, 566
heat release rates of stackable, 818 natural, 859–863 Clothing items, heat release rates,
upholstered, room effects on heat CIB. See Conseil International du 818–820
release rates, 800 Bâtiment (CIB) Cluster sample, 2871
Chapman-Jouguet theory, Cigarette smoldering, 592, 2342, CMA wood charring model, 1994
detonations, 2751, 2752 2392, 2999, 3214 Coburn-Forster-Kane (CFK)
Char(ring) Class A foams, 1300, 1737–1739, equation, 2331, 2350, 2352,
building materials, 290–291 3286 2354, 2367, 2416, 2417,
decomposition of polymers, 197 Clean agent halon replacements 2419–2421
and ignition of solid fuels, 639 characteristics, 1483–1485 Codes
intumescent, 241, 247 environmental concerns design disadvantages, 1236–1237
rate, 290, 291, 309, 1984–1986, global warming potential, design requirements, 2309
1988, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1483–1485, 1503–1504 safety factors, 1137, 2309–2311,
1997–1999, 2002, 2003 ozone depletion, 1502–1503 3209
wood, 265, 290, 291, 1985–1994 explosion inerting, 1498 Coffee makers, heat release rates, 821
Checklists explosion suppression, 1498–1499 COFRA fire risk indexing model,
evacuation computer models, 2088, extinguishing mechanisms, 3178–3179
2174 1485–1486 Cognition, 2078, 2921
fire risk analysis method, 2825, 2981 flammable gas/liquid extinguishing Cognitive error, 2921
Chemical equillbrium concentration Columns
carbon formation in oxygen- cup burner apparatus, 1486–1492 buckling, 265–267, 270, 1443,
deficient systems, 157–158 opposed-flow diffusion flame 1893, 1904, 1905, 1939–1941,
computer programs for calculations, apparatus, 1488, 1492, 1493 1996, 1999
165–166 halocarbon compounds (see critical stress in steel, 1941
constant, 151–153 Halocarbon extinguishing critical temperature determination in
departure from equilibrium, 158 agents) steel, 288–289, 293, 294, 296,
and dissociation, 151, 156 inert gas mixtures (see Inert gas 312, 1938–1940, 2838, 2889
quantification of constants, 154–156 extinguishing agents) Euler equation, 1095–1097
sample problems, 158–165 solid fuel extinguishing failure, 264, 270
simultaneous, 153–154 concentration, 1492–1495 fire resistance in steel, 1910, 1911,
Chemical heat, 1187, 1188, 1194 system design 1913, 1916, 1919, 1936
Chemical heat of combustion, 1182, agent hold time and leakage, fire resistance testing, 1910
1185, 1186, 1188, 1192, 1193, 1526–1527 heat transfer analyses, 1911,
1196, 1209, 1210, 1218, 1224 agent quantity, 1512 1927–1936
Chemical heat release rate compartment pressurization, liquid-filled, 1919, 1930
determined by CO2 generation 1525–1526 reinforced concrete, 1973–1974
calorimetry, 1146, 1147, 1183 and decomposition products, slenderness ratio, 1939, 1941, 1974
determined by oxygen consumption 1513–1516 Combustion bomb calorimeter, 142
calorimetry, 1183–1184 design concentration, Combustion efficiency, 145, 398,
and flame height, 398, 402 1509–1512 399, 403, 424, 496, 522, 523,
Chemical reactions, exothermic/ discharge time, 1513 582, 866, 909, 1001, 1013,
endothermic, 377, 616, 1898, flow division at tees, 1519, 1014, 1137, 1139, 1159, 1182,
3164 1521–1522 1186–1188, 1192, 1200, 1209,
c-Hexane (c-C6H12), heat of hydraulic flow characteristics, 1212–1214, 1221, 1223, 2289,
combustion, 143 1517–1520 2291, 2394, 2640, 3038
Combustion kinetics Compartment fire modeling (cont.) Compartment fires (cont.)

branching, 329, 624 submodels stages
chain-branching, 329, 340, 341 embedded, 991–992 enclosure smoke-filling,
chemical equilibrium in flame/ mass/heat transport, 987–991 1068–1069
postflame gases, 328 source term, 986 fire plume/ceiling jet, 1067–1068
combustion products, 486, 493, 504, unresolved phenomena, 992, 993 postflashover vented, 1069, 1070
511, 512, 514, 515, 517, 519, upper/lower layers, 981, 982, 986, preflashover vented, 1069
520, 1181 989, 990 temperature calculation, 998–999
competition between elementary mixing between, 990–991 temperature-time estimation
reactions vent flows through horizontal assumptions, 988, 989, 998
and action of extinguishing/ openings, 988 CIB data, 1001, 1013, 1014
retardant agents, 595 vent flows through vertical duration of temperature, 1016, 1018
oxidation rates and degradation of openings, 987–988 experimental results, 1013, 1014,
fuel, 337–339 volumetric expansion effect, 985 1020, 1021
rate of oxidation of CO by zone models (see Zone models) factors affecting temperature rise,
hydroxyl radicals to that of Compartment fires 998
fuel molecules, 339–340 conservation of energy and, 1002 heat release rate, 997, 1017–1019,
rates of reaction between H atoms conservation of mass and, 1132
and molecular oxygen, 1000–1002 increased fuel load, 1016
340–341 corner tests (see Room/corner tests) level of protection/location, 996,
role of chain branching, 335, 336, defined, 996 1002
340. 341, 342, 344 energy generated, 999–1000 manner of ignition/enclosure
free radicals, 328–329 flame spread, 992 lining, 996
fundamentals free-burning/fuel-controlled, 1000, standards, 1017
concentrations, 332, 336, 344 1015 temperature-time history, 146,
order of reaction, 331 heat release rates, 997, 1005, 1009, 1017, 1018
rate constant, 332 1011, 1015–1018 ventilation, 997, 999–1002,
rate of reactions, 335, 1041 equivalence ratio, 1010 1004–1008, 1013, 1015–1020
temperature dependence of ISO 9705 standard test, 504, 711, 712, transport to adjacent spaces
reaction rates/activation 757, 788, 801–803, 848, 852, burning in unconfined adjacent
energy, 333–335 853, 859, 891, 892, 935–938 areas, 512
gas-phase reactions, 335, 336 and measurement of heat release burning m confined adjacent
hydrocarbon oxidation mechanisms, rates, 1014, 1015 areas, 512–515
507, 509 predicting flashover effects of burning outside
initiation, 1147–1150 Babrauskas method, 1018–1019 compartment, 511
propagation, 1154–1156 comparison of methods, effects of oxygen-deficient smoke
soot formation, 2640 1020–1021 layers, 517–519
temperature range breadth, 627 McCaffrey et al method, forced ventilation and, 519
termination, 329 1019–1020 predicting species levels, 515–517
Combustion products. See Fire Thomas method, 1020 two-layer system, 487, 489, 490,
products; Species production, predicting postflashover 500, 523
effect of combustion temperatures ventilation-controlled, 997, 999–1002
conditions on Babrauskas method, 1010–1014 vent openings, 487
Compartment fire modeling Law method, 1013–1015 Compartment fires, modeling
breathing effect, 985 Swedish method, 1016, 1017 smoke filling
computational fluid dynamics predicting preflashover temperatures comparisons with experimental
models (see Computational Beyler and Deal method, data, 1097–1099
fluid dynamics (CFD) models) 1006–1007 conditions in descending smoke
conduction heat transfer, 990 Beyler method, 1008–1009 layer, 1085–1087
conservation equations Foote et al. method, 1005–1006 descending smoke layer analysis,
energy, 984–985 McCaffrey et al. method, 1002–1005 1082–1085
mass, 983 Peatross and Beyler method, forced ventilation effects on smoke
species, 984 1007–1008 layer
convective heat transfer, radiative heat transfer, 989–990, 1003 ceiling leakage path, 1093–1095
988–989 secondary/remote ignition, 1271 floor leakage path, 1091–1093
door vent, 982 species product formation global effects, 1087–1091
entrainment, 981, 983, 987 compartment fire experiments, smoke layer analysis, 1091
fire growth rate, 991 499–505 global (one-zone) analysis, 1088
forced flow effects, 991 full-scale studies, 504 concentrations of smoke/other
radiative heat transfer, 989–990 hood experiments, 493–499 species, 1078–1080
Compartment fires, modeling Computational fluid dynamics Computer fire models, 981, 1000,
smoke filling (cont.) (CFD) models (cont.) 1024–1032, 1357, 1840, 2036,
leaky compartment, 1074–1075 computer hardware/software, 2269, 2918, 2919, 3000, 3009,
light attenuation/visibility through 1049–1050 3010, 3039, 3133. See also
smoke, 1081–1082 explosion venting, 1056–1058 Computer simulation models;
oxygen limitations on heat release, finite volume method, Zone models
1080–1081 1048–1049 Computers
sealed compartment, 1073–1074 fire spread, 1035, 1054, 1058 CPU heat release rates, 821, 822
temperature rise, 1075–1078 general, 1035 heat release rates of racks with
modeling background, 1067 governing equations equipment, 822, 823, 826, 827
numerical methods for solving assumptions, 1036–1037 heat release rates of tapes, 821–822,
initial value problems conservation of energy, 1036 827
Adams-Bashforth method, 1096 conservation of mass, 1036 keyboard heat release rates, 821, 822
explicit or forward Euler method, conservation of momentum, 1036 message passing interface, 1050
1095 limitations, 1080–1081 mice heat release rates, 821
Heun’s method, 1096 numerical solution monitor heat release rates, 821,
Runge-Kutta methods, 1096 conservative/nonconservative, 823–826
phenomena associated with, 1047 parallel processing, 1049, 1050
1070–1072 explicit/implicit, 1047 printer heat release rates, 821, 826
representative models, 1096–1097 finite difference approximation, Computer simulation models. See also
COMPBRN III zone fire model, 1027 1046–1047 Evacuation computer models
Compensation calorimeter, 911 order of accuracy, 1047–1048 applications, 3125–3128 (see also
COMPF2 postflashover zone fire spatial dimension, 1048 specific models)
model, 867, 1010, 1027, 1028 staggered/co-located variables, compartment fires (see
Components 1047 Compartment fire modeling)
mean time between failures outdoor applications/wind, 1059 descriptive models, 3118
(MTBF), 2789–2790, 2877, and quantifying fire scenarios, Monte Carlo procedures,
2891, 2908, 2909 1052–1054 3122–3123
mean time to failure (MTTF), 2877. references, 1036, 1042, 1043 output analysis, 3132–3133
2880, 2929, 2930 smoke movement physical models, 3118
mean time to repair (MTTR), 2877, example applications, 1055 sensitivity analysis, 3122–3125
2900, 2908, 2909 fire source, 1037, 1058 simulation models
nonrepairable/repairable, 2876 large-volume spaces, 1055 continuous, 3120–3122
Composites, 29–30, 32–33, 121, 186, open boundary conditions, 1045 discrete, 3119–3120
189, 216, 222, 224, 273, 274, visibility, 1045 symbolic models, 3118
278, 279, 285, 286, 309, 310, source terms and boundary uncertainty and, 3129–3132
313, 413, 585, 641, 707, 717, conditions validation, 3128–3129
774, 775, 785–787, 808–810, combustion, 1041–1042 COMSOL computer program,
831, 852, 890, 921, 969, energy exchange at boundaries, 1127, 1994, 2001
974–975, 1098, 1134, 1135, 1044–1045 Concrete
1152, 1162, 1165–1167, 1170, generation of species, 1042 aggregates, 1950, 1952–1953,
1190, 1362, 1370, 1673, 1869, mass exchange at boundaries, 1043 1955–1957, 1959, 1961, 1962,
1871–1873, 1885, 1886, 1889, momentum exchange at 1976
1899, 1905, 1917, 1943–1945, boundaries, 1043–1044 bond with fiber-reinforced
1950, 1956, 1957, 1974–1976, radiation heat transfer, polymers, 1976
1984, 1986, 1996, 2001–2002, 1042–1043 compressive strength, 1949, 1950,
2004, 2185, 2296, 2538, 2962, sprinkler activation with coffered 1952, 1961, 1962, 1969, 1973,
3022, 3094, 3248, 3250, 3252, ceilings, 1045 1976
3257, 3265, 3268, 3371, 3379, tunnel applications, 1057–1058 creep, 298, 299, 1880
3453, 3454, 3469 turbulence modeling density, 1950, 1953, 1954
Composites and fiberglass- direct numerical simulation, 1037 fiber-reinforced (see Fiber-
reinforced materials, fire isotropic turbulence assumed, 1039 reinforced concrete (FRC))
propagation index, 1164 large eddy simulation, as fire protection material, 1949
Compressible fluid motion, 1380, 1039–1040 heterogeneous material, 278
1382, 1624 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes high-strength (see High-strength
Computational fluid dynamics approach, 1037–1039 concrete (HSC))
(CFD) models verification/validation, 1050–1051 lightweight, 296, 299, 300, 1363,
applications visualization, 1050 1876, 1912, 1922, 1923, 1957,
smoke filling, 1057, 1060 water mist fire suppression 1960, 1966
smoke movement, 1055 systems, 1591 mass loss, 285
Concrete (cont.) Concrete structures, temperature Cone calorimeter (cont.)

modulus of elasticity, 1950, 1951, in fire-exposed specimen area, 965–966
1953, 1954 fire-insulated, 1126–1127 specimen thickness,
normal-strength (see Normal- one-dimensional calculations, 966, 967
strength concrete (NSC)) 1124–1126 standard version, 925, 926
properties, penetration depth in semi-infinite testing specifications
modulus of elasticity, 1950, 1951, structures, 1122–1124 edge effects, 969
1953, 1954 Conduction heat transfer intumescing samples, 969–970
strength, 1950–1953 compartment fire modeling and, 990 load cell, 961, 962, 967–968
thermal expansion, 1965–1968 Fourier’s law and, 27 specimen orientation/holders,
reinforced, bond between rebar and heat diffusion equation, 1107 966–968
concrete, 1951, 1970, 1975 integral (Duhammel’s) analysis toxicity test, 2270, 2275
spalling, 1903, 1976 method, 40–42 wire grid use on specimens,
specific heat, 1950, 1953, 1955 limitations on analytic solutions, 48 969, 970
thermal conductivity, 1950, modeling in materials, 29 Cone Calorimeter Annotated
1955–1956 numerical techniques, 45 Bibliography (Babrauskas),
thermal properties, 1951, 1953 models, 3009 898
volumetric heat capacity/ separation of variables analysis Confidence coefficient/limits, 295,
temperature relation, method, 38–39 896, 2234, 2861–2862, 3238
298–300 steady-state examples, 30 Configuration factors, 120, 121,
Concrete members thermally thin material, 33–34 2601, 2604, 2606–2609,
beams, 1950, 1961–1962 thick plates, 33–34 2613–2616, 2619, 2645,
bending strength, 1974, 1975 through cavity walls, 3248–3250 2654, 2655, 3243–3246,
composite steel-concrete through laminated plates, 3271 3476–3492
construction, 1974–1975 through pipe walls, 2747 CONFIRE computer program,
fire resistance determination by through plates, 38 1974
analytical methods through solid wall, 1362, 3250 Conseil International du Bâtiment
continuous one-way span through spherical solid with internal (CIB), compartment fire
example, 1962–1965, 1969 generation, 33, 40 experiments, 1001
continuous unrestrained flexural Cone calorimeter Consequence analysis, 1276–1277,
members, 1962–1964 additional gas analyzers, 972 2758, 2943, 2944, 2948, 2949,
heat transmission, 1956–1960 airflow, 962–963 2969, 3185–3186, 3200
members restrained against exhaust system, 963 Consequences
thermal expansion, calibration equipment, 961, 962, decision analysis and, 3048, 3049,
1965–1968 971, 972 3059
simply supported slabs/beams, controlled-atmosphere type, 977 defined, 3049
1961–1962 edge frame, 969 Conservation equations, convection
floor slabs, 1935 features, summary of, 952–954 heat transfer, 58–64. See also
and thermal thrust force, 1965, means of ignition, 963–965 Energy, conservation of; Mass,
1966, 1968 measurements taken with, 975–976 conservation of; Momentum,
heat transfer/temperature profiles, and nonambient pressures, 977 conservation of
1949–1950 operating principle, 956–957 Consumer Product Safety
determination methods, 1949 optical density measurement, 971 Commission (CPSC), 675,
prestressed concrete assemblies, orientation of heater/specimen, 853, 3079, 3084, 3095, 3108,
1950, 1974 960–962 3223
recent developments paramagnetic oxygen analyzer, 957 Consumer products, fire risk
Eurocodes, 1950, 1961, radiant heater analysis. See Products
1974, 1975 choice of heater type, 957–958 (finished), fire risk analysis
fiber-reinforced concrete, 1976 conical shape, 958–959 CONTAM multizone fire model,
high-strength concrete, 1976 convective fraction of heating 1027, 1029, 1788, 1791, 1794,
hollow-core slabs, 1976–1977 flux, 959–960 1797, 1799, 1801, 1804,
spalling, 1976 design details, 958 1807–1809, 1818
temperature calculation, emissivity of, 959 Contingency table, 2870
1950, 1975 range of heat fluxes needed for Continuity equation. See Mass,
reinforced concrete columns, testing, 957 conservation of
1973–1974 uniformity of heating flux, 960 Continuous probability
reinforced concrete frames, 1974 repeatability/reproducibility of tests, distribution, 2831–2835,
reinforced concrete walls, 1974 976 2857, 3034, 3036
thermal degradation at high ring sampler, 971, 973 Control volume fire models. See
temperatures, 1985 smoke measurement, 970–971 Zone models
Convection heat transfer Corridors (cont.) CUrisk risk assessment program,

boundary layer concept development of ceiling jet flow, 2968
boundary layer approximation, 449–451 Curtains, heat release rates, 830–832
66–67 heat transfer in, 761–765
heated, vertical plate, 71–75 transient flows, 992, 993
laminar flow over flat surface, Corrosion D
67–71 measurement methods, 732–733 Daegu (Korea) subway lire (2003),
laminar free convection, 71 nonthermal damage, 1219 3374
calculations Cost-benefit analysis Damköhler number, 369, 370
electrical strip heater, 94–97 air transportation risk management, Dangerous Substances and
fire door, 98–99 3382–3383 Explosive Atmospheres
glass-door fire screen, 97–98 engineering economies, 3137, 3143, Regulations (U.K.), 571
coefficient of 3146, 3148 Darcy-Weisbach equation, 1388,
basic laws and, 54–58 residential fire sprinklers example, 1391, 1395
experimental determination, 2818, 3025, 3026 Decile, 2856
88–89 risk assessment example, 3184 Decision analysis
compartment fire modeling and, Cottonseed meal, autoignition, 627 consensus
988–989 Couette flow, liquids, 720 alternative stability approach,
complications in practical problems CPSC. See Consumer Product Safety 3069–3070
changes in fluid properties, 85 Commission (CPSC) comparative, 3070
complex geometry, 83–85 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and compound, 3070
effect of mass transfer, 85–86 Physics (Weast and Astle, definitive, 3069
effect of turbulence, 80–83 eds.), 558, 1168 decision classifications
conservation equations for, 58–64 Creepage, arc tracking and, 673 decision making under certainty,
simplifications, 64 Creep, building materials, 282–283 3051
empirical relations, 86–94 concrete, 298, 299, 1880 decision making under risk,
to fire-exposed structures, steel, 293 3051–3052
1105–1107 in tension members, 264–265 decision making under uncertainty
natural/forced, 53 Cribs Hurwicz paradigm, 3054
simple example, 53–54 center-ignited, 829 Laplace paradigm, 3053
Convective heat release rate, 406, heat release rates, 828–830 Savage paradigm, 3053–3054
407, 409, 413, 415, 417, 424, ignited uniformly, 829 Wald (minimax/maximin)
431, 432, 434, 435, 437–439, room fire effects, 830 paradigm, 3053
442, 443, 926, 943, 1146, CRISP II fire risk assessment fire safety attribute weighting
1148, 1166, 1167, 1184, 1188, model, 3125 effectiveness matrices,
1192, 1210, 1316, 1324, 1327, CRISP risk assessment model, 3125 3061–3062
1329, 1833, 1842, 1852 Critical heat flux (CHF), 211, 239, hierarchy approach, 3061
Conversion factors, 146, 2126, 2134, 586, 588, 1147, 1149, 1150, measurement
2801, 3161, 3397–3424 1152, 1154, 1161, 1166, 1171, interval scale, 3066–3067
Conveyor belts, fire propagation 1198, 1216–1217, 1256, 2656, nominal scale, 3066
index, 1161 2722, 2724, 3243, 3451–3455, ordinal scale, 3066
Cook County Administration 3465, 3468 ratio scale, 3067
Building fire (2003), 901, Critical stress multiobjective decisions
1065, 2113 steel beams, 1941–1943 additive weighting, 3057
Copper pipes, properties, 1389, steel columns, 1941, 1942 attributes, 3056
1392, 1408, 1430, 3491 Critical temperature, algebraic disjunctive, 3056
Corners equations for steel members dominance, 3056
effect on ceiling jet flows, 434, beams, 1938–1939 illustration, 3057–3060
446–447 columns, 1939 objectives, 3055–3056
effect on flame spread, 707, 712 computer programs, 1943–1945 satisficing, 3056
effect on plume, 396, 420–422 Cross-linking mechanisms, thermal values/utilities, 3056
heat transfer from fires in, 751–759 decomposition, 179, 182, 183 weighting, 3056, 3057
Correlation coefficient, 929, 944, Crowd management/control, 2034, panels of experts
1203–1205, 1207–1209, 2620, 2040, 2042–2044 committee, 3067
2622, 2836, 2857–2860, 3011, CRSI Handbook (Concrete computer conferencing, 3068
3018, 3023, 3041, 3070 Reinforcing Steel Institute), DACAM group, 3068–3069
Corridors 1969, 1971 Delphi panel, 3068
ceiling fire heat transfer, 450 CSTBZ1 postflashover fire model, nominal group, 3067–3068
ceiling flame spread, 713–714 1028 payoff matrices, 3173–3174
Decision analysis (cont.) Detection system design (cont.) Diffusion flames

probability scenarios, 1369–1370 fire plumes and, 397, 398
axioms of, 3050 sound pressure level, 1360–1363, flammability limits, limiting oxygen
frequentists, 3049 1365–1368 index (LOI), 545, 546
objective/subjective, 3049 fire alarm visibility, 1370–1374 premixed flames distinguished, 145,
subjectivists, 3049 fire signature, 1317, 1318 235, 354
subjectivity, 3049 heat detection reduction/oxidation zones, 1194
uncertainty, 3049 data selection, 1331–1334 wind effect on turbulent jet flames,
weighting methods, fire safety design examples, 1334–1343 396
evaluation detector spacing, 1331–1333 DIN 53 436 toxicity test, 2273–2274,
analytic hierarchy process (AHP), error sources, 1325–1326 2289–2290
3064–3065 growing fires, 1324–1325 Directional sounders, 1365, 1366
Edinburgh cross-impact analysis, power-law fires, 1326–1330 Discrete probability distribution,
3062 response time index (RTI), 1321, 2831, 2832, 2835, 2846–2850
hierarchical cross-impact analysis 1322, 1324, 1326 Discretization, conduction heat
(HCIA), 3063–3064 steady-state fires, 1323–1324 transfer analysis, 1121
Decision tree heat flux setting, calculating, 132 Dishwashers, heat release rates, 832
decision analysis, 2946, 3384–3385 precision/rounding off, Doors
fire risk analysis, 2824, 2950, 3053 1314–1315 effect of mechanism on evacuation
risk decision making in rail process goals, 1315 time, 1259, 1751, 1752, 2021
transport, 3381 radiant energy, 1357–1358 number of open and smoke control,
Decks example, 1358–1359 478, 1001, 1030, 1043, 1057,
fire resistance, 1999–2000 smoke detector response 1343, 1745, 1751, 1752, 1759,
heat release rates, 831 calculation examples, 1768, 1799
Deep storage fires 1350–1357 Dow Indices software, 3179
flame height, 401 entry resistance, 1348–1350 Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index,
virtual origin, 413, 414 and forced ventilation systems, 3162
Deflagrations. See Explosion 1351–1354 Draft curtains, 1028, 1029, 1325,
protection, closed vessel modeling, 1344–1345 1843, 1844, 1849–1852, 2996
deflagrations and obscuration/attenuation, Drag, 53, 58, 77, 84, 726, 729, 1385,
Degrees of freedom, distribution 1344–1345 1386, 1444, 1598, 1655, 2528,
parameters, 2915 temperature approximation theory 2535–2537, 2562, 2596, 2753,
Delphi panels, 3068–3070, 3086 and, 1356–1357 3287, 3288
Deluge sprinkler system, 1620, system elements, 1317 Dressers, heat release rates,
1686, 1767, 2029 use of models, 1320, 1322, 1323, 833, 834
Density 1328, 1330 Dry chemical fire extinguishers, static
building materials, 305–309, 314, Detention/correctional occupancies, electricity and, 687, 1302
316 fire risk indexing model, Dry pipe sprinkler system, 1748,
fluids, 1, 29, 64, 71, 77, 1378, 1408, 3178 2780
1573, 1574 Deterministic fire models, 1024, DSC. See Differential scanning
Depolymerization, 252 1031, 2039, 2919, 3364 calorimetry (DSC)
Depropagation reactions, thermal Detonations. See Explosion DTA. See Differential thermal
decomposition, 215 protection, detonations analysis (DTA)
Design for Fire Resistance of D-Glucose (C6H12O6), heat of DTG. See Differential
Precast Prestressed Concrete combustion, 143 thermogravimetry (DTG)
(Prestressed Concrete Diagnosis time, 2899, 2922 Dublin Stardust disco fire (1981),
Institute), 1974 DIANA computer program, 1974 2405, 2406
Desks, heat release rates, 831–832 Diesel fuel, pool fire emissive Ductility, 170, 281, 301, 1865, 1873,
DETACT-QS heat detector power, 1683, 2598, 2599 1876, 1904, 1976
response program, 943, 1325, Differential scanning calorimetry Ducts
1444 (DSC), 178, 179, 184, flame propagation in, 2777, 2787,
Detact-t2 model, 3235 186–188, 191, 192, 203, 218, 2788
Detection system design 246, 286, 299, 307, 606, 630, fluid flow in
cost analysis, 1369–1370 1168–1171, 1175 hydraulic radius, 365
delay to detection, 1316 Differential thermal analysis laminar/turbulent, 20
design fire, 1316, 1317 (DTA), 178, 179, 184, Duhammel’s method, heat transfer
detection, 1317 186–189, 246, 287, 606 analysis, 41–42, 51
fire alarm audibility Differential thermogravimetry Dupont Plaza hotel fire (1986),
and intelligibility, 1368, 1369 (DTG), 185, 186, 195, 206 2338, 2406, 2447
Dust(s) Electrical fires (cont.) Endothermic reactions, 142, 155,

clouds ionization, 663 1992
ignition by arcing, 670–671 in liquids, 663 Energy, conservation of
minimum ignition energy, 670, Paschen’s Law, 664–666 computational fluid dynamics
671, 684 self-healing media, 663 models and, 2668, 2669
minimum ignition temperature, 671 in solids, 663 convection heat transfer, 81
explosion protection sparks, 663 in flames, 985
explosibility testing, 2766, 2767 electric current, 662–663 EN, Eurocode 2: Design of
minimum explosible ignition and values of voltage/ Concrete Structures, 1950
concentration, 2771 current/power, 693–694 EN, Fire Extinguishing Media-
particle size, 2766 ignition modes involving electric Foam Concentrates, 1661
layers, minimum ignition current EN 1363, Fire Resistance Tests, 1127
temperature, 2771 arcing across a carbonized path, Engineering analysis
lower flammability limits, 670 671–673 coding categories and, 3089–3090
particle size, 2766, 2768, 2769, dust clouds, 670–671 data half-truths/myths, 3083–3084
2771, 2772, 2784 ejection of hot particles, 681 data sources
static electricity and, 671 excessive thermal insulation, 681 incident/event data, 3096
floating neutral, 675, 676 laboratory data, 3093–3094
gases, 670 usage/exposure data, 3093–3094
E gross overloads, 674 field observation data
The Economies of Fire Protection high voltage into low voltage incident/field data on systems
(Ramachandran), 3098 wiring, 675 performance, 3088
Eddy thermal conductivity, 81 lightning, 675 inspections/testing, 3087
Eddy viscosity, 15, 81, 367, minimum ignition energy, 670, 671 judgment/opinions, 3087
1038–1040, 1062 miscellaneous phenomena, 681 product life tracking systems,
EFSES fire risk indexing model, 3172 overheating connections, 678–681 3088–3089
Egress overloads and related phenomena, simulations/laboratory studies,
available safe egress time (see 674–678 3087–3088
Available safe egress time sparking/arcing, 670 handling unknown data, 3079–3084
(ASET)) stray currents/ground faults, 675 incident data, sources, 3076, 3089
elevators, 2026–2027 surface flashover, 673–674 types of analysis/data needs,
escalators, 2027, 2029 voltage spikes, 676 3073–3076
exit capacity, 2012, 2014–2015 ignition modes involving electric usage and exposure data, 3095–3096
exit width, 2014–2016 currentsolids, 670–681 Engineering economics
fire escapes, 2019 static electricity discharge benefit-cost analysis, 3146
pedestrian walkways, 2029–2030 charge separation, 682 cash-flow concepts
protect-in-place, 1743, 2021–2022 discharge types, 682–683 diagrams, 3138
refuge floors, 2029 general, 681–682 interest calculations, 3138–3139
required safe egress time (see granular materials, 687–688 notation symbols, 3138
Required safe egres time liquids, 668–6899 time value of money, 3147
(RSET)) persons, 686–687 comparison of alternatives, 3145
scenarios, 2032 solids, 685–686 annual cost, 3145
trains, 2027 time for fire to initiate, 681 discount rate, 3143–3144
vessels, 2153 Electric cable trays, heat release inflation and discount rate,
Elastomers, 171, 179, 220–222, 224, rates, 834 3143–3144
803, 1161, 1165, 1452, 1457, Electronic equipment present worth, 3144–3145
2234, 2788, 3452, 3459, 3465 heat release rates, 823 rate of return, 3145–3146
Electrical cables, fire propagation heat release rates of cabinets, 827 Cost-Effectiveness Tool, 3151–3153
index, 1160 Elevators extreme events, 3149
Electrical fires and evacuation use, 3128 identifying relevant benefits/costs,
defined, 662 safe for handicapped/impaired 3146–3147
electrical discharges persons, 3129 interest factors
arcs (see Ars, electrical) Elevator shafts, smoke control, 1807 beginning-of-period payments,
breakdown, 663–664 Emergency flaring, 2630 3142
defined, 663 Empirical distribution, reliability capitalized costs, 3142
dielectric strength, 666 analysis and, 2886, 3162 capital recovery factor, 3142
dielectric strength of solid/liquid Enclosure fires. See Compartment compound amount factor, 3139
insulators, 666 fires continuous cash flow, 3142
in gas, 663 End-chain scission, decomposition continuous interest, 3140
glow discharge, 667 mechanism, 197 discounting, 3139
Engineering economics (cont.) Environmental protection Evacuation

gradients, 3142 concerns (cont.) aircraft, 1587
interest periods, 3140–3141 toxicity, 1701 areas of refuge, 1266
interest tables, 3139, 3142, 3155 training evolutions, 1699 available safe egress time, 1066
nominal/effective interest, 3140 uncontrolled fires, 1698 building characteristics, 1243
present worth, 3139–3140 halocarbon extinguishing agents before building collapse, 2806
present worth factor, 3140, 3142 global warming potential, 1502 crowd movement and, 2034
series compound amount factor, ozone depletion, 1502 delay time to start, 2435
3141 halogenated agents, 1501 calculating, 2091
series payments, 3141–3142 statutes, 629 directional sound guidance system,
series present worth factor, 3142 toxic products of combustion, 2202
simple/compound, 3141 1276 drill studies, 2441
sinking fund factor, 3141 EPA. See Environmental Protection egress time model, 1067
maximum possible loss (MPL), 3147 Agency (EPA) elevator use, 1343, 1752
measurement of benefits/costs, Epoxy resins, thermal engineering data
3146–3149 decomposition, 1276, 1277 delay times, 2435
selection of best alternative, Equation of state, fluids, 3–4 pre-evacuation, 2448
3147–3149 Equivalence ratio travel data, 2477, 2499
software tools for interest and fire products generation escape guidance systems, 2204
calculations, 3143 rates, 926 handicapped/impaired occupants,
standards development, 3150–3151 heat release rates in compartment 2524
three-step protocol (NIST), fires, 997–998 high-rise residence building, 2176
3149–3150 Erlang distribution, 2842–2843 hydraulic model (see Hydraulic
treatment of uncertainty, 3149 Error-forcing context, 2921 model, egrees performance)
Engineering Guide on Pool Fire Error of commission, 2921 incident studies, 221
Radiation (SFPE), 2600 Error of omission, 2921 large retail store, 414
Engineering thermoplastics, 174, 227 Ethane (C2H6) models (see Evacuation computer
English Channel tunnel fire (1996), heat of combustion, 143 models)
3374 heat of formation, 145 movement in smoke, 1789
Enthalpy, 4, 8, 9, 57, 63, 139, 140, Ethanol (C2H5OH), heat of movement of people and, 2042
142, 144, 150, 154, 159, 161, combustion, 142, 144 Fruin’s level of service, 2016
165, 180, 187, 188, 198, 286, Ethene (C2H4) occupant characteristics, 1243–1244,
320, 375, 378, 381, 389 heat of combustion, 143 1257
Entrainment heat of formation, 145 office buildings, 2087–2089
ceiling jet flows and, 429–451 Ethylene 130, 165, 174, 176, 181, perception of time available for, 2014
ceiling layer and, 451 192, 193, 213, 368, 381, 382, premovement (see Evacuation,
compartment fire modeling and, 534, 540, 561, 625, 670, 773, delay time to start)
981–993 774, 1154, 1164, 1170, 1209, required safe egress time, 2053
fire plumes, 396–425 1214, 1215, 1298, 1699, 2235, road tunnels, 2043
and species transport to adjacent 2634, 2635, 2638, 2641, 2642, underground rapid transit station,
spaces, 510–511 2667, 2690, 2694, 2696, 2739, 2053
Entropy, 3, 154, 155, 166, 179–181, 2746, 2749, 2752, 3431, 3439, Evacuation computer models
183, 199, 1536, 1537, 1539, 3441, 3442, 3450, 3453, 3455, behavioral models, 2157
1540, 2801, 2814, 3398 3460, 3472 computer models, 2152
Environmental Protection Agency Ethyne (C2H2) empirical engineering approach,
(EPA), 1500, 1502, 1503, heat of combustion, 143 2152–2153
1505, 1533, 1542, 1544, 1545, heat of formation, 145 manual engineering approach, 2153
1601, 1602, 1697, 2263, 2342 Euler column equation, 1095 modeling process, 2154
Environmental protection concerns Eulerian method, describing fluid model selection
contamination from runoff water, 1276 motion, 1610 age/generation, 2158
e-folding lifetimes, 1503 EUREFIC (European Reaction to checklist, 2176
foam agents Fire Classification) model, current models, 2157
assessment methods, 1699–1701 936 distribution/cost, 2158
biodegradability, 1699–1701 Eurocode 4: Design of Composite level of refinement, 2158
foaming/emulsification of fuels, Steel and Concrete model characteristics, 2156–2158
1701 Structures, 1950 modeling method, 2156–2157
mitigation strategies, 1701–1702 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete origin (development/validation) of
potential hazardous situations, Structures, 1950 model, 2155–2156
1699 Eurocode 5: Design of Timber output, 2157
system discharge testing, 1699 Structure, 1979 scope of representation, 2157
Evacuation computer models (cont.) Explosion protection Extinguishing agents. See Aqueous
movement models, 2156 blast waves, 2756–2763 film-forming foam (AFFF);
partial behavior models, 2156–2157 vapor cloud explosions, Clean agent halon
project requirements, 2154 2756–2763 replacements; Fire protection
deliverables of the project, 2155 Chapman-Jouguet theory, 2751 mechanisms; Foam entries;
information availability, 2154 closed vessel deflagrations, 2741 Halocarbon extinguishing
nature/scope of project, 2155 computer programs, 1943–1945 agents; Halogenated entries;
timing/funding, 2155 deflagrations compared, 2692 Halon entries; Inert gas
scenario development deflagration-to-detonation transition extinguishing agents; Sprinkler
additional building information, distance, 2754 entries; Water; Water mist fire
2155 detonation cell width, 2753–2754 suppression systems
behavior of occupants, 2037 detonations, 2750–2756 Extraneous error, 2921, 2924
building configuration, 2169–2171 dusts/powders Extreme value theory
checklist, 2177 explosibility testing, applications, 2210
coarse network (building 2766–2768 average loss, 2245
configuration approach), minimum explosible concentratio, building collapse example, 2415,
2169–2171 2771 2418
continuous network (building minimum ignition energy, dust extreme order distributions,
configuration approach), clouds, 2692 2844–2846
2172–2173 minimum ignition temperature, factors affecting fire damage, 2923
example, 2166, 2167 dust clouds, 2771 fire protection measures, economic
fine network grid (building minimum ignition temperature, value of, 1240, 1459
configuration approach), 2171 dust layers, 2771 fire severity and fire resistance, 1029
fire information, 2167 particle size, 2771 fire tests, analysis of, 2412
inclusion of emergency vapors, 2763 large fire loss behavior, 1252, 1315
responders/building staff, 2176 explosion suppression systems
movement of occupants, 2165 clean agent systems, 1522
number of people, 2174 components, 2818 F
occupant characteristics, 2164 explosion venting compared, FAA. See Federal Aviation
occupant route choice, 2166 2781 Administration (FAA)
population configuration, suppression sequence, 2566 Factory Mutual Research
2163–2164 total suppressed pressure, 2784 Corporation (FMRC), 799,
pre-evacuation time, 2164–2165 explosion venting 842, 843, 846, 926, 956, 965,
procedural configuration, standards, high-strength 981, 1145, 1157, 1158, 1185,
2166–2167, 2176 enclosures, 2744 1186, 1318, 1334, 1496, 1511,
structure generation/ standards, low-strength 1667, 1681–1686, 1688, 1695.
representation, 2162 enclosures, 2031 See also FM Global
Events, sample space, 2828 test data/correlations, 2242 Factory Mutual Research
Event trees theoretical models, Corporation Flammability
fire risk analysis, 2822 1992–1994 Apparatus, 956
fire risk assessment, 2822 vent area needed, 2781 Failure mechanism, 270, 271, 733,
occupant response, 2462 flammability/explosibility limits, 2875, 2878, 2916, 3358
performance-based design, 2542 2738 Failure mode, 264, 266, 267, 272,
releases of flammable material, gases, 2738 273, 1786, 1815, 1816, 1884,
2592 inerting, 2784 1893, 1939, 1941, 2793, 2877,
and selection of design fire isolation systems, 2788, 2789 2878, 2945, 2949, 3184, 3256,
scenarios, 1267–1268 limiting oxidant concentration, 540, 3350–3351
Exhibition Stadium crush (1980), 541 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
1755 pressures, 812 (FMEA), 2878, 2945, 3183,
Exothermic reactions, 142, 287, secondary explosions, 2812 3184, 3209, 3388
374, 588, 620, 630 Exponential distribution, 2840– FASBUS-II computer program,
Explicit (forward Euler) method, 2842, 2844, 2845, 2852–2854, 1943
solving initial value 2880, 2881, 2883, 2885, 2886, Fault trees
problems, 1095–1096 2900–2902, 2907, 2912, 2913, fire risk analysis, 1269, 2920, 2927,
Explosibility limits, 2768 2929, 2938, 3114 2932–2935, 2978, 3031, 3341,
Explosion hazard mitigation via reliability analysis and, 2875 3352
water mist, 1594 External burning, compartment reliability analysis, 2932–2935
Explosion prevention, 1307 fires, 488, 511, 512, 515, risk assessment, 2824
clean agent inerting, 1524 517–519 system analysis, 2877, 2928, 2960
F distribution, 2840 Fire consequences, measuring in Fire plume(s), 399–400

FDT fire modeling tool, 3356, economic terms balcony spill plume, 992, 1092,
3364 certainty monetary equivalent, 3113 1837–1839
Federal Aviation Administration costs/benefits based on level, calculation methods, 405–411
(FAA), 194, 923, 924, 3104–3106 ceiling layer, 134, 451, 1194, 1200,
928–930, 1144, 1452, 1588, indirect loss estimation 2746, 2747. See also
1668, 1669, 1671–1673, 1677, costs not usually calculated, 3104 (Compartment fires, two-layer
1679, 2406, 3104, 3371, 3373, NFPA approach, 3099–3101 system)
3381–3382 private sector, 3102–3103 compartment fire stage, 499, 500,
Federal Railroad Administration unpublished U.K. study, 3101–3102 505, 508–512, 982–983
(FRA), 2817, 2978, 3373, U.S. examples, 3103–3104 diameter of fire source, 416
3374, 3393 insurance industry measurement entrainment, 414–417
Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) approaches, 3106 equivalent confined plume width,
compressive strength, 296, 301, risk premium, 3106 1839
302 monetary equivalents for features, 397–399
polypropylene fibers, 296, 301, nonmonetary costs/ flame height
304 consequences buoyancy and, 400–403
steel fibers, 296, 1976 deaths/injuries, 3106–3108 momentum and, 403–405
tensile strength, 301, 302 donated time, 3108–3109 flame pulsations, 421
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) total national fire cost, 3100, 3101 heat release rates, 398
bond with concrete, 311 utility theory rise of plume front, 421
critical temperature, 312 cash equivalent, 3112, 3113 and species product formation,
fiber types, 312, 313 expected monetary value, 3110, 508–509
glass transition temperatures, 171, 3111, 3113, 3115 strong, 415, 430, 436–439, 441,
172, 179, 187, 189, 190, 310, probability distributions, 3114–3115 446–447
311, 314, 642 risk averse behavior, 3109, 3111, 3115 strong plume relations, 407
mechanical properties, 310 risk avoider/preferer, 3109, temperatures, 2838, 2887, 2889
modulus of elasticity, 310 3111–3113 temperature-stratified ambients,
stress-strain diagram, 311 utility/disutility, 3111 410–411
thermal properties, 312 utility functions, 3112 turbulence and, 409, 508, 3291
Fibers, construction, 278, 280, 285, Fire Data Management System, velocities, 405–410
301–314 calorimetry data, 975 virtual origin, 406, 407, 409,
Fick’s law of mass diffusion, 56 Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), 411–414
Field models, turbulent flow, 1609 turbulent fire model, 397 wall/corner effects, 421–422
Film-forming fluoroprotein (FFFP) Fire extinguishers. See also Aqueous weak, 406, 407, 414
foam, 1647, 1660, 1663, 1665, film-forming foam (AFFF); Firepoint, 555, 565–570
1674, 1709 Clean agent halon Fire products
Finite-differencing technique, replacements; Fire protection enthalpies of, 161–165, 1538,
1046–1048, 1935, 1983 mechanisms; Foam entries; 1540
Fire Halocarbon extinguishing nonthermal damage
categories, 1272 agents; Halogenated entries; corrosion, 1219
classes, 1024, 1025 Halon entries; Inert gas smoke, 1219
stages extinguishing agents; Sprinkler toxicity patterns, 2215
decay stage, 997 entries; Water; Water mist fire Fire products, generation of
flashover, 997 suppression systems concepts governing
fully developed fire, 997 dry chemical, 687, 1302–1306, equivalence ratio and, 1208–1211
growth stage, 996–997 1646, 1648, 1662, 1680, 2899 fire propagation, 1154–1157
ignition stage, 996 portable foam, 1737 flame heat flux, 1172–1174
tetrahedron of, 1455 Fire hazard analysis, 805, 865, flaming/nonflaming fires,
Fire alarms. See Alarms and alarm 1029, 1058, 2247, 2265, 1167–1174
systems 2318–2321, 2584–2588, 2819, heat of gasification, 1168–1172
Fireballs 3184, 3188, 3189, 3191, 3216, heat release rate, 1181–1182
point source model, 2654 3220, 3224, 3386, 3388. ignition, 1147–1150
radiation, 2654 See also Fire risk entries relation between fire propagation
size/dynamics, 2652–2654 Fire load rate, flame height, pyrolysis
spherical model, 2654–2655 derated fire load, 1133, 1136 front, heat release rate,
FiRECAM integrated computer effective fire load, 1133, 1137 1157–1159
modeling suite, 3125–3127 fire load density, 1131–1141, 1264, generation of chemical compounds/
design fires, 1271, 1277–1278 1868, 1989–1992, 2838 consumption of oxygen
Fire products, generation of (cont.) Fire protection engineering (cont.) Fire protection system-layer of
efficiencies of oxygen mass uncertainties in protection analysis (FPS-
consumption and mass behavior variability, 2996–2997 LOPA) (cont.)
generation of products, and design process, 2998 quantity performance of
1197–1200 identifying, 2995–2998 independent fire protection
fire ventilation and, 1200–1201 life-cycle use/safety of buildings, layers
and mass loss rate, 1223–1224 2998 engineering assessment approach/
reduction/oxidation zones, 1194, providing for equity/incorporation model, 3195–3196
1201, 1205–1208 of social values, 2998 engineering judgment/subjective
halogenated polymers, 1152, 1154, scientific, 2995–2296 probabilities, 3197
1209, 1210 variability in risk perceptions/ fault tree analysis, 3196–3197
heat release rates and values, 2997–2998 reliability data/engineering design
chemical heat release rate, Fire Protection Equipment Directory assessment, 3195
1183–1184 (UL), 1660, 1661 Fire protection system selection
CO2 generation calorimetry, 1183 Fire protection mechanisms desired outcomes, 1294–1295
complete/incomplete combustion, active identifying fire fighting agents,
1182–1184, 1186–1187 and firepoint theory, 1219–1221, 1297–1298
convective heat release rate, 1184 1224 insurance company objectives, 1297
energy released in a fire, large-scale water extinguishment/ stakeholders concerns, 1291–1292
1184–1185 suppression tests, 1603, Fire Rated Wood Floor and Walt
and fire ventilation, 1191–1193 1667–1673 Assemblies (American Forest
heat release parameter, 1185–1186 by processes in gas phase, & Paper Assn.), 2000
oxygen consumption calorimetry, 1222–1223 Fire Research Station (U.K.), 429,
1183–1184 by reduced mass fraction of 435, 937, 1035, 2287, 2290,
radiative heat release rate, 1184 oxygen, 1223–1224 2392, 2966, 3125
nonhalogenated polymers, small-scale water tests, 929–930 Fire resistance
1209–1210 water application rate, 943, 1689, building assemblies/frames (see
and nonthermal damage (see Fire 1713, 1720 Building assemblies and
products, nonthermal damage) passive frames, fire resistance)
Fire propagation apparatus, changing molten behavior of structural analysis and, 1871–1874
926–930, 1144–1146, 1148, materials, 179, 181 structural members, 239, 260, 316,
1150, 1159, 1166, 1167, changing nature of fire products, 317, 1910–1911
1170–1173, 1175, 1178, 1181, 1219 test standards
1183, 1187, 1189–1192, 1195, decreasing thermal response ASTM E119, 789–790
1201, 1212, 1213, 1215, 1216, parameter/flame heat flux, ISO 834 and EN 1363-1, 789–790
1218, 1220, 1224, 2242 1218–1219 Fire Resistance Design Manual
Fire propagation index (FPI), increasing critical heat flux/ (Gypsum Assn), 1979
1159–1167, 1216 thermal response parameter, Fire Resistance Directory (UL),
application to classify materials, 1150–1152, 1216–1217 1920
1159–1167 Fire protection system-layer of Fire risk analysis
Fire propagation rates, 1154–1157 protection analysis buildings (see Buildings, fire risk
Fire protection engineering (FPS-LOPA) analysis)
quantitative risk assessment, basics, 3188–3189 computer simulation, 3117–3134
3207–3208 conduct risk tolerance comparison, health care facilities (see Health
risk-informed industrial, 3183–3185 3199 care facilities, quantitative fire
consequence analysis, 3185–3186 definition/steps, 3189–3190 risk analysis)
evaluation method selection, 3186 determine likelihood of initiating industrial processes, 2952,
FPS-LOPA (see Fire protection fire event, 3192, 3193 3212–3214
system-layer of protection enabling event/probability of methods, 2822–2824
analysis (FPS-LOPA) ignition, 3192–3194 categories, 2822
hazard evaluation, 3183–3185 human error, 3192, 3193 nuclear power plants (see Nuclear
qualitative risk analysis, develop accident scenarios, power plants, fire risk analysis)
3186–3188 3190–3191 process, 2822–2824
treatment of uncertainty estimate scenario risk, 3198–3199 products (see Products (finished),
combining safety factors, evaluate target vulnerability, fire risk analysis)
3004–3005 3197–3198 resources, 2825–2826
derivation of safety factors, 3005 example, 3200 terminology, 2819–2822
with safety factors, 3002–3003 make decisions on risk reduction, transportation vehicles (see Mass
selection of safety factor, 3204–3206 transportation)
3003–3004 monitor risk, 3206–3207 value judgments and, 2818, 2821
Fire risk assessment Fire scenarios (cont.) FIRE SIMULATOR zone fire
and fire scenarios, 2960, 2961, development of model, 1029
2964, 2966, 2968–2970, 2973, building characteristics, FIRES-RC-II computer program,
2977, 2979 1263–1264 1974
mass transportation (see Mass detection/suppression systems, FIRE STATION simulation model,
transportation) 1265–1266 3125
and software reliability, 2918–2919 fire department actions, 1266 FIRES-T3 computer program,
Fire risk estimation, 2817, 2818, fuel loads, 1264 1931–1937
2979, 2980 functions in building, 1265 First Interstate Bank building fire
Fire risk indexing identification of potential (1988), 3103, 3278
computer models, 3178–3179 (see scenarios, 1263, 1266–1267 FIRST zone fire model, 1025
also specific models) occupant actions, 1266 FIVE fire modeling tool, 3356, 3364
development/evaluation criteria for occupant load/characteristics, 1266 Flame(s)
risk ranking, 3176–3178 passive fire protection systems, adiabatic temperature, calculation,
Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index 1265 147–148
index calculation, 3163–3165 types of combustibles, 1264–1265 burning velocity, 345, 347, 376,
risk analysis, 3165 fire risk analysis of finished 377, 382, 383, 385, 389, 542,
fire safety evaluation system (see products, 3212–3215 2636, 2637, 2648, 2738, 2739,
Fire safety evaluation system) functions in building, 1265 2741–2743, 2746–2748, 2750,
hierarchical approach, 3173, 3175 identification, 1266–1267 2760
application, 3176 performance-based design and, candle, 350, 351, 354, 366, 1069,
attribute weighting/evaluation, 1262, 1263 1080
3175–3176 quantifying composition profiles
insurance rating, 3160–3162 decay phase, 1271–1273 distinct regions, 351–354
Mond fire, explosion, and toxicity design fires, 1271–1273 diffusion/premixed, 354, 373–377,
index, 3165 detection/suppression systems, 379, 386–391, 529–531
risk index 1274 effect of additives on propagation,
applications, 3159–3160 fire department intervention, 1276 2256, 2327, 2385, 2391
defined, 3158–3159 fire/impacts, 1273 heat flux calculation, 131–133
significance, 3160 impact on structure, 1274–1275 premixed burning velocity, 391,
Fire risk management, 2818, 2980, occupant response/evacuation, 539, 2647
3049, 3370, 3382, 3383 1275–1276 Flame front, 239, 352, 356, 384, 386,
FIRE-RISK risk-cost model, 2962, postflashover fires, 1273 387, 390, 529, 587, 708, 711,
2963 preflashover fire growth, 785, 1154, 1256, 1467, 1498,
Fire safety concepts tree, 2949– 1271–1273 1499, 1533, 1594, 1595, 2553,
2950, 2980, 3174, 3177 smoke movement, 1274 2580, 2649, 2664, 2693–2695,
Fire safety evaluation system selection of 2701, 2738, 2741, 2748, 2758,
derivative applications, 3172–3173 event trees, 1268–1269 2761, 2766, 2769, 2787, 3242,
equivalency concept, 3167 examples, 1268 3245, 3277, 3287, 3289, 3292
equivalency evaluations, 3168–3170 expected consequences, 1269 Flame height
fire safety parameters, 3168 frequency calculation, 1269 buoyancy and, 365
fire safety redundancies, 3168 risk ranking, 1269–1270 and chemical heat release rate, 398,
fire zone concept, 3167 scenario selection, 1271 1154, 1157, 1158
optimization, 3171–3172 statistics and historical effect of wind, 422
risk, 3167–3168 information, 1269 fire plumes, 397, 399
supplemental requirements, 3168, smoke management design in mean, 397–399, 402–404, 407–409,
3171 large-volume spaces, 412, 413, 415–417, 419
Fire scenarios 1826–1827 momentum and, 403–404
characteristics and victim incapacitation and pyrolysis front, 1154–1158
building, 1263–1264 closed-room fires, 2396–2404 wall/corner effects, 421–422
fire, 1268–1269 flaming fires, 2394–2395 Flamelets, 367, 370, 421, 1042, 2596
occupant, 1266 fully developed fires, 2404–2406 Flame radiation scaling technique,
clusters, 1269 mitigation of toxic hazard, 1173, 1188
consequence analysis 2406–2407 Flame radiation to external target,
business interruption, 1276 room-of-origin deaths, 2396 pool fires
damage to building/contents, smoldering fires, 2392–2394 atmospheric absorption, 2615–2619
1276 Fire SERT Centre (University of calculation methods
environmental damage, Ulster), studies of evacuation examples, 2622–2627
1276–1277 capabilities of disabled Mudan method, 2612–2615, 2620,
injuries/fatalities, 1276 persons, 3135 2624, 2625, 2628
Flame radiation to external target, Flashpoint Fluid motion, kinematics of (cont.)

pool fires (cont.) closed cup, 554, 555, 562, 564–570, streamline, 4, 21, 22, 1383, 1386
point source model, 2601–2605 576, 1467, 2562, 2564–2569, streamtubes, 4
safety factor, 2601, 2603–2605, 2587 flow in a channel, 445
2610–2611 effect of atmospheric pressure on, flow similarity, 68, 73, 74
Shokri and Beyler correlation, 564–565 Lagrangian method of describing,
2601 and ignition of solid fuels, 1610, 2686
Shokri and Beyler detailed 650–651 rotational/irrotational, 1382
method, 2605–2610 measurement of, 565 velocity potential, 56, 57, 59, 81,
summary/recommendations, open cup, 567–570 87, 99
2620–2628 spills and, 558, 574 Fluids. See also Liquids
calculation steps, 2600–2601 Floor coverings, heat release rates, buoyancy, 9–10
Flame retardants 816–818 compressibility, 1407
combustion kinetics and, 231 Floors defined, 1
effect on thermal decomposition of composite (concrete/steel) incompressible, dynamics of, 5, 6,
polymers, 181, 229–231 concrete-filled steel sections, 14, 66, 1386, 1401, 1517
Flame spread, liquid fuels 1917–1919 properties
empirical data, 2564–2570 heat transfer/temperature profiles, density, 1
liquid/gas phase-controlled, 1927–1936 physical, 1378
2559–2561, 2568 concrete slab, 273, 1935, 3277 pressure, 3, 1379–1380
theory hollow-core, 1959, 1960, shear force, 54, 60
flame spread regimes, 2559–2561 1976, 1977 shear stress, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 17, 54,
pool dimensions, 2561–2562 fire resistance, 3255 55, 58, 60, 61
temperature effects, 2562–2563 Fluent CFD model, 956, 1032, 1035, specific gravity, 1379
Flame spread, surface. See Surface 1037, 1044, 1045, 1050, 1056, specific volume, 1, 375, 1512,
flame spread 1061, 1066, 1252, 1605, 1610, 1562, 1563, 2802
Flame trailing, 422 1611, 1817, 3234 specific weight, 1378–1379, 1381,
Flaming ignition of solids. See Fluid element, 77, 1380, 1383 1383, 1418
Solids, flaming ignition Fluid motion, dynamics of surface tension, 572, 719,
Flammability diagrams, 538–539, Bernoulli equation, 21–22 720, 1299
2687, 2688, 2691 boundary layers (see Boundary thermal expansion, 72, 78, 189,
stoichiometric limit and, 537, 542, layers, fluid flow) 267, 271–274, 284
547 dimensional analysis, 1383, 1401, vapor pressure, 558–565
Flammability limits 1869 viscosity, 1–2
combustion outside limits, 530 energy conservation equation, 1040, specific heat, 2
diffusion flames, 545–548 1047 statics, 1380
dusts/mists, 544–545 flow in ducts (see Ducts, fluid Fluid systems
effect of temperature/pressure, 532 flow in) body force, 60–62, 64, 71
explosibility limits compared, flow in pipes (see Pipes, fluid floating/submerged bodies, 429,
2766–2768, 2771, 2774 flow in) 431, 441, 443, 447, 449, 451,
ignition energies and, 544 Navier-Stokes equations, 1035, 1382, 1825, 1839
ignition of liquids and, 554, 555, 1037, 1040 forces on submerged surfaces
559–565, 567–568, 570, 573 turbulence, 1037 buoyant force, 431, 432, 449, 450
and ignition of solids, 647 Fluid motion, kinematics of plane-inclined and curved,
limiting oxygen contentration assumptions, 356 439–440, 2582, 3258, 3259
(LOC) and, 539–540, 548 circulation, 1434, 1919, 2034, 2035, hydrostatic equation, 458
lower (LFL) 2053, 2063, 2157, 2566 pressure at a point, 3
adiabatic flame temperature, classification statics and buoyancy, 9–10
536–538, 542, 547, 551 steady/unsteady, 5, 6, 11, surface force, 60, 63, 64
predicting, 531–532 12, 1401 Fluoroprotein foam, 1647, 1664,
premixed flames, 529–531 turbulent, 12–21 1669, 1671, 1673, 1697, 1713,
quenching diameters, 544 equation of continuity, 1383 1715, 1720, 1722, 1727, 2554
upper (UFL), 529, 533–536 Eulerian method of describing, FM fire products collector, 937
vertical tube measuring apparatus, 1610, 1611 FM Global, 646, 915, 921, 926, 943,
529, 530 flow concepts 1035, 1144, 1146, 1160, 1162,
Flaring, 2629, 2630, 2644 pathline, 1382, 1383, 1385, 1518, 1165, 1166, 1168, 1170, 1425,
Flashover 1570 1445, 1446, 1593, 1594, 1613,
electrical, 673–674 stream filament, 4, 21, 22, 81, 83, 1614, 1621, 2781, 2785. See
predicting in compartment fires, 987 also Factory Mutual Research
512–519, 1002 stream function, 68, 73 Corporation (FMRC)
FMRC. See Factory Mutual Research Foam agents Foodstuffs, heat release rates, 834,
Corporation (FMRC) AFFF (see Aqueous film-forming 836
FMRC corner test, 842, 843, 846, 847 foam (AFFF)) Forest fires. See Wildland fires
Foam(s) environmental concerns, 1695–1697 Forest Products Laboratory (FPL),
aspiration film-forming fluoroprotein (FFFP) 911, 924–925
air-aspirated, 1665 foam, 1647, 1660, 1663, 1665, Formaldehyde (CH2O), 1205, 1207
non-air-aspirated, 1665, 1674, 1675 1709 generated in pyrolysis of wood,
assessment of extinguishing/ fluoroprotein foam, 1664, 1669, 1206
burnback performance 1673, 1713, 1715, 1720, 1722, Forward Euler method, solving
comparison of small-scale tests, 1727, 2554 initial value problems,
1665, 1667 protein foam, 1647, 1656, 1665, 1095–1096
critical application rates/ 1668, 1669, 1673, 1681, 1682 FOSM (first-order second-moment)
correlation between small-/ Foam systems method, safety factor
large-scale tests, 1667–1673 hazards/fires suitable for protection derivation, 3005
EN, 1663–1665, 1667, 1674 with, 1692, 1695 Fourier’s law, heat conduction and,
ICAO Airport Services Guide, 1663 high-expansion foams, 1646, 1688, 55
MIL-F-24385 specification, 1729–1737 steady-state examples, 55
1661–1662 incipient spill protection, 1709 FPETOOL computer program,
standard test methods, 1659–1667 objectives for evaluating protection 1029, 3360
UL Standard, 1661, 1665, 1667 with, 1707–1708 Frames. See Building assemblies and
aviation fire protection protection limitations, 1736–1737 frames, fire resistance
agent quantities/standards, for roof storage tanks, 1725–1728 FRAME works risk assessment
1673–1674 storage tank protection, fixed roof model, 2966, 2967
expansion and drainage, discharge outlets, 1710–1711 Frank-Kamenetskii theory,
1674–1675 foam handlines, 1710 autoignition
foam concentration, 1675–1679 foam monitors, 1710 and Biot number, 606, 618, 622
hangar protection (see Aircraft portable foam towers, 1709 experimental testing methods, 618,
hangars) semisubsurface injection of foam, 619
nozzle design, 1680–1688 1725 and parallel reactions, 620–621
underlying principle, 1673 subsurface application of foam, Free-burning fires, 486, 1000
video image flame detection, 1689 1718 FREM fire risk evaluation model,
Class A, 1330, 1737–1739 surface application of foam, 3179
composite constituents, 1647 1710–1711 FRIM-MAB risk index method,
concentration determination storage tank protection, floating 2967–2968
conductivity method, 1677–1679 roof Froude modeling, 708, 1827, 1828,
refractive index method, 1677 catenary system method, 1725 2594
depletion rate, 1650 fixed foam maker, 1725–1726 Froude number, 10–12, 365, 366,
design considerations portable nozzle method, 1725 399, 400, 403, 463, 468–470,
extinguishment and spreading storage tank protection, high- 1051, 1052, 1603, 1827, 2596,
theory, 1648 expansion foam, 1728 2597, 2632, 2636, 2650, 2684
extinguishment modeling, storage tank protection, low- FSSIM zone fire model, 1029
1656–1657 expansion foam Fuels, properties/combustion data,
foam loss mechanisms, fixed system calculations, 3437–3475
1649–1653 1711–1716 Furniture. See Upholstered furniture
spread over liquid fuels, subsurface application Furniture calorimeter, 800, 844,
1653–1656 calculations, 1718–1723 847, 852, 854, 885, 890,
surface tension and spreading types 932–934, 942–943, 946, 1337
coefficient, 1657–1659 fixed, 1708 Furniture calorimeter tests, 852,
discharge device classifications, mobile, 1709 932–933, 1331
1660, 1661 portable, 1709
drainage, 1647–1653, 1657, 1662, semifixed, 1708–1709
1663, 1674–1675, 1687, 1688 Foam-water sprinkler systems G
evaporation rate, 1649–1651 codes/standards/regulations, Gamma distribution, 2842–2843,
foam-water sprinkler systems 1689–1690 2850, 2854, 2868, 2869
(see Foam-water sprinkler protection of stored flammable/ Gas(es)
systems) combustible liquids, 1691 compressibility, 556, 557, 695, 697,
high-expansion type drum/tank storage, 1691–1693 1484, 1536, 1573, 1612, 1620,
mass loss, 1649, 1652 liquid spill and container storage, 1623, 1624, 1626, 1634–1636,
warehouse protection calculations, 1693–1695 2665, 2738, 2742, 2743, 2747,
1646, 1688–1690 Fog, defined, 1587, 2185 2756, 2759, 2792, 2795, 2805
Gas(es) (cont.) Guidelines for Evaluating the Halogenated agent extinguishing

explosion protection, 2751, 2752, Characteristics of Vapor systems (cont.)
2811 Cloud Explosions, Flash design guidelines, 1463–1464
gray, 124, 750, 777, 941, 958, Fires, and BLEVEs (AlChE detection, 1460
1042 Center for Chemical Process flow calculations
ideal, 1, 3–4, 8, 56, 62, 64, 78, Safety), 2745, 2758 guidelines/limitations, 1474
138–140, 142, 146, 154, 155, Gypsum wallboard piping theory and, 1471–1474
159, 329, 330, 335, 345, 352, coefficient of thermal expansion, 314 procedure, 1474–1479
406, 459, 474, 494, 556, 558, dilatometric/thermogravimetric halon zone, 1463
562, 697, 698, 983, 985, 993, curves, 316 local application, 1464–1465
1073–1075, 1085, 1089, 1093, protection of steel members, 1916 postdesign considerations,
1100, 1505, 1508, 1605, 1798, specific heat, 315 1479–1480
1833, 1844, 1853, 2739, 2745, thermal conductivity, 315 total flooding, 1465–1471
2801, 3400 thermal properties, 314 Halogenated agents. See also
ignition by arcing, 670, 2692 types, 314 specific agents
molecular weights, 140, 390, 459, computer room protection, 1459
460, 489, 556, 983, 1036, environmental issues, 1480–1481
1168, 1215, 2678, 2694, 2744, H halogens found in, 1451
2748, 2756 Haber’s rule, toxicity, 2216, 2235, history of use, 1451–1453
nonscattering, 1042 2245, 2300, 2330, 2332, 2359, physical properties, 1454–1455
perfect, 402, 988, 1036, 1037 2368 toxicity, 1457–1459
properties, 56, 126, 127, 359, 371, Hagerbach tunnel research facility Halogenated polymers,
727, 1168, 1507, 1833, 2638, (Switzerland), 3321 calculating combustion
2646, 2665, 2666, 2672, 2678, Halocarbon extinguishing agents. yields, 1209
2689, 2739, 3425 See also Clean agent halon Halon 122, 1451
vapor distinguished, 2665 replacements Halon 1011, 1451, 1452
work done during expansion, characteristics, 1301, 1302, Halon 1211, 1301, 1451–1454, 1456,
139, 140 1450–1451, 1483, 1484 1458, 1464, 1673
GASEQ computer program, 165, environmental concerns Halon 1301
2740, 2751 global warming potential, 1301, agent requirements
Gasoline 1503–1504 agent quantity, 1468–1469
enclosure fire example, 1084 ozone depletion, 1301, application rate, 1469
pool fire emissive power, 2599 1502–1503 compensation for leakage,
Gas temperature rise calorimetry, extinguishing mechanisms, 1301, 1470–1472
1144, 1146, 1149, 1184 1485–1486 discharge time/soaking period,
Gaussian distribution. See Normal minimum extinguishing 1469
distribution concentration, 1302, effects of ventilation, 1469–1470
Gels, amorphous material, 278 1486–1498 liquid/gas fires, 1466–1468
General Services Administration, thermophysical properties, solid fuels, 1465–1467
1235, 1778, 2043, 3223 1505–1507 attributes/limitations, 1453–1454
Geometric distribution, 2848 toxicity, 1302, 1499–1501 combustion kinetics, 328
Geometric mean, 125, 126, 730, 742, Halogenated agent extinguishing corrosive effects, 1456–1457
2856 systems decomposition products,
Gibson (Calif.) Amtrak sleeping car agent delivery, 1462–1463 1457–1458
fire (1982), 3374 agent requirements design concentration, 1466–1468
Glass agent quantity, 1468–1469 environmental issues, 1480–1481
amorphous material, 171, 179, 278 application rate, 1469 extinguishing effectiveness, 1456
fire screen, 97 compensation for leakage, physical properties, 1454–1455
Glass transition, phase change, 314, 1470–1472 protection of electronic data
642 discharge time/soaking period, processing equipment, 1453
Glass transition temperature, 1469 total flooding systems, 1465–1471
polymers, 171, 172, 179, 310, effects of ventilation, toxicity, 1457–1459
311 1469–1470 water mist fire suppression systems
Grashof number, 11, 72, 81, 89, 93, liquid/gas fires, 1466–1468 as replacement for,
94, 100, 470, 484 solid fuels, 1465–1467 1601–1602
Gray body radiation, 958 configurations, 1460 Halon 2402, 1451–1453
Great Hanshin (Japan) earthquake control panels Halons. See Halogenated agents
and fires (1995), 717 economics, 1461–1462 Handbook of Military Infrared
Gretener method, insurance rating, features, 1460–1461 Technology (Office of Natl.
3161 modes of operation, 1461 Research), 2660
Handicapped/impaired persons Heat detectors (cont.) Heat of combustion

alarm systems and, 2524 rate-compensated, 1322 ambient/elevated temperatures, 142
areas of refuge, 2023 rate-of-rise, 727, 1322 defined, 141–142
buddy system, 2023, 2524 response time index (RTI), 1321 effective, 238, 582, 799, 800, 837,
evacuation response, 2023, 2524, spacing, 1319 860, 866, 889, 908, 940, 952,
2525 Heat, exposure of fire victims to 975, 976, 978, 999, 1001,
prevalence, 2524 convected heat, 1070, 2316, 2375, 1002, 1021, 1041, 1185, 2242,
and signage, 2524 2377–2378 2269, 3074
wheelchair users, 2524 damage to respiratory tract, 2316, measurement, 141–144
Handrails, and effective evacuation 2373, 2380–2381, 2418 net/gross, 142
width, 2122–2124, 2132 heat stroke (hyperthermia), selected fuels, 142, 143
Harmonic mean, 2856 2373–2376, 2417 Heat of formation, 144–145, 150,
Harvard code, 3217 predicting time to incapacitation, 287, 1182, 1374
Harvard/NIST Mark VI zone 2371–2374 Heat Release in Fires (Babrauskas
model, 987 skin burns, 2373, 2376–2377 and Grayson, eds.), 814
Harvard V5 program, 1028 Heat flux Heat release rates (HRRs)
Hazard(s) to adjacent surfaces, 746 bench scale measurement
defined, 572 boundary conditions, 43, 44 modeling with data from, 805–808
thermal/nonthermal, 2593, burning parallel vertical surfaces, predicting, 809–813
2597–2600 782–785 burning foam sofa, 442–444
Hazard evaluation, 1601, 2268, ceiling fires, 780–783 bushes, 861–863
2774, 3183–3186, 3191, 3201, corner wall fires, 774–780 ceiling jet flows, 449–451
3205, 3208 critical, 211, 239, 586, 588, 978, chemical heat release rate (see
HAZARD I integrated computer 1147, 1149, 1150, 1166, 1216, Chemical heat release rate)
modeling suite, 3125–3127 1217, 2656, 2722, 2724, 3243, Christmas trees, 859–861
Health care facilities 3451 compartment fires, 101, 997, 1005,
fire risk indexing model, 3158, effect of other variables, 793 1009
3159, 3178–3179 exposure fires computer equipment, 821–828
occupant response to fire/smoke, adjacent to flat walls, 750–751 convective (see Convective heat
2968, 2981 beneath l-beams, 765–769 release rate)
handicapped/impaired persons, beneath unconfined ceilings, dependence on heat flux, 808–810
2039, 2056, 2316, 2320, 2412 759–761 estimating for general combustibles,
Health care facilities, quantitative corner fires, 751–756 895
fire risk analysis in corridors, 761–765 fire plumes, 828
assumptions/limitations, 3227–3228 effects of fire standoff distance, fires, 799–809, 811, 812, 814, 816,
available escape time, 3232–3234 757–759 818, 828–831, 833, 837, 839,
door open/closed, 3234 room environment effects, 841, 842, 847, 848, 850,
calculation of consequences, 3236 756–757 852–855, 857, 860, 863,
detection time, 3234, 3235 and flame spread, 789 865–867, 869, 872, 874–876,
event tree, 3232, 3233 heat release rates and, 750, 753, 879, 881–885, 887–892, 894,
extended procedure, 3226, 3239 757, 758, 764, 765, 771, 896
facility conditions, 3228–3229 773–778, 780, 783, 787, 788 and generation of fire products, 814,
fire frequency, 3230–3231 near ignition source, 211, 239, 655, 866
fire growth, 3231–3232 807 intermediate scale measurement
individual risk, 3237–3238 objects immersed in flames, effect of ignition source on
model uncertainty, 3235 749–750 full-scale HRR, 804
movement time, 3235 postflashover room fires, 808 using full-scale HRR data,
occupants, 2021, 2031, 2038, 2104, preflashover room fires, 807 802–803
2343, 2445, 2448, 2458, 3166, standard tests mattresses, 848–853
3167 ASTM E84 tunnel test, 789, measurement techniques
patients/staff, 3229–3230 791–792 compensation method, 911
societal risk, 3236–3237 fire resistance, 789 open-burning calorimeters,
Hearing-impaired persons, alarm wall fires, 669–774, 807–808 799–800
systems and, 1746, 1747, from windows, 787–789 oxygen consumption method,
2031, 2039 Heat generation. See Fire products, 911–915
Heat capacity. See Specific heat generation of room fire tests, 800–801
Heat detectors Heating equipment, database sensible enthalpy method,
ceiling jet flows and, 429, 430 coding categories, 907–910
error sources, 1321 3089–3090 substitution method, 910–911
fixed-temperature, 727, 1322 HEATING7 program, 1934 motor vehicles, 873, 943
Heat release rates (HRRs) (cont.) Human error probability (HEP), Hydraulics (cont.)
predicting full-scale HRR from 2920, 2927, 3192, 3352 compound networks, 1400–1401
bench-scale data Human factors, 2920, 2997 critical zone, 1388–1389
boundary conditions, 806 Human failure event (HFE), 2921, equations, 1387–1389, 1392, 1394
effect of orientation, 811–812 3352 Hazen-Williams-based data,
effect of thickness, 809–811 Human reliability analysis. See 1391–1395
other variables, 812–813 Reliability analysis, human laminar/turbulent, 1386–1387
overview, 805–806 Hydrants, discharge at opening, minor losses, 1395–1399
role of irradiance, 806–808 1405–1407, 1414 pipes in parallel, 1399–1400
radiative, 864–867 Hydraulic model, egress pipes in series, 1399
for real products, 813–821 performance flow measurement
uncertainty of measurements, calculating escape time ASME flow nozzle, 1402–1403
895–896, 943–945 basic variables, 2133, 2137–2139 ASME orifice meters, 1402–1404
vehicle tires, 879, 882, 1686 factors influencing evacuation, free discharge at opening,
Heat stroke, 2300, 2373–2376, 2381, 2119, 2137 1405–1407
2417 movement attributes of evacuees, pitot tube, 1401–405
Helium (He), specific heat, 141 2138–2139 Venturi flow meter, 1402
Heptane, pool fire velocities/ routes available, 2138 fluid statics
temperatures, 361, 399, 401, time taken to respond, 2139 force on submerged plane areas,
408, 432, 934, 1514, 1739, use of available routes, 2138 1382
2597, 2598 establishing egress performance gauge/absolute pressure, 1380,
Herald of Free Enterprise ferry model approaches, 2118–2119 1382, 1384
capsize (1987), 3377–3378 model limitations, 2119–2120 pressure measuring devices,
Hess’s law, 144 estimating evacuation time 1380–1382
Heun’s method, solving initial value calculated flow, 2128 properties of fluids, 1378–1380
problems, 1096 consideration of door mechanism, static pressure head, 1380
Highly Flammable Liquids and 2126–2128 pumps
Liquefied Petroleum Gases effective width, 2122–2124 centrifugal pump affinity
Regulations (U.K.), 570, 571 effect of stairs, 2123, 2134 relations, 1420–1422
High-rise evacuations, 1743 example, 2132–2137 operating characteristics,
High-strength concrete (HSC) fundamental movement 1416–1419
compressive strength, 1976 calculations, 2121–2132 selection, 1419–1420
porosity, 303–304 intrusion of handrails, 2122, 2124 water hammer, 1407–1409
spalling, 289–290, 304 population density, 2122–2124 Hydrocarbon fires, thermal
Hillhaven Nursing Home fire specific flow, 2126–2128 radiation
(1989), 3231 speed, 2124–2126 event tree, 2591–2593
Hinsdale (III.) telephone exchange time for passage, 2128 hazards to personnel, 2655–2658
fire (1988), 3104 transitions, 2128–2132 pool fires
Histogram, 2373, 2374, 2384, 2385, first-order hydraulic model, 2132, emissive radiation, 2598–2600
2850–2853, 2866–2868, 2873, 2133 flame height/length, 2594–2595
3068, 3069, 3133 high-density scenario, 2140 flame tilt angle, 2595–2596
Historic structures impact of tenability on ASET/ geometry, 2593–2594
CFD smoke movement application, RSET, 2145–2148 hazards, 2597, 2599, 2600
1055, 1274 including effects of smoke, 2147, radiation to external target (see
Historic Fire Risk Index, 3172 2148 Flame radiation to external
Hooke’s law, stress/strain, 189, 264, low-density scenario, 2140 target, pool fires)
265, 268, 274 modeling error, 2142–2143 targets within the fire, 2628–2629
Horizontal-surface fires, flame required safe egress time, 2115, trench/line fires, 2596, 2597
height, 398 2116, 2121, 2137, 2139, wind effects, 2594
Hotel fires, occupant response, 2141–2143, 2145–2148 turbulent jet flames
2085–2087, 2097, 2449, 3080, safety margin, 2143 aerodynamic effects, 2591, 2630,
3103, 3217, 3266 second-order hydraulic model, 2636–2638
HRR. See Heat release rates 2132, 2133 fire impingement exposure,
(HRRs) use with other models, 2143–2146 2645–2646
Human action, 2876, 2877, 2919, Hydraulics flame diameter, crosswind,
2920, 2927, 2928, 2946 conservation laws in fluid flows, 2636–2638
Human error, 2919–2925, 2928, 1382–1385 flame geometry, 2630
2932, 2947, 3087, 3189, 3191, energy losses in pipe flows flame height/length, crosswind,
3192, 3208, 3280, 3326, 3329, boundary layer concept, 1385, 2633–2636
3351, 3352 1386 flame height, still air, 2630–2633
Hydrocarbon fires, thermal Ideal gas(es) Incompressible fluid motion, 5, 6,

radiation (cont.) constant, 139, 556, 558 14, 66, 483, 1386, 1401, 1517,
hazards, 2638–2640 law, 1, 3–4, 138, 142, 155, 159, 329, 1624
line/cylinder models, 330, 335, 406, 459, 474, 475, Independent fire protection layers,
2644–2645 556, 1073, 1085, 1798, 1843, 3188–3190, 3194–3197, 3200,
point source model, 2638–2640 1844 3202–3203, 3208, 3209
radiative fraction, 2640–2644 Ignition Indexing, fire risk analysis method,
unsteady thermal radiation analysis autoignition (see Autoignition) 2825, 2981
burning vapor clouds (see Vapor defined, 554–555 Industrial fire protection
clouds) of liquids, 554–578, 635, 670, 1256, consequence analysis, 3185–3186
fireballs (see Fireballs) 3439, 3451 fire risk evaluation, 3186
pressurized gas incidents, 2646 modes involving electric current FPS-LOPA, 3188–3207
Hydrocarbons (see Electrical fires, ignition hazard evaluation, 3183–3185
aliphatic/aromatic, 1211 modes involving electric Inert gas extinguishing agents
fire ventilation and yields, 1201, 1204 current) characteristics, 1483–1485
Hydrogen piloted, 389, 572, 649–650, 653, extinguishing mechanisms,
dissociation example, 159 707, 714, 920, 921, 1147, 1485–1486
heat of formation (atomic), 145 1149, 1150, 1258, 3244, minimum extinguishing
Hydrogen bromide (HBr), as inert 3312 concentration, 1492–1494
diluent, 1458 secondary/remote, 151, 1272, 2592, thermophysical properties, 1505
Hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) 3219, 3312 toxicity, 1499–1502
corrosivity, 732 self-ignition (see Autoignition) Influence diagram, fire risk
heat of formation, 145 solids, flaming ignition in (see analysis, 2824
as inert diluent, 542 Solids, flaming ignition) Information technology (IT)
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) spontaneous combustion (see equipment, flammability
fire yield, 2231, 2287, 2346 Autoignition) concerns, 1291, 1453
generation efficiency, 1205, 1206 thermal radiation and, 572 Institute for Operations Research
heat of formation, 145 and values of voltage/current/power, and the Management
toxicity 693–694 Sciences (InFORMS), 2826
fractional incapacitating dose Ignition Handbook (Babrauskas), Insulation
(FID), 2373, 2417 607, 665, 667, 668, 670–673, thermal conductivity, 35, 1932
interaction with carbon dioxide, 676, 678, 680, 681, 683, 686, thermal properties, 1105
2369 694, 807, 955, 3194 Insurance rating, fire risk indexing
interaction with carbon monoxide, Ignition source, defining, 892, 2570, class/schedule rates, 3160
2369–2370 2691 Gretener method, 3161–3162
Hydrostatic equation, 9–10 Ignition zone, 1144, 1154, 1158, mercantile/Dean schedules, 3161
Hydroxyl (OH), heat of formation, 1159, 1216 Specific Commercial Property
145 IMO. See International Maritime Evaluation Schedule, 3161
Hypergeometric distribution, Organization (IMO) Integral method, heat transfer
848–849 Implementation time, 2922 analysis, 75, 77
Hyperthermia, 2300, 2374–2376, Incapacitation Interior finish wall/ceiling
2418 fire scenarios and materials, fire propagation
Hyperventilation, and closed-room fires, 2396–2401 index, 1165–1167
incapacitation from toxic flaming fires, 2394–2395 Intermediate-scale calorimeter
effects, 2366–2368 fully developed fires, 2404–2406 (ICAL), 802, 803, 813, 896,
Hypothesis testing, 2861–2870 mitigation of toxic hazard, 921, 931–932, 942, 3043
Hypoxia 2406–2407 International Building Code (ICC),
and carbon dioxide, 2369 room-of-origin deaths, 2396 1304, 1742, 1753, 1776, 1808,
carbon monoxide and, 2370 smoldering fires, 2392–2394 1819, 2000, 2027, 2030, 2042,
heat exposure 3172, 3254
predicting time to incapacitation, International Civil Aviation
I 2353, 2361, 2371–2373, 2387 Organization (ICAO), 1663
ICAO. See International Civil from toxic effects International Convention for the
Aviation Organization carbon dioxide, 2218, 2220 Safety of Life at Sea
(ICAO) carbon monoxide, 2218 (SOLAS), 935, 1535, 1547,
ICC Performance Coder® for hydrogen cyanide, 2222, 2224 1556, 1561–1566, 1614, 3377,
Buildings and Facilities hyperventilation and, 2220, 2223 3379
(International Code hypoxia, 2220, 2221 International Electrotechnical
Council), 1235, 1238, 1242, predicting, 2215, 2219, 2220, Commission (IEC), 235–237,
2022, 2035, 2041 2225 2269, 2270, 2284, 2772
International Fire Engineering JET two-zone fire model, 2566 Large-volume spaces, smoke
Guidelines (ICC), 1138, 1262 JP-5, flame spread rate, 1669, 1683, management in (cont.)
International Foam-Water Sprinkler 1687, 2564, 2566, 2567, 2569, smoke filling period
Research Project, 1694, 1695 2582 empirical correlations, 1831–1833
International Maritime JP-8, flame spread rate, 1687, 2564, smoke layer interface position,
Organization (IMO), 621, 2566, 2567, 2569, 2582 1830–1831
935, 956, 1535, 1588, 1589, Judgment sample, 2871 steady fires, 1829–1830
1613, 1614, 3377 t2 fires, 1829, 1830, 1832
International Organization for theoretically based approach,
Standardization (ISO). K 1833–1834
See ISO entries Kinematic viscosity, 2, 17, 18, 56, transport lag, 1829–1830
Interquartile range, 2856 351, 416, 438, 1321, 1375, special conditions
Intumescent coatings, 974, 1871, 1379, 1393, 1655, 2750, 3398 confined flow, 1852
3319, 3453, 3454 Kings Crossing fire (1987), 706, intermediate stratification,
Inviscid fluid, 16, 65, 84, 992 1056, 2406 1852–1854
Ionization, 194, 663, 695, 727, 1195, Kiosks, heat release rates, 846–847 makeup air supply, 1856
1318, 1344, 1345, 1347–1349, Kirchoff’s law, 119–120 plugholing, 1855–1856
1353, 1356, 1460, 2398, 2401, Kurtosis, probability distributions, sprinkler/vent systems
2402, 2692 2834 computer simulations, 1850–1851
ISO (International Organization consensus approach to design,
for Standardization). See ISO 1851–1852
entries L design considerations, 1849
Iso-butane, heat of formation, 130, 145 Large eddy simulation approach. interaction of spray and smoke
ISO 834, Fire-Resistance Tests- See Computational fluid layer, 1849–1850
Elements of Building dynamics (CFD) models, past studies, 1848–1849
Construction, 789, 1102, 1105, turbulence modeling, large sprinkler skipping, 1851
1116–1118, 1122, 1124–1129, eddy simulation vent skipping, 1851
1866, 1928, 1949, 1956, 1988 Large-volume spaces, smoke thermal activation of vents,
time-temperature curves, 789, 1935 management in 1847–1848
ISO 5657, Fire Tests-Reaction to approaches to vented period
Fire-Ignitability of Building analytical approach, 1827 axisymmetric plume, 1834–1836
Products, 235, 958, 959, 964, factors affecting, 1832 balcony spill plume, 1837–1839
976 scale models, 1827–1828 carbon monoxide concentration,
ISO 14520, Gaseous Fire comparison of mechanical exhaust/ 1841–1842
Extinguishing Systems- natural venting designs, equilibrium smoke layer interface
Physical Properties and System 1842–1851 position, 1834–1839
Design, 1486, 1494–1496, computational fluid dynamics light obscuration, 1841
1498, 1509–1511, 1527 models, 1867–1868 properties of smoke layer,
ISO Technical Specification 16733, draft curtains, 1843, 1844, 1839–1842
Fire Safety Engineering- 1849–1852 temperature rise in smoke layer,
Selection of Design Fire fire scenarios, 1824, 1827, 1829, 1839–1840
Scenarios and Design Fires, 1831, 1843 wall/corner plumes, 1836–1837
1263, 1266, 1269, 2048, 2056, hazard parameters zone models, 1828–1830
2057, 2060, 2067 light obscuration, 1825–1826 Latent error, 2921, 2924
ISO Technical Specification 16732, smoke layer interface position, LAVENT two-zone fire model,
Guidance on Fire Risk 1825 1029–1030
Assessment, 2826 temperature/gas species Law of large numbers, probability
Isotropic materials, 28, 278 concentration, 1826 distributions, 2835
IT equipment. See Information limited fuel, 1857 Layer burning, compartment fires,
technology (IT) equipment, mechanical venting systems, 488, 491
flammability concerns 1842–1843 Le Chatelier’s rule, 531–536, 547
design aspects, 1842–1843 Lewis number, 3, 9, 57, 351, 355,
natural venting systems 358, 388, 569
J design aspects, 1843–1847 Life safety
JASMINE CFD model, 1035, 1048, flow through vents, 1843, 1844, 1847 defend-in-place strategy, 1315,
1609 limitations, 1845–1847 2309, 2315, 2328
Jet flames makeup air supply, 1844–1845 stay-in-place strategy, 1315
flame height, 403 smoke buoyancy and, 1843, 1844 LIFT (lateral ignition and flame
horizontal discharge, 396, 422–423 wind conditions and, 1846, 1847 spread test) apparatus, 646,
virtual origin, 413 opposed airflow, 1857–1858 717, 1155
Lightning, ignition cause, 691 Log-normal distribution, 1133, Mass, conservation of

Limiting oxidant concentration, 1138, 1609, 2141, 2460, computational fluid dynamics
explosion prevention, 2838–2839, 2844, 2846, 2852, models and, 1036
540–541 2854–2856, 2882, 2883, 2886, continuity equation, 4–6, 59
Limiting oxygen index (LOI), 234, 2887, 2895, 2913, 3106, 3114 convection heat transfer, 58–64
235, 237–238, 247, 545, 1165 reliability analysis and, 2840–2853 in flames, 375
test method, 235 Lower flammability limits (LFL) Mass flow rates, fire plumes, 407,
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 398, adiabatic flame temperature, 148 414–417, 1000
401, 422, 865, 2573, 2594– dusts, 670 Mass fuel-to-air ratio, 490, 491,
2596, 2646–2648, 2650, 2657, predicting, 570 500, 1182, 1191, 1199, 1215
2665, 2671, 2678, 2814 Luggage, heat release rates, 848 Mass loss rate, 200, 201, 203, 210,
Liquefied petroleum gas (LP-gas), 211, 236, 361, 364, 431, 432,
570, 571, 2638, 2645, 2646, 489, 491, 499, 509, 593, 636,
2648, 2651, 2653, 3091 M 773, 782, 799, 813, 837, 866,
Liquid fuel fires. See also Pool fires Magazine racks, heat release rates, 922, 940, 941, 952, 975, 976,
blended fuels, 2573, 2574 848, 849 986, 999, 1011, 1016, 1029,
fire growth rate MAGIC two-zone fire model, 1030 1078, 1089, 1167, 1170–1174,
empirical data, 2564–2570 MAGIC zone fire model, 1179–1181, 1185, 1187, 1188,
flame spread regimes, 2559–2561 3356, 3364 1191, 1192, 1194, 1196, 1200,
pool dimensions, 2561–2562 Maintainability 1219–1224, 1649, 2209, 2210,
temperature effects, 2562–2563 downtimes and, 2898–2900 2226, 2242, 2243, 2246, 2286,
theory, 2559–2563 inspections, 2910 2319, 2385, 2387, 2394, 2411,
fire size maintenance, 2910 3074
enclosure fires, 2582 preventive, 2876–2879, 2898, 2899 Mass optical density, 1351, 1357,
flame height, 2582–2583 quantification, 2899–2900 1818, 1841
fuel burning regression rate, 2572, testing, 2910 Mass spectrometry (MS), 192–194,
2574 Maintainability analysis, 2877–2879 203, 1700
inclined/cluttered surfaces, 2582 process, 2877 Mass transportation. See also
pool tank lip height, 2582 Making Hard Decisions (Clemen), Aviation fire protection;
wind speed, 2582 3024 Marine transportation; Rail
flame spread velocities and rate of Malls. See Large-volume spaces, transportation
pool/spill involvement, smoke management in decision-making methods, 3381
2570–2572 Manchester Airtours fire (1984), fire safety objectives,
liquid/gas phase-controlled flame 2220, 2404 3380–3381
spread, 2559, 2560, 2564 Manchester Woolworth’s fire risk-based decision making,
pool size, 2552–2558 (1979), 2406 3379–3380
porous surfaces, 2559, 2569 Manometer tube, 1380–1381 Mathematical fire models, 1024,
spill size, 2552–2558 Marchioness collision/sinking 1848, 1851–1852
Liquids. See also Fluids (1989), 3378 Mattresses
autoignition, 573–575 Marine transportation fire test method, 933
liquids in porous materials, combustible materials, heat release rates, 848–853
575–578 3387–3388 room effects on heat release
classification of fuels, 570–572 cruise ships, 3377–3379 rates, 800
ignition of fire risk decision making McCaffrey-Quintiere-Harkleroad
calculation of vapor pressure, analytical hierarchy processes, 3392 (MQH) correlation of
558–562 NFPA 301 and, 3392–3393 temperature rise, 1002–1005,
critical temperatures/pressures, USCG Safety Alert and, 3377, 2860
557 3390–3392 Mean
flashpoint (see Flashpoint) fire safety objectives, 3380–3381 geometric, 125, 126, 729, 2856
latent heat of evaporation, incidents, 3373, 3374, 3376, 3387 harmonic, 2856
558, 561 risk-informed decision making, testing, 295, 2862–2866
phase diagrams, 555–557 3379–3381 Median, probability theory, 2833
vaporization process and, 555–558 sources of ignition, 3392 Melting temperatures, 179, 180,
vapor pressure of blends, Markov model, fire growth, 187, 283, 1168
562–564 2901–2903, 2910 Melting, thermal decomposition,
properties, 573 Masonry 179–181
sustained ignition of, 572–573 as fire protection material, 1877, Mental model, 2080, 2922
effect of wick, 572, 573 1950, 3318 Meshes, finite-differencing
Livonia (Mich.) automotive plant thermal degradation at high technique, 1046, 1048
fire (1954), 3147 temperatures, 296, 3249 Metals, properties, 3432–3434
Methane (CH4) National Electronic Injury NFIRS fire incident database (cont.)
heat of combustion, 143 Surveillance System errors/uncertainty in national
heat of formation, 145 (NEISS), 3084, 3085, 3095 estimates, 3081–3084
specific heat, 141 National Fire Incident Reporting unknown data issues,
Methanol (CH3OH) System (NFIRS). See NFIRS 3080–3081
heat of combustion, 143 fire incident database NFPA. See National Fire Protection
heat of formation, 145 National Fire Prevention and Association (NFPA)
MGM Grand Hotel fire (1980), Control Act (1974), 3084 NFPA 101A, Guide on Alternative
2085–2087, 2097, 2449, 3103, National Fire Prevention and Approaches to Life Safety,
3217 Control Administration, 3086, 3166
Mica, dielectric strength, 666 3084 NFPA 11A, Standard for Medium-
MIL-F-24385 procurement/ National Fire Protection and High-Expansion Foam
performance specification, Association (NFPA). See also Systems, 1737
1661, 1662 NFPA entries NFPA 92A, Standard for Smoke-
Milk-drying process, autoignition, Fire Incident Data Organization Control Systems, 1785
628 (FIDO), 3085, 3086 NFPA 12A, Standard on Halon 1301
Mode, statistical, 2333 Fire Safety Concepts Tree, 1242, Fire Extinguishing Systems,
Mole, defined, 140 1291, 2038, 2825, 2949–2950, 1453, 1509, 2899
Momentum, and flame height, 3052, 3174, 3177 NFPA 30B, Code for the
403–405, 422, 423 survey of fire departments, 2871, Manufacture and Storage of
Momentum, conservation of 3076 Aerosol Products, 1425
computational fluid dynamics National Fire Protection Research NFPA 92B, Standard for Smoke
models and, 1036 Foundation (NFPRF), 1619, Management Systems in
convection heat transfer, 59–62 1694, 1695, 1737, 3380 Mails, Atria, and Large
Mond Fire, Explosion, and Toxicity National Institute of Standards and Spaces, 424, 1067, 1352
Index, 3165– Technology (NIST) NFPA 12B, Standard on Halon 1211
Mont Blanc tunnel fire (1999), investigation of Station Nightclub Fire Extinguishing Systems,
1058, 2323, 2328, 2407 fire, 2096 1453
Monte Carlo sampling/simulation, investigation of World Trade Center NFPA 301, Code for Safety to Life
2896, 2907, 2966, 3010–3011, terrorist attack, 1936 from Fire on Merchant
3013, 3016, 3025, 3027, 3041, radiant method toxicity test, 2275 Vessels, 3379, 3392–3393
3125, 3133–3134, 3151–3153, zeroth order sprinkler effectiveness NFPA 231C, Standard for Rack
3240, 3354 model, 1447 Storage of Materials, 1424
Montreal Protocol, 1301, 1450, National Research Council of NFPA 231D, Standard for Storage of
1483, 1504, 1588 Canada (NRCC), 937, 1277, Rubber Tires, 1424
Moody diagrams, 20, 21, 1388, 1798, 1806, 1981, 3272, 3276 NFPA 13D, Standard for the
1389, 1391, 1393 National Research Institute for Fire Installation of Sprinkler
Motor vehicles and Disaster (Japan), 855 Systems in One-and Two-
heat release rates, 943 Navier-Stokes equations, 7, 9–13, Family Dwellings and
heat release rates of components, 943 16, 17, 358, 1040, 3118 Manufactured Homes, 1424
heavy goods vehicle cargo heat NBS toxicity test, 227–2272 NFPA 30, Flammable and
release rates, 881, 883 n-Butane (n-C4H10) Combustible Liquids
tire heat release rates, 879 heat of combustion, 143 Code, 570, 1425, 1689,
MS. See Mass spectrometry heat of formation, 145 1691, 1692
Multimodal data, 2855 Negative binomial distribution, NFPA 231F, Standard for Storage of
Multinomial distribution, 2848 Roll Paper, 1424
2849–2850 NEISS. See National Electronic NFPA 551, Guide for the Evaluation
Injury Surveillance System of Fire Risk Assessments,
(NEISS) 1291, 2825, 2976–2977, 3380
N Net heat of complete combustion, NFPA 325, Guide to Fire Hazard
NanoMist, 1625, 1626 1182–1184, 1186, 1187, 1215, Properties of Flammable
Narratives, fire risk analysis 1219, 1224, 1225 Liquids, Gases, and Volatile
method, 2822, 2823 Newton’s law of viscosity, Solids, 3163
NARR2 computer program, 1944 54, 55 NFPA 550, Guide to the Fire Safety
National Building Code® (BOCA), Newton’s second law of motion, 60, Concepts Tree, 1242, 1291,
3172 77, 1036. See also Momentum, 2038, 2825, 2950, 3052
National Bureau of Standards conservation of NFPA 49, Hazardous Chemicals
(NBS). See National Institute NFIRS fire incident database Data, 3163
of Standards and Technology product categories, 2889–2891 NFPA 204M, Guide for Smoke and
(NIST); NBS toxicity text Version 5.0, 3077–3078 Heat Venting, 1849
NFPA National Fire Codes®, 2823 NFPA 75, Standard for the n-Octane (n-C8H18), heat of
NFPA 805, Performance-Based Protection of Information combustion, 143
Standard for Fire Protection Technology Equipment, Nonhalogenated polymers,
for Light Water Reactor 1453 calculating combustion
Electric Generating Plants, NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray yields, 1209, 1210
3334 Fixed Systems for Fire Nonmetals, properties,
NFPA 5000®, Building Construction Protection, 1425, 1587 3435–3436
and Safety Code®, 1235, 1304, NFPA 22, Standard for Water Tanks Noodles, autoignition of instant, 627
1742, 3254 for Private Fire Protection, 1424 NORDTEST furniture calorimeter,
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®, 1235, NFPA 286, Standard Methods of 800
1266, 2018, 2125, 2174, 3086, Fire Tests for Evaluating Normal distribution, 2837
3166, 3379, 3386 Contribution of Wall and Normal-strength concrete (NSC)
NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm Ceiling Interior Finish to compressive strength, 297–299
Code®, 443, 451, 1318, 1689, Room Fire Growth, 788 spalling, 289–290
2899 NFPA 265, Standard Methods of stress-strain curves, 296
NFPA 403, Standard for Aircraft Fire Tests for Evaluating Nozzles
Rescue and Fire-Fighting Room Fire Growth flow calculation, 472
Services at Airports, 1673 Contribution of Textile flow coefficients, 458
NFPA 17, Standard for Dry Chemcal Coverings on Full Height hose, 456, 1298
Extinguishing Systems, 1305, Panels and Walls, 935 sprinkler, 456
2899 NFPA 251, Standard Methods of water mist fire suppression systems,
NFPA 412, Standard for Evaluating Tests of Fire Resistance of twin-fluid/single-fluid, 1624
Aircraft Rescue and Building Construction and n-Pentane (n-C5H12), heat of
Fire-Fighting Foam Materials, 1866 combustion, 143
Equipment, 1663, 1674, 1676 NFPA 409, Standard on Aircraft Nuclear power plants
NFPA 130, Standard for Fixed Hangars, 1425, 1683, 1689, fire risk analysis, 3326–3365
Guideway Transit and 1690 historical view of assessments,
Passenger Rail Systems, 2027, NFPA 12, Standard on Carbon 3331–333
2043, 3385–3386 Dioxide Extinguishing human error and, 3351–3352
NFPA 231, Standard for General Systems, 1496, 2899 incidents, 3358
Storage Materials, 1424 NFPA 2001, Standard on Clean probabilistic risk assessment
NFPA 11, Standard for Low-, Agent Fire Extinguishing assembly of results, 3352
Medium-, and High- Systems, 1453, 1494, 2899 current/future directions,
Expansion Foam, 1308, 1688, NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion 3361–3365
1690 Prevention Systems, 541 equipment damage probability,
NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion 3348
Extinguishers, 1533, 1709 Protection by Deflagration equipment response analysis,
NFPA 502, Standard for Road Venting, 2811 3358
Tunnels, Bridges, and Other NFPA 750, Standard on Water Mist fire barrier analysis, 3360–3361
Limited Access Highways, Fire Protection Systems, fire detection/suppression
1616, 2043 1299, 1308, 1587 analysis, 3358–3360
NFPA 25, Standard for the NFPA 704, Standard System for the fire environment analysis,
Inspection, Testing, and Identification of the Fire 3355–3358
Maintenance of Water-Based Hazards of Materials (1990 fire frequency analysis,
Fire Protection Systems, 2898 ed.), 3163 3342–3344
NFPA 16, Standard for the NFPA 259, Standard Test Method fire-modeling tools, 3355
Installation of Foam-Water for Potential Heat of Building plant response analysis,
Sprinkler and Foam-Water Materials, 906 3341–3342
Spray Systems, 1425, 1689, NFPA 70T, National Electrical process, 3336–3338
1690 Coder, 1751 structure/methodology, 3331, 3360
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation NIBS toxicity test, 2289 Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
of Sprinkler Systems, 1424, NIST. See National Institute of risk-informed decision
1587, 1683, 1717 Standards and Technology making, 3028
NFPA 14, Standard for the (NIST) Null hypothesis, 2861–2867, 2869,
Installation of Standpipe and Nitric oxide (NO), heat of 2870, 2893
Hose Systems, 1424 formation, 145 NUREG/CR-6738, Risk Methods
NFPA 20, Standard for the Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Insights Gained from Fire
Installation of Stationary generation efficiency, 1206 Incidents (Nuclear
Pumps for Fire Protection, heat of formation, 145 Regulatory Commission),
1424, 1630 Nitrogen (N2), specific heat, 141 2922
Nusselt number, 70, 80, 84, 85, Oxygen Performance-based design

87–89, 100, 361, 362 concentration effect on heat flux, advantages, 1236
Nylon(s) 1071 application
heat of combustion of Nylon 6,6, heat of formation (atomic), 145 use as stand-alone methodology,
143 specific heat, 141 1247
thermal decomposition, 1165 Oxygen bomb calorimeter, use with performance-based
905–907, 909, 912, 930, 945, regulations, 1246
999, 1182, 3465 use with prescriptive-based
O Oxygen consumption calorimeter regulations, 1246
Occupants implementation of method attributes, 1242
available sale escape time (ASET) O2, CO2, and CO measured, defined, 1233
(see Available safe egress time 916–917 disadvantages, 1236–1237
(ASET)) only O2 measured, 915–916 fire scenarios
dependent processes for escape, 2318 practical considerations, building characteristics, 1243
handicapped/impaired, 2039, 2524 917–918 design fire curves, 1244
movement through smoke, 1259, Thornton’s rule, 912 fire characteristics, 1244
2213, 2337 volatiles/condensed phase, 912 occupant characteristics,
required safe escape time (RSET) Oxygen index. See Limiting oxygen 1243–1244
(see Required safe egress time index (LOI) quantifying, 1243
(RSET)) hazard/risk
response to fire/smoke deterministic analysis, 1247
awareness of Cues, 2054 P event trees, 1247–1249
British/U.S. populations Packaging, heat release rates, 816 risk-based analysis, 1247
compared, 3109 Palletized storage historical developments,
cognitive decision processes, 2082 heat release rates of other 1235–1236
commitment, 1243 commodities, 1692, 1696 performance types
convergence clusters, 2097 heat release rates of plastic-based component performance,
definition, 2070–2072 commodities, 836 1233–1234
evaluation, 1244 Pallets, heat release rates of stacked environment performance, 1234
fire-fighting behavior, 2084 idle, 857–859 risk potential performance,
gender, response by, 1244 PAN. See Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 1234–1235
health care facilities, 2021 Paper, file storage arrangement, threat potential performance, 1234
high-rise office buildings, 2103 1559 prescriptive-based design compared,
hotel fires, 2085–2087 Pareto distribution, 2846, 3114 1236, 1238
nonadaptive behavior, 2073 Pascal distribution, 2848 process
panic behavior, 2072–2073 Pascal’s law, 1379 define objectives, 1239
recognition, 2092 Paschen’s Law, 664–666 define project scope, 1237–1238
re-entry behavior, 2084 Passenger cars. See Motor vehicles develop fire scenarios,
residential experience, 2038 Passenger ships, sprinklers 1240–1242
stress model, 2916 required, 1589. See also develop performance criteria,
validation, 2919 Marine transportation 1239–1240
Office workstations, heat release PC. See Polycarbonates (PC) develop trial designs, 1242
rates, 854 PE. See Polyethylene (PE) document design process,
Ohio State University (OSU) Pearson product-moment 1245–1246
calorimeter correlation coefficient, evaluate trial designs,
oxygen consumption versions, 2857–2859 1244–1245
924–925 Pedestrian Planning and Design fire protection engineering design
thermopile version, 923–924 (Fruin), 2044, 2149, 2179, brief, 1242–1243
One Meridian Plaza fire (1991), 2544 identify goals, 1238
3103 Pensky-Martens closed cup quantifying design fire scenarios,
Open-burning calorimeters, 799, apparatus, 566 1243
802, 852 Perceived risk, defined, 2820 SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Optical density Percentiles, 1264, 1868, 1998, 2017, Engineering and, 1255–1260
measurement with helium-neon 2018, 2141, 2585, 2833, 2834, Performance-based fire protection,
laser, 970 2836, 2838–2840, 2843, 2856, 1233, 1235–1245, 1247, 1255,
measurement with turbidimeter, 728 2889, 2893, 2969, 3006, 3037, 1257, 1260, 1262, 1277, 1315,
Orifices 3238, 3240, 3346 2032, 2035, 2825, 2960, 2998,
fire vents as, 456 Perfect gas(es), 402, 988, 1036, 3013, 3023, 3189, 3207–3209,
flow coefficients, 457, 458 1037, 2758 3333, 3334, 3362, 3386
Performance shaping factor, 2921, Plate thermometers, 749, 789, 790, Polymers
2924–2927, 3352 1105–1107, 1127–1129 arc tracking in, 672, 673
PET. See Polyethylene terephthalate Plunge tests, detector sensitivity, chain structure, 167
(PET) 1333 classifying, 241
Phase-Doppler anemometer (PDA), PMA. See Polymethyl acrylate composite construction, 1974
1598–1600 (PMA) effect of additives on
Phenolic resins, thermal PMMA. See Polymethyl decomposition, 28
decomposition, 224–225 methacrylate (PMMA) fiber-reinforced (see Fiber-
Piezoelectrification, electric charge Pneumatic transport systems, static reinforced polymers (FRP))
separation, 682 electricity and, 687 fluorine-containing, 1301
Piezometer tube, 1381 Poisson distribution, 2842, 2844, gasification, 167
Pillows, heat release rates, 589 2847, 2915 glass transition temperature, 171,
Piloted ignition, 389, 572, 649–650, fire frequency analysis, 2844 179, 642
653, 707, 714, 920, 921, 1147, Polarization, electrical charge halogenated, 218–220, 1152, 2244
1149, 1150, 1258, 3244, 3312, separation, 682 nitrogen-containing, 2237, 2278,
3358 Polyacrylics 2279
Pipe(s) thermal decomposition, 167–247 oxygen-containing, 2255, 2282
dimensions/weights of copper, 3491 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), 143, 168, synthetic carbon-oxygen chain, 227
dimensions/weights of extra-strong, 173, 185, 186, 197, 198, thermal decomposition (see
3491 217–218, 244, 673, 913, 2221, Thermal decomposition of
dimensions/weights of red brass, 3491 2223, 2246, 2276, 2282, 2283, polymers)
fluid flow in, 2, 98 2296, 2359, 2390, 3445, 3456, thermally stable, 222
laminar/turbulent, 1382 3464 vinyl-derived, 168
heat conduction through walls of, arc tracking in, 671 Polymethyl acrylate (PMA),
3250 heat of combustion, 143 thermal decomposition, 170,
properties of copper, 3490–3491 thermal decomposition, 198, 198, 215
properties of steel, 3483–3489 217–218 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Pipe flows Polyamides, 168, 170, 216, 227, 246, calculating combustion yields, 993
boundary layer concept, 65–75 3445 heat of combustion, 143
energy losses in thermal decomposition, 170, 216 thermal decomposition, 215
compound networks, 1400–1401 Polybutadiene, thermal water application rate, 169
critical zone, 1389 decomposition, 173 Polyolefins, 887
equations, 1387–1401 Polycarbonates (PC) thermal decomposition, 884, 3459
Hazen-Williams-based data, 1393 heat of combustion, 143 Polyoxymethylene (POM)
minor losses, 1395–1399 thermal decomposition, heat of combustion, 145
pipes in parallel, 1399–1400 215–216 thermal decomposition, 83, 173
pipes in series, 1399 Polychloroprene, 3453, 3457, 3465 water application rate, 147
flow measurement thermal decomposition, 3457 Polypropylene (PP)
ASME flow nozzle, 1402–1403 Polycrystalline material, 278 calculating combustion yields, 993
ASME orifice meters, 1402–1403 Polyester, heat of combustion, 143 decomposition products, 2255
pitot tube, 21, 1403–1405 Polyesters, 168, 170, 216–218, heat of combustion, 143
Venturi flow meter, 1402 228–229, 231, 246, 1164 thermal decomposition, 168, 170
laminar/turbulent, 1382 Polyethylene (PE) Polystyrene (PS)
water hammer, 1407–1409 calculating combustion calculating combustion yields, 993
Pipe insulation, heat release rates, yields, 993 dielectric strength, 664, 666, 2692
859 heat of combustion, 143 heat of combustion, 143
Pitot tube, 21, 407, 459, 1401, thermal decomposition, 169, 182 thermal decomposition, 168, 170
1403–1405, 1438 water application rate, 1689 water application rate, 1689
Planck constant, 3400 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polysulfides, thermal
Planck mean absorption coefficient, heat of combustion, 143 decomposition, 810
124, 125, 128–130 thermal decomposition, 169, Polysulfones, thermal
Planck’s law, 104 216–217 decomposition, 810
Plastic-based commodities, pallet Polyisoprene, thermal Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
storage and heat release decomposition, 173, 220–223 dielectric strength, 220, 664
rates, 836 Polymeric materials thermal decomposition, 173, 178, 220
Plastics decomposition temperatures, 182, Polyurethanes, 168, 170, 224, 231,
arc tracking in, 671–673 222 246, 2246, 2255, 2256, 2288,
dielectric strength, 664, 666 fire propagation/smoke 2291, 2296, 3452
heats of combustion/properties, 1144 development index, 1163 thermal decomposition, 224
Polyvinyl acetate, thermal Portland Cement Association Probability distributions. See also
decomposition, 168 (PCA), 1965, 1966 specific distributions (cont.)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Powders. See Dust(s) discrete, 2831
arc tracking in electrical insulation, Power function of the test, statistics, discrete/continuous, 2831
220, 671 2862 failure/hazard rate, 2880, 2884
combustion yields, 993 PP. See Polypropylene (PP) fire growth and (see Stochastic
dielectric strength, 666 PRA. See Probabilistic risk models of fire growth)
heat of combustion, 143 assessment (PRA) kurtosis, 2834
thermal decomposition, 170, 191 Prandtl number, 3, 11, 18, 57, 65, mean/median, 2855
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC), 67, 72, 75, 78, 86, 89, 100, moments, 2833
913, 3447, 3458, 3465 351, 362, 438, 439, 451, 1062, multivariate, 2836
thermal decomposition, 93 2670 parameters, 2841, 2845, 2854
POM. See Polyoxymethylene (POM) Preaction sprinkler system, 1765 populations, 2835
Pool fires. See also Liquid fuel fires Pre-heating zone, flames, 3314 for reliability analysis, 2840, 2879
fire size Premixed combustion for significance tests
blended fuel, 2573, 2574 effect of additives on flame chi-square distribution, 2839, 2866
flame height, 2582 propagation, 2750 F distribution, 2840
fuel burning regression rate, 2572, flame propagation, 2647 Student’s t distribution, 2839, 2864
2574 flame propagation mechanism, skewness, 2834
pool tank lip height, 2582 2647, 2648 uniform, 2834, 2850
wind speed, 2582 practical applications, 1031, 2910 Probability measure, 2828–2829
flame height/length, 2583 pressure rise in closed vessels, 139, Probability sample, 2871
flame radiation to external target 2792 Probability theory
(see Flame radiation to Premixed flames concepts, 2857
external target, pool fires) adiabatic flame temperature, conditional probability, 2830
flame spread 388–389, 536–538 fire risk analysis and, 2888
empirical data, 2564 burning velocity, 2637, 2739 formulas, 2829–2890
pool dimensions and, 2593 conical, 654, 958 frequency interpretation, 2829
temperature effects, 2562 diffusion flames distinguished, 237, independent/dependent events,
flame spread velocities and rate of 352 2828, 2830
pool involvement, 2570–2572 flammability limits, 546, 565 prior/posterior probabilities, 2830
flame tilt, 2593, 2595–2596 idealized (flat), 1800 probability distributions (see
geometry turbulence, 12, 80, 389 Probability distributions)
flame height/length, 2594, 2595 Pressure, fluids, 1379–1380, 1382 random variables, 2831
flame tilt angle, 2595–2596 Primary reaction zone, flames, 328 standard deviation, 2833
trench/line fires, 2596 Probabilistic fire models, 1024, subjective interpretation, 2820
heat release rates 2965 survival function, 2832
room radiation and, 2600 Probabilistic methods, fire risk Process flaring, 2630
rough surfaces, 2674 analysis, 3226 Production flaring, 2630
thin-layer, 866 Probabilistic risk assessment Products (finished), fire risk
pool defined, 2647 (PRA), 2310, 2919, 2923, analysis
pool size, 2552–2558 2960, 2977–2979, 3326, 3333, assumptions, 3212
pyrolysis rate, 2995 3365 data sources
room effects on heat release rates, nuclear power plants, 3326, code requirements, 2963
2603 3329–3331 expert judgment, 3358, 3392
surface flame spread, 2569 Probability product/property surveys, 3220
thermal radiation hazards decision analysis and (see Decision importance of, 3326
emissive radiation, 107 analysis, probability) process steps, 3013
external targets, 2600 defined, 2827 relevant fire scenarios
targets within fires, 2628 fire types, 3051 building dimensions/geometry, 3219
virtual origin, 1835 human error, 2920, 2927, 3192 exposure of people/property,
wind and, 2595 in reliability analysis, 2840, 2876, 3220–3221
Porosity 3351 fire protection systems/features,
building materials, 278 Probability distributions. See also 3221–3222
high-strength concrete (HSC), 280, specific distributions initiating fire, 3205
289, 303 cumulative, 2844 openings, 3219
Portable fire extinguishers degrees of freedom, 2834 room linings, 3218
dry chemical, 1302–1303 density scope of products included, 3212
foam, 1299 normal distribution, 2835 specifying class of properties, 3212
Products (finished), fire risk Pyrolysis (cont.) Random-chain scission,

analysis (cont.) 996, 997, 999, 1000, 1010, decomposition mechanism,
specifying goals/objectives/ 1026, 1043–1045, 1081, 1135, 181
measures of loss, 3212 1146, 1150, 1154–1159, 1166, Random sample, 2870–2872, 3078,
test methods/models 1174–1175, 1178–1182, 1205, 3122, 3133, 3351
calibration/sensitivity/uncertainty, 1207, 1208, 1211, 1219, 1297, simple/stratified, 2871, 3078
3222–3223 1299, 1352, 1448, 1459, 1590, Random variables
ignition probability, 2846 1592, 1604, 1785, 1824, 1985, correlation, 2857–2859
Propane (C3H8) 1986, 1992–1994, 2005, 2208, expected value/average, 2832
adiabatic burning, 147 2210, 2212, 2221, 2223, 2253, regression analysis, 2857, 2859
boiling point, 559, 735 2255, 2271, 2273, 2274, 2284, variance, 2857
flammability limits, 537, 547 2302, 2303, 2321, 2390–2392, Range, data, 2651
heat of combustion, 143 2395, 2404, 2643, 2775, 2995, Raoult’s Law, 562, 564
heat of formation, 3214, 3287, 3296, 3314 Rayleigh number, 11, 79, 89, 100,
144, 1182 Pyrolysis front, 640, 641, 713, 714, 366, 438, 452
oxygen/air required for total 1154–1159, 1166 Refrigerators, heat release rates,
oxidation, 141, 1182 Pyrolysis gas chromatography 867, 868
Property protection goals, 3213 (PGC), 192–194 Regression analysis, 1150, 1171,
Propylene (C3H6), compartment fire 2107, 2518, 2857, 2859, 2861,
source examples, 1079 3117
Protective action decision model, Q Reinforced Concrete Fire Resistance
2076–2079, 2081, 2082 Quartile, 2856 (Concrete Reinforcing Steel
Protein foam, 1647, 1656, 1665, Quenching distances, 554 Institute), 1968
1668–1670, 1673, 1681, 1682, Quota sample, 2871 Reliability, 1865–1866, 2840–2850,
2554 2875–2983
PS. See Polystyrene (PS) software (see Software reliability)
PTFE. See Polytetrafluoroethylene R Reliability analysis
(PTFE) RABT-ZTV fire resistance test, 791 accelerated testing, 2879,
Pumps Rack storage 2915–2916
brake horsepower, 1418, 1439, ignition source location and fire complete/censored data, 2879,
1629 development, 847 2911–2913
centrifugal pump affinity relations, quick-response sprinkler activation, data collection, 2879, 2911, 2918
1420–1422 444, 1428, 1444 human
classes, 1426 Radiant energy detection, 1257, definitions, 2919
net positive suction head (NPSH), 1357, 1358 models, 2920, 2927–2928
1417–1419 Radiant intensity, 106, 107, 114, 117, process, 2923–2927
operating characteristics, 124, 1042, 1062, 2647, 3398 value of, 2920
1416–1419 Radiation blanketing, 940 models
parallel installation, 2930 Radiation blockage, 3321 Arrhenius life-temperature
selection, 1419–1420 Radiation heat transfer. See relationship, 2916
series installation, 2930 Thermal radiation inverse power relationship, 2917
water horsepower, 1418 Radiative heat release rate, 424, probabilistic life-stress
PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride 1145, 1146, 1148, 1184, 1187, relationships, 2917
(PVC) 1188, 1221, 1222 nonrepairable items
PVDC. See Polyvinylidene chloride Rail transportation conditional distributions, 2834,
(PVDC) bridges, 3374 2884–2886, 2892, 2896, 2913
Pyroelectrification, electric charge car heat release rates, 3386, 3389, empirical distribution, 2880,
separation, 682, 689 3390 2882–2884, 2886
Pyrolysis, 141, 167, 172, 177, 181, fire risk decision making exponential distribution,
183, 192–195, 197, 198, decision tree, 3381, 3384, 3385 2840–2844, 2880–2881,
200–206, 209–213, 215–217, NFPA 130 and, 1753, 2027, 2029, 2885–2886, 2912–2913
226, 227, 231, 239, 240, 244, 2043, 3374, 3385–3386 generic reliability values for
247, 290, 327, 396, 397, 502, regulation of combustible fire protection systems,
538, 582–585, 591, 593, 594, materials, 3384, 3387 2889–2891
600, 635–637, 639–644, 646, fire safety objectives, 3384, hazard rate, 2840, 2880, 2884–
647, 649–652, 655, 710, 3386–3389 2887, 2918, 2919, 2929, 2930
712–715, 717, 721, 729, 805, incidents, 3386 log-normal distribution, 2838–
828, 830, 833, 928, 929, 932, subways, 3385 2839, 2882, 2883, 2886, 2887,
956, 964, 973, 977, 984, 986, tunnels, 3386, 3387 2895, 2913
Reliability analysis (cont.) Residuals, statistics, 2859 RSET. See Required safe egress time
stress/strength interference model, Resin, 168, 170, 224, 309, 310, 313, (RSET)
2887–2889 684, 810, 2771, 3105, 3267 Rubber, synthetic. See Polyisoprene
Weibull distribution, 2881, 2882, Resistance network analogy, Runaway reaction, 605, 616
2886, 2898, 2912–2914 thermal radiation, 122 Runehamar test tunnel (Norway),
operational/test-generated data, Response time index (RTI), 1029, 1616
2879, 2911 1045, 1265, 1321–1326, 1328, Runge-Kutta methods, solving
parameter estimation 1329, 1331, 1334, 1336–1340, initial value problems, 1096
Bayesian analysis, 2914–2915 1342, 1343, 1444, 1691, 3040,
exponential distribution, 3229, 3235
2912–2913 Reynolds analogy, 71 S
log-normal distribution, 2913 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes Safety factors/margins
nonhomogeneous Poisson process, approach. See Computational combining, 2992, 3004–3005
2913 fluid dynamics (CFD) models; derivation of, 3005
renewal process, 2913–2914 Reynolds-averaged Navier- FOSM method, 3005
Weibull distribution, 2912–2913 Stokes approach; Reynolds- implied/explicit, 3003
probability and, 2880–2884 averaged Navier-Stokes in prescriptive/performance codes,
process, 2891, 2893, 2895, 2913, approachturbulence modeling; 3003
2923 Turbulence modeling selection, 3003–3004
repairable items Reynolds number, 10–20, 65–67, Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
chronological graphing of failure 72, 81, 86, 87, 89, 94, 96, 401, convention, 935, 1535, 1547,
history, 2892 416, 423, 438, 457, 463, 474, 1556, 1561–1566, 1614, 3377,
Laplace or centroid test, 725, 726, 988, 1320, 1321, 3379
2892–2893 1387, 1388, 1391, 1393, 1399, SAFIR computer program, 1111,
nonhomogeneous Poisson process, 1401, 1446, 1574, 1827, 1828, 1127, 1957, 1994
2895, 2896, 2913 2632, 2637–2639, 2644 SAFiRE risk assessment method,
numerical algorithm for failure Reynolds stresses, 13, 1038, 1039 2968–2969
prediction, 2896, 2913 RFIRES zone fire model, 1025 Sample design, 1244, 2871
probabilistic models for failure Risk analysis Sample space, 2828, 2829, 2831
prediction, 2891 defined, 3227 Sampling frame, 2871
renewal process, 2891, health care facilities, 2825, 3178 Sampling theory, 2870–2871
2893–2898 performance-based design, 1255, San Pedro de Anes test facility
superimposed renewal process, 1256 (Spain), 1611, 1618
2895 qualitative, 2822, 2957, 3186, 3207, Scatter plot/diagram, 2457, 2857,
trend concept, 2877, 2891–2893, 3341, 3364 2860
2897, 2928 quantitative, 3364 Schmidt number, 3, 57, 351, 1038,
system modeling/analysis Risk assessment 1040, 2669
block diagrams, 2929–2932 defined, 2831, 2888 Secondary reaction zone, flames, 216
cut sets, 2931 hazard-based assessment compared, Self-heating, spontaneous
dependent/common cause failures, 1247, 3389 combustion and, 604–630
2935–2937 use of fault/event trees, 2823, 2929 Self-ignition. See Autoignition
fault tree quantification, 2935 @RISK decision analysis model, 3025 Semenov theory, autoignition
fault trees, 2932–2935 Risk defined, 2817, 2941 assumptions, 611–614
modeling common cause failures, Risk estimation defined, 2818, 2821 and Biot number, 618, 622–623
2936–2937 Risk evaluation defined, 2821, 3186 complex chemistry and, 615
other systems, 2930–2931 Risk identification defined, 2083, inclusion of fuel consumption,
parallel systems, 2929 2821 614–615
path sets, 2931 Risk-informed industrial fire and reactions in continuously stirred
series systems, 2929 protection engineering. See tank reactor, 615–616
share load systems, 2930 Fire protection engineering, thermal runaway, 615–616
standby systems, 2930 risk-informed industrial Separation of variables, heat
Representative sample, 1597, 2871, RiskPro fire risk model, 82 transfer analysis, 38–39
2978 Roof assemblies, fire resistance Set theory
Required safe egress time (RSET) testing, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1917 set operators
components, 2435, 2437 Room/corner tests, 711, 712, 788, complement, 2827–2828
impact of tenability on, 2145–2148 789, 934–939, 942, 946 formulas related to, 2829–2830
Residence dwellings standards, 788, 935–936 intersection, 2828
high-rise evacuation, 1743 Room fires. See Compartment fires relationships among, 2828
occupant behavior, 1242, 1266, Rossland mean absorption union, 2828
2166 coefficient, 124–125 sets/subsets, 2827
SFPE Engineering Guide on Human SMARTFIRE CFD model, 1035, Smoke (cont.)
Behavior in Fire, 1243 1609 visibility in, 2187, 2189
SFPE Engineering Guide to Fire Smoke smoke density and, 2186–2187
Risk Assessment, 1291, 2037, aerosols, 727 walking speed through, 2337
2039, 2825, 3380 behavioral response in (see yields, 728, 729
SFPE Engineering Guide to Behavioral response to fire/ Smoke control
Performance-Based Fire smoke) acceptance testing, 1820
Protection, 1233, 1235, buoyancy, 1785, 1787, 1789–1792, barriers, 1786, 1799, 1813, 1817,
1237–1245, 1255, 1257, 1260, 1817, 1829, 1842–1845, 1848, 1824
1262, 2032, 2825, 2960, 2998, 1849, 2310 compartmented stairwells, 1792
3023 and carbon monoxide generation computer analysis, 1818
SFPE Engineering Guide to Piloted efficiency, 2394 design parameters
Ignition of Solid Materials carbon particles in (see Soot) airflow, 1787, 1790
Under Radiant Exposure, 1258 coagulation of particles, 725, number of open, 1087
SFPE Guide to Fire Exposures to 727–729 pressure differences, 1790,
Structural Elements, 1909 decrease of visual acuity in irritant, 1799–1800
Shaft flows, 992 2188–2190 weather data, 1785
Shear and moment diagrams, 263 defined, 727, 732, 1785 door opening forces, 1799
Shear force, fluids, 54 detection (see Detection system elevator shafts
Shear stress, fluids, 1, 54, 1379, design; Smoke detectors) piston effect, 1793–1794
1385, 1654 directional sounders, 2181, pressurization, 1807–1808
Shop displays, heat release rates, 2202–2204 flow areas, 1797, 1798, 1801, 1808,
820, 836, 867–869 escape guidance systems 1809
Shopping malls. See Large-volume directional sound, 2202–2204 effective, 1794–1796
spaces, smoke management in flashing light source, 2198–2200 pressurization, 1787–1788,
Side chain cyclization mechanism, traveling flashing light source, 1807–1808
thermal decomposition, 217, 2181, 2200, 2202, 2205 pressurized stairwells,
218 fire ventilation and yields, 1800–1806
Side chain elimination mechanism, 2396–2404 analysis, 1800
thermal decomposition, 213 fractional effective concentration principles of
Signs (FEC), 2318, 2324, 2338 airflow, 1787, 1790
ability of handicapped/impaired incapacitation by, 2321–2323, pressurization, 1787–1788
persons to locate/read, 2181, 2349–2351 smoke management (see Smoke
2203 including effects into hydraulic management)
escape guidance systems, model of egress performance, smoke movement (see Smoke
2200–2202 1788, 2309 movement)
flashing light source, 2198–2200 irritant, 2188–2190, 2196, symmetry concept, 1796–1797, 1801
light-emitting/-reflecting, 2187 2336–2337, 2370 tenability systems
traveling flashing light sources, light obscuration, 1825–1826, 1841 fire scenario, 1817
2181, 2200, 2202 modeling effects on visibility, smoke transport, 1817
visibility/conspicuousness, 2199 2187–2188 smoke transport calculations,
visibility of colored, 2188 occupant movement through, 2320, 1817–1818
visibility of light-reflecting, 2186, 2187 2412 tenability, 1817
visibility through irritant smoke, optical density measurement, 2192, tenability calculations, 1818–1819
2188–2190 2319, 2384, 2386, 2387, 2411, tunnels, 1818
Silver Spring (Md.) rail collision 2412, 2416 ventilation, 1789, 1793, 1826, 1830
(1996), 3374 optically dense irritant, 2336–2345 zoned control, 1813–1814
SIMPLE numerical scheme for tenability limits, 2342–2345 Smoke conversion factor,
CFD models, 1047 particle size, 729–730 3397–3424
Simultaneous thermal analyzer particle size distribution, 729 Smoke damage, 724, 725, 728, 733,
(STA), 188–189, 191, 192 measurement, 729 735, 738–740, 742, 1240
Situation assessment, 2264, 2922 production of, 1824, 1848 Smoke detectors
Situation model, 2922 properties, 724, 728 activation times, 1061, 2327, 3235
Skewness, probability distributions, specific/mass optical density, 1841 audibility, 1257
2834 spectral extinction properties, 2188, ceiling jet flows and, 429
Skin burns 2189 entry resistance, 1348–1350
correction factors, 2725–2729 toxicity assessment model, and forced ventilation systems, 3356
human variability, 2707–2713 2309–2311 ionization type, 1348
prediction, 2713–2724 vapor/particulate phases, 2341 light-scattering (photoelectric) type,
statistics, 2713 venting, 2404 1346–1348
Smoke detectors (cont.) Software bug, 2918 Sorption isotherm, building

modeling response, 1344–1345 Software error, 2918 materials, 279
and obscuration/attenuation, Software failure, 2918, 2919 Southwest Research Institute, 816,
1345–1346 Software fault, 2918 937, 1692, 3254
occupant response to Software maintainability, 2918 Spark, electric/mechanical
children, 2040, 2064, 2175 Software reliability distinguished, 666
sleeping occupants, 2040 defined, 2875, 2918 Species production, effect of
projected-beam type, 1345, 1351, and fire risk assessment, 2919 combustion conditions on
1356, 1854 Software verification/validation, 2919 chemical kinetics, 505–508
response functions, 1344–1350 SOLAS. See Safety of Life at Sea compartment fire experiments,
Smoke Development Index (SDI), (SOLAS) convention 499–505
1162–1164 Solids engineering methodology, 520–526
Smoke layers, heat flux flaming ignition (see Solids, flaming equivalence ratio, 489–493
calculations, 133–135 ignition) full-scale studies, 504
Smoke management, 1027, 1067, heat conduction in hood experiments, 493–499
1092, 1094, 1099, 1258, 1267, pipe walls, 35, 36 overventilated conditions, 491, 494,
1274, 1280, 1286, 1352, 1781, plates, 38, 39 498, 499, 501, 506, 507, 509
1787, 1817, 1824, 1826–1827, spherical with internal generation, species yields, 488–489
1829, 1843, 1855, 1857, 2034, 30 transient conditions, 509–510
2043, 3260, 3315, 3316 ignition by arcing, 670–671 transport to adjacent spaces
large-volume spaces (see Large- Solids, flaming ignition burning in confined adjacent
volume spaces, smoke fuels, 633–658 areas, 512–515
management in) gas phase burning in unconfined adjacent
Smoke movement autoignition, 647–649 areas, 512
buoyancy, 1792 flashpoint/firepoint, 650–651 effects of burning outside
computational fluid dynamics models piloted ignition, 649–650 compartment, 511
fire source, 1045 process of ignition, 634 effects of oxygen-deficient smoke
open boundary conditions, 1045 simplifications/standardization layers, 517–519
visibility, 1045 absorption of radiation and global entrainment, 493, 499
design fire scenarios and, 1273, 1274 properties, 653 forced ventilation and, 519
expansion, 1789 boundary conditions, 653–655 predicting species levels, 515–517
HVAC systems and, 1789 ignition condition, 655 underventilated conditions,
reverse stack effect, 1789, 1790 inert solid assumption, 651–653 486–488, 491, 492, 496–500,
stack effect, 1789–1792 solution, 656–657 504–506, 509, 510, 521, 523
in tall buildings, 1794 thermally thin materials, 657–658 Specific Commercial Property
wind effects, 1792–1793 solid phase Evaluation Schedule,
Smoke point charring, 639 insurance rating, 3161–3162
defined, 1211 melting/evaporation of water, Specific heat
predicting fire properties with, 641–642 brick, 305–306
1214, 1215 production of gaseous fuel, building materials, 286–287
Smoldering 637–639 calculation of, 244
char oxidation, 582, 593, 599, 600 pyrolysis/charring depth, 640–641 concrete, 296–304
defined, 581 pyrolysis process, 635–637 defined, 140, 286
factors favoring, 1627 semi-infinite solid, 640 gypsum wallboard, 314–315
in flammable liquids, 554, 1271 surface boundary conditions, selected gases, 141
self-sustained propagation 644–646 wood, 306–309
forward propagation, 584, 585, temperature distribution, 642–644 Specific surface, pore structure,
591, 600 thermal depth, 639–640 278, 279
horizontal fuel layer, 591 thermally thick/thin solids, 640 Specific volume, fluids, 1, 286, 299,
multidimensional spread, 584, 590 Soot 300, 314, 375, 376, 1512,
one-dimensional spread, 584 agglomerates, 128 1554, 1562, 1563, 2802
other fuel configurations, 592 defined, 325, 724 Spill(s)
reverse propagation, 584 formation, 151, 352, 353, 1035, confined/static, 2553
transition to flaming, 598–600 1042, 1172, 1175, 1211, 2640 continuously flowing, 2552, 2553,
and victim incapacitation, particle contribution to thermal 2576, 2580, 2583
2391–2392 radiation, 106, 353 defined, 2552
Society for Risk Analysis, 2819, 2826 radiation properties of, 128–130 estimating depth, 2553
Society of Fire Protection Engineers smoke point and formation of, 241, fire growth rate
(SFPE). See SFPE entries 354, 1211, 1212 empirical data, 2564–2570
SOFIE CFD model, 956, 1035, 1609 yields, 915, 919, 971, 1079, 1080, flame spread regimes, 2559–2561
Software availability, 2918 1090, 1348, 3005 pool dimensions, 2561–2562
Spill(s) (cont.) Sprinkler systems Statistics (cont.)

porous surfaces, 2559, 2569 required on passenger ships, 1622, hypothesis, 2861–2862
temperature effects, 2562–2563 1637 hypothesis testing
fire size types, 1423–1424 confidence coefficient/limits, 2861
enclosure fires, 2582 SPYVAP wood charring model, 1993 contingency test of independence,
flame height, 2582–2583 Stairs/stairwells chi-square test, 2869–2870
fuel burning regression rate, 2572, compartmented, 2021 error types, 2861–2862
2574, 2586 effect on evacuation time, 1816, nonparametric tests, 2870
inclined/cluttered surfaces, 2582 2022, 2107 power function of the test, 2862
wind speed, 2582 pressurized, 1791, 1792, 1794, test of difference between two
flame spread velocities and rate of 1798, 1800–1802, 1804–1808, means, z test, 2863
spill involvement, 2570–2572 1812, 1814–1817, 1820, 2058, test of difference between two
foam system protection, 1708–1709 2066, 3260 proportions, z test, 2863
gasoline, 2554, 2556, 2576 Standard deviation, 260, 496, 729, test of goodness of fit to a
Spontaneous combustion. 896, 915, 976, 1053, 1054, distribution, chi-square test,
See Autoignition 1132, 1133, 1137–1141, 1179, 2866–2869
Spontaneous ignition. See 1671, 1868, 2335, 2339–2341, test of mean, t test, 2864–2866
Autoignition 2414, 2446, 2448, 2460, test of mean, z test, 2862
Sprinklers 2464–2468, 2478, 2479, 2484, test of proportion, z test, 2863
ceiling jet flows and, 429, 430, 444 2487–2497, 2521–2523, test of variance, chi-square test,
K-factor, 1429–1431 2525–2536, 2554, 2578, 2728, 2866
response time index, 27 2833, 2835–2840, 2843, 2845, method of least squares, 2859
spacing, 1343, 1427, 1428, 1430 2854, 2855, 2857, 2860, parameters of descriptive mode,
Sprinkler system calculations 2862–2866, 2881, 2882, 2889, 2855–2857
drawbacks of using water, 1423 3005–3007, 3009–3010, regression analysis, 2859
hanging/bracing 3041–3042, 3044, 3115, 3134, regression coefficients, 2859–2861
earthquake braces, 1443–1444 3153, 3230, 3234, 3235 residuals, 2859
hangers/hanger supports, 1442 Standard Methods for the sampling theory, 2870–2871
trapeze hangers, 1442–1443 Examination of Water and Steel
hydraulics considerations Wastewater (American Public cold-formed light-gauge/hot-rolled
density-based demand, Health Assn.), 1700 structural, 295
1426–1429 STANJAN computer code, 2740, creep, 282–283
elevation losses, 1434 2752 critical temperature, 288–289
Hardy Cross method, 1434 Stanton number, 71, 89, 438, 445, crystalline structure, 1913
Hazen-Williams method, 1430, 446 density, 1117
1431 STAR-CD CFD model, 1609 modulus of elasticity, 281–282,
loops and grids, 1434–1437 STAR-Fire risk assessment method, 293–295, 1912, 1913, 1951,
pressure losses through piping/ 2968–2969 1953, 1954
fittings/valves, 1430–1432 Star Princess cruise ship fire (2006), pipes, properties, 1393, 1395, 1430,
pressure requirements for most 3390 1431, 1433, 1477, 1568, 1574,
remote sprinkler, 1429–1430 Static electricity. See Electrical fires, 1579, 1580, 1912–1914, 3483
use of velocity pressures, static electricity discharge strength, 294, 1911, 1961
1432–1434 Station Nightclub fire (2003), 2096, stress-strain diagrams, 281
limits of calculations, 1425–1426 2405 thermal expansion, 284
performance calculations Statistics thermal properties, 284, 1112
droplet size/motion, 1445–1446 basic concepts yield/ultimate strengths, 281–282
dry system water delivery time, descriptive, 2855–2857 Steel members
1444–1445 inferences, classical/Bayesian, architecturally exposed, 1910
spray density and cooling, 2853–2855 bending strength, 1925
1446–1447 correlation, 2857–2859 in compression, 1925
sprinkler response as detector, data characterization critical temperature (see Critical
1444 data variability, 2871–2872 temperature, algebraic
standards, 1424–1425 error, 2835, 2838, 2861–2863, equations for steel members)
suppression by sprinkler sprays, 2872, 2873 design criteria, 1909
1447–1448 precision/bias information, 2872 fire resistance determination by
water supply calculations and propagation of uncertainties, analytical methods
available supply, 1437–1439 2852 beams, 1923–1924
pump selection/testing, repeatability/reproduceability, 2872 columns, 1920–1923
1439–1440 testing models for goodness of fit, empirically derived correlations,
tank sizing, 1440–1442 2872–2874 1919–1927
Steel members (cont.) Stochastic models of fire growth (cont.) Stress (cont.)
standard test, 1919, 1929 state transition model, 2901–2903 1938–1943, 1961, 1967, 1970,
time-temperature curve, 1910, networks 1972, 1998, 1999, 2073, 2078,
1911, 1935 other models 2097, 2098, 2100–2101, 2106,
trusses, 1924–1927 fuel-state model, 1026 2108, 2254, 2505, 2707, 2806,
heat transfer analyses stochastic differential equation 2844, 2876, 2877, 2887–2890,
computer-based analyses, deterministic model, 1024, 1025 2895, 2910, 2915–2918, 2921,
1934–1936 simulation/illustration, 1027, 1030 2925, 2932, 2957, 3002, 3192,
exterior columns, 1929–1930 stochastic model, 2978 3257, 3271, 3398
graphical solutions, 1930–1934 Stochastic process, 210, 2834, 2891, Stress-strain diagrams
Jeanes’s graph, 1932–1934 2893, 2895, 2901, 3031, 3122, fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP),
liquid-filled columns, 1930 3129 309–314
numerical methods, 1928–1930 Stoichiometric mass fuel-to-air steel, 291–296
protected members, ratio, 490 Structural analysis and fire
1928–1929 Stoichiometry, 140–141, 160, 336, resistance
quasi-steady-state approach, 347, 365, 513, 517, 522, 542, building assemblies and frames,
1933–1934 912, 984, 1001, 1010–1011, 1871–1874
spandrel beams, 1929–1930 1078, 1182, 2647, 3437–3439 catenary action of composite floors,
unprotected elements, 1928 Storage units, heat release rates, 1872–1873
heat transfer/temperature profiles 816 connection moment-rotation
thermally protected, 1917 Stored commodities, FMRC behavior, 1873
unprotected, 1920, 1928 classifications, 836–846 floor slab effects, 1872
methods of protection Strathclyde study (U.K.), 2214 local/member/frame instability, 1872
board products, 1914–1915 Stream function, 68, 73, 2645 material strength limit states, 1874
concrete encasement, Streamline, fluid flow, 4, 21, 22, 81, nonuniform heating, 1873
1916–1917 83, 865, 987, 1050, 1383, 1386 thermal strains, 1872
concrete filling, 1917 Streamtube, fluid flow, 4 thermophysical properties of fire
flame shields, 1917 Strength, 17, 170–172, 180, 189, protection materials, 1871
heat sinks, 1917–1919 226, 231, 244, 255, 258, 259, Structural Design for Fire Safety
insulation, 1914–1917 261, 264–270, 274, 275, (Buchanan), 1950, 1974
membrane, 1917 281–283, 289–291, 293–299, Structural Fire Protection (Lie, ed.),
spray-applied materials, 301–307, 309–312, 315, 469, 291, 293, 309, 1061, 1258,
1915–1916 596, 664–669, 674, 683–685, 1616, 1737, 1875, 1943, 2022,
structural analyses 966, 1102, 1121, 1127, 1162, 2037, 2038, 2041, 2960, 3318
critical load, 1938 1272, 1371, 1438, 1498, 1506, Structural mechanics
critical temperature, 1938 1548, 1567, 1612, 1636, 1662, control parameters, 258
deflection, 1938 1663, 1863–1865, 1872–1876, design process, 256
in tension, 1925 1878, 1879, 1884, 1885, 1889, engineering models, 261
thermal degradation at high 1890, 1892, 1897, 1899, 1904, failure modes
temperatures, 1876–1877 1906, 1911–1914, 1938, compression members, 265–267
Steel structures 1949–1964, 1966–1973, 1975, flexural, 264, 268–270
temperature in fire-exposed 1976, 1984, 1994–2003, 2005, flexural members, 268–270
calculation example, 1112–1117 2092–2094, 2419, 2442, 2537, statically indeterminate beams,
insulated steel, 1112–1114 2649, 2664, 2692, 2699, 2700, 262, 264, 272
shadow effects, 1118 2744, 2745, 2754, 2758, 2759, tension members, 264–265
unprotected, 1118 2774, 2781, 2785, 2787, 2793, fire conditions and, 260–261
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 646, 2820, 2829, 2877, 2887–2889, internal forces, statical analysis,
806, 1171, 2645, 2916, 3313, 2994, 2996, 3003, 3011, 3049, 262–263
3400 3193, 3252, 3257, 3291, 3386, loading conditions, 256–257
Steric hindrance, 333 3398 reactions, statical analysis for, 261–262
Stochastic models of fire growth Stress, 1, 2, 6–14, 17, 19, 54, 55, 58, Structural members
basic features 60, 61, 82, 86, 89, 171, 189, fire resistance, 277
general model, 1030 190, 257–258, 264–266, 268, load-bearing/non-load-bearing, 277
probability distributions, 2834, 269, 274, 281–283, 291–293, Structures, predicting temperatures
2895, 3012 296, 299, 310, 311, 719, 1036, in fire-exposed
spread to another object, 1030 1037, 1063, 1379, 1380, 1385, concrete structures
Markov model 1418, 1442, 1499, 1654, 1656, fire-insulated, 1126–1127
Markov process, 2901 1864, 1876–1880, 1891, 1892, one-dimensional calculations,
mathematical representation, 2907 1897, 1902, 1909, 1910, 1914, 1124–1126
Structures, predicting temperatures Surface flame spread (cont.) Thermal conductivity (cont.)
in fire-exposed (cont.) over liquids, 719–721 gypsum wallboard, 1920, 1921
penetration depth in semi-infinite properties of materials, insulation, 1932
structures, 1122–1124 711, 712 wood, 28, 309, 1994, 2003
finite element calculations research background, 706–707 Thermal decomposition of
basic equations, 1109–1111 urban areas, 717 polymers
computer codes/accuracy, wildland fires, 717–719 chain scission mechanisms,
1111–1112 wind-aided 197–199, 247
heat transfer in fire resistance beneath a ceiling, 713–714 charring, 223, 224, 228, 240
furnaces upward turbulent wall flame, chemical processes, 181, 200, 247
ASTM E119, 1128–1129 708–713 cross-linking mechanisms, 172, 182
ISO 834 and EN1363-1, Surface tension, 572, 719, 720, 1299, decomposition defined, 167
1127–1128 1647–1649, 1655–1659, 1663, degradation distinguished, 167, 210,
heat transfer to structures 1666, 1697, 1700, 2553–2556, 215
adiabatic surface temperature, 1104 2559, 2667, 2668, 3428 effect of additives, 231–232
calculation using plate Survival function, random fire performance, implications for,
thermometers, 105–1107 variables, 2832 234, 239
convection, 1104 Sustained burning, 199, 231, 236, glass transition temperatures, 179, 311
radiation, 1103–1104 555, 568, 662, 831 interaction of chemical/physical
total heat transfer, 1104 Synthetic rubber. See Polyisoprene processes, 178, 183
modeling of conduction in materials System analysis kinetics of, 172, 199, 203
measurement of thermal hardware/complex systems, 2877 melting temperatures, 179, 180
properties, 1108 use of fault tree model, physical changes during, 138
solid materials, 1107–1108 2928, 2929 physical processes, 167, 178, 183, 187
steel structures Systematic sample, 2871 side chain cyclization mechanism,
calculation example, 1112–1121 172, 197
insulated steel structures, side chain elimination mechanism,
1112–1114 T 172, 197
shadow effects, 1118 Tag tester, flashpoint measurement, testing, 234, 236
thermal properties of steel, 1112 561, 565 Thermal diffusivity, building
unprotected, 1112 Tanks materials, 284, 288
timber structures, 1127 fire modeling, 1175 Thermal expansion
Student’s t distribution, 2839, 2864 floating roof perimeter seal, 1725 compressibility and, 1407
Styrenics, 116, 168, 169, 176, 198, 214, flow of water under pressure from, concrete, 1976
535, 559, 688, 809, 1215, 2233, 1423 steel, 274
2255, 3444, 3461, 3466, 3473 foam system protection Thermal radiation
Subcritical behavior, 604, 605 fixed roof, 1710, 1712, 1716, calculation methods, 2600–2601
Subjectivity, decision analysis, 1725, 1726 combustion product properties and
2823, 3048, 3049 floating roof, 1718, 1725, 1726, gases, 126–128
Sublimation, 85, 555, 1537, 1566, 1914 1728 gas-soot mixtures, 129–130
Submerged surfaces, forces on, 429 TASEF computer program, 1111, soot, 128–129
SUPER-TEMPCALC program, 1112 compartment fire modeling and,
1934, 1935 TASEF-2 computer program, 981–993
Suppression. See Aqueous film- 1934–1936, 1957 contribution of soot particles,
forming foam (AFFF); Clean Television sets, heat release rates, 128–130, 133
agent halon replacements; Fire 869–870 equation of transfer, 123
protection mechanisms; Foam Terrestrial boundary layer, wind flame heat flux, 1181, 1225, 2629
entries; Halocarbon velocity, 596 fuel pyrolysis rate
extinguishing agents; 4910 Test Protocol, 1162 boundary layer combustion, 1208
Halogenated entries; Halon t2 fires, 443, 1272, 1327, 1829–1834, pool fires, 2604, 2622, 2658
entries; Inert gas extinguishing 2242, 2243, 2571 heat transfer to structures,
agents; Sprinkler entries; TGA. See Thermogravimetric 1102–1103
Water; Water mist fire analysis (TGA) ignition applications, 2729
suppression systems Thermal conductivity intensity and flux, 106–107
Surface flame spread brick, 288, 305, 306 nonparticipating medium, energy
flame spread process, 705–706 building materials, 287–288 exchange in, 107, 134
opposed-flow changes in, 288 gray diffuse surfaces, 122–123
mechanism, 714–717 concrete, 29, 284, 287–288, 291, resistance network method, 135
modeling, 717 296, 299, 1923 one-dimensional analysis, 1383
Thermal radiation (cont.) Timber members (cont.) Toxicity assessment

participating media fire resistance determination by asphyxiants
mean absorption coefficient, analytical methods, predicting time to incapacitation,
124–125, 128–130, 134 1979–2005 2353, 2361, 2371, 2387
mean beam length, 125–126 component additive method, tenability limits, 2342–2345
spectral emissivity/absorptivity, 1981–1983 tenability limits/hazard
123–124 composite models, 2001–2002 calculations, 2231, 2257,
total emissivity, 110, 126, 127 contribution of protective 2258, 2263, 2303, 2338, 2342,
role in fires, 53 membrane, 1980–1981 2382
smoke layer heat flux, 115, 116, decks, 1999–2000 asphyxiants, 2215, 2220, 2221,
133–135 effect of fire-retardants/adhesives, 2223–2226, 2228, 2230, 2231,
Thermal response parameter 1988 2232
(TRP), 1149–1154, 1159– Hadvig’s equations, CO/CO2 ratio, 595
1162, 1167, 1216, 1217, 1225, 1988–1992 Ct product dose, 2231, 2232, 2234,
3451, 3456, 3458 influence of char layer, 1983 2247, 2265, 2332, 2416
Thermal runaway, 374, 588, 605, load-carrying capacity of carbon monoxide, 2232, 2332,
606, 615–616, 621 uncharred wood, 1994–1996 2416
Thermal volatilization analysis National Design Specification® for dose/response relationships,
(TVA), 194 Wood Construction (NOS®) concentration inhaled/duration
Thermochemistry method, 1979 of exposure/toxicity, 2216,
calculation of adiabatic flame nonstandard fire exposures, 1988 2269, 2329, 2949
temperatures, 147–150 onset of char method, 1983 example, 2211, 2212, 2215, 2224,
enthalpy, 139–140 property data, 2002–2005 2331, 2332
heat release rates, equivalence ratio reduced cross-section area foam agents, 1701
and compartment fires, 146 models, 1997–1998 fractional effective dose (FED),
heat release rates in fires, 145–146 reduced properties models, 1818, 2035, 2212, 2230–2231,
heats of combustion, measurement 1996–1997 2324–2325, 2332–2333
of, 141–144 theoretical models, 1992–1994 fractional incapacitating dose (FID),
heats of formation, 144–145 T.T. Lie method, 1979 194, 2247, 2300, 2332, 2355,
internal energy of a closed system, fire resistance ratings, 1979–1982, 2373, 2374, 2383, 2384, 2386,
138–139 1988, 1999 2405, 2417, 2419
specific heat, 140 heat transfer/temperature profiles, carbon monoxide, 2355, 2373
Thermodynamics, first law of, 7, 25, 1983 fractional irritant concentration
26, 30, 62, 138, 142, 144, 908 high-temperature thermal (FIC), 2231, 2261
Thermogravimetric analysis degradation, 1985 fractional lethal dose (FLD), 2232,
(TGA), 183–186, 188, 191, membrane protection 2247, 2332, 2388, 2416
192, 196, 203, 210, 221, 246, asymmetrical wall assemblies, full-scale fire requirements, 2208,
635–637, 1175 1982 2209, 2240–2244
Thermomechanical analysis fasteners/spacing, 1981 glossary of terms, 1743, 2298
(TMA), 189 models for light-frame importance, 486
Thermophysical properties, 95, 187, construction, 1983 incapacitating effects, 2214, 2218,
358, 964–966, 1028–1030, strength and grain direction, 1988 2249, 2269, 2308, 2345, 2367,
1505, 1871, 1950–1956, 1994 in tension, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2001 2378, 2405 (see also
Thermoplastics Timber structures Incapacitation, from toxic
decomposition, 170 shrinking/cracking, 189 effects)
deformability, 171 temperature in fire-exposed, 1127 interactions between toxic gases,
glass transition temperature, 179 TMA. See Thermomechanical 2218, 2368, 2371
Thermosets analysis (TMA) irritants
decomposition, 170, 181 Toluene, spill/fire calculations, 496, animal models/extrapolation to
glass transition temperature, 171, 2622 humans, 2250
179 Toxicity components of thermal
Timber members clean agent halon replacements, decomposition atmospheres,
bending strength, 1984, 1999 1483 2255
charring, 1985 combustion product atmospheres, concernsre sensory, 2233, 2250,
rate, 1984–1988, 1991, 1992, 2225, 2232, 2266, 2390–2391 2258, 2298, 2299, 2386
1994, 1997–1999, 2002 Haber’s rule, 2216 dense smoke as, 2218, 2250,
in compression, 1998, 1999, 2002 halogenated agents, 1458 2294, 2317, 2320, 2327–2329
connections, 2000 major determinants of, 2287 effects of concentration levels,
direct protection, 1984 water mist additives, 1601 2222
Toxicity assessment (cont.) Toxicity assessment (cont.) UL 1709, Rapid Rise Fire Tests of
lung inflammatory reactions, 2254 susceptibility variations and, Protection Materials for
predicting incapacitation, 2356 2333–2334 Structures, 790
respiratory rate depression test, 2251 toxic potencies, 2208, 2210, 2225, UL 162, Standard for Foam
sensory/pulmonary, 2233, 2249, 2232–2240, 2283 Equipment and Liquid
2252, 2254, 2300, 2386 under differing fire conditions, Concentrates, 1660, 1661
tenability limits, 2303, 2342– 2235, 2237 Ultimate strength, building
2345, 2386, 2387, 2413 mass loss method, 2232, 2233, materials, 277–320
materials-/combustion product- 2235, 2236 steel, 291–296
based approaches, 2211–2212 use of product yield data, Unavailability, 805, 2890, 2900,
phases of fire effects on 2242–2244 2901, 2906, 2907, 2910, 2936,
occupants, 2213–2215 well-ventilated flaming conditions, 3086, 3194, 3336
models 2240, 2246, 2256, 2285, Uncertainty
effects of fire effluent/heat, 2224, 2289–2291 aleatory/epistemic, 3033
2230, 2285, 2411 Transient corridor flows, 992 benefit-cost analysis and, 3146
FED methodology, 2335, 2414 Transportation vehicles, fire risk computer simulation models and,
and fractional effective assessment. See Mass 2120, 2144
concentration (FEC) smoke, transportation decision analysis
2322 Trash bags/containers, heat release analytical model, 3033
smoke, 1345, 1769 rates, 882–885 @ RISK model, 3032
tenability/hazard calculations for Trusses defining, 211, 258
exposure to heat/burns, fire protection methods, design process
2417–2419 1925, 1927 barriers to achieving fire safety,
nominal atmosphere concentration fire resistance in steel, 1911–1912, 2036
(NAC), 2217, 2235, 2253, 1915, 1919, 1924–1927 switchover, 2956
2258, 2260, 2296, 2298, 2302, interstitial, 1924, 1925 design process and, 3038
2386 load-transfer, 1919, 1924 difficulties with, 3001–3002
nonflaming decomposition, 2217, staggered, 1925–1927 fire protection engineering
2256, 2267, 2274, 2342 Tube furnace method toxicity test, behavior variability, 2096–2097
postflashover conditions, 2246, 2226, 2242, 2268, 2294 and design process, 2998–3001
2294–2296 Tunnels identifying, 2995–2998
respiratory minute volume (RMV), CFD model applications, 1044, life-cycle use/safety of buildings,
2253, 2300, 2302, 2330, 2331, 1046, 1057–1058 2998
2350, 2357, 2365–2367, 2420 fire testing, 1619 providing for equity/incorporation
small-scale tests rail, 1616, 1637, 2406, 3314 of social values, 2998
adaptation of data, 2295 time-temperature test curves, 2771 scientific, 2095–2096
applications of data, 2266 ventilation to mitigate fire hazard, variability in risk perceptions/
conduct and application, 2296–2298 1692 values, 2997–2998
cone calorimeter, 2289 water mist fire suppression systems, heat release rate measurements,
criteria for methods, 2268 1616–1620 943–945
development of FED expressions, Turbulence propagation of, 934, 3027, 3035,
2266–2267 convection heat transfer, 54, 80, 81, 3037, 3041, 3238
DIN test, 2270, 2290, 2294, 2295 84, 85, 89, 97 sources of
measurement of toxic gas yield field models, 1609 indeterminacy, 2993, 2994
data, 2267 fluid flow, 1049 linguistic imprecision, 2993, 2994
misuse of test data, 2242, 2257, modeling, 15–16, 1037 randomness, 2993, 2994
2270, 2283, 2284, 2296, 2568 premixed flames, 389 variability, 2993–2994
NBS test, 2270, 2271, 2287 Turbulent scalar flux, Uncertainty analysis
NIST radiant method, 2275 1038, 1039 completeness uncertainty, 3035
practical methods, 2269, 2332 TVA. See Thermal volatilization decision making and
product specification, 2207, 2209, analysis (TVA) analysis of uncertainty,
2210, 2266, 2267 3029–3032
second-generation test methods, comparison of PRA results/
2242, 2274 U acceptance criteria, 3029
toxic potencies in small-/full-scale UL 263, Fire Tests of Building definition of problem, 3023
tests, 2283–2287 Construction and Materials, developing fire risk models,
tube furnace method, 2226, 2233, 1866 3029–3032
2242, 2267, 2275, 2289, 2294 UL 1058, Halogenated Agent identifying sources of uncertainty,
and type of fire, 2250, 2257, 2295 Extinguishing System Units, 3032–3034
UPITT test, 2270 1513, 1523 input uncertainty, 3034
Uncertainty analysis (cont.) UPITT toxicity test. See University Vena contracta, 467, 1402–1404, 1407
interpreting results of PRA, 3028 of Pittsburgh (UPITT) Venn diagrams, 2828
propagation of uncertainty, 3035 toxicitytest Vent flames, 992
risk-based approach, 3028 Upper flammability limits (UFL), Vent flows
risk-informed approach, 3028 567, 570, 1207, 1208 accuracy of calculations, 472–474
role of PRA, 3028–3029 Urban areas, flame spread, 2674 in buildings, 455, 457–459, 464,
decision making and, 3024–3025 U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) 466, 470, 474, 475, 477, 478,
model uncertainty marine regulations, 1561 480, 483, 484
differential/direct method, 3010 Star Princess Safety Alert, 3390 buoyancy and, 467, 469, 470
fire models, 1249 USFA. See U.S. Fire Administration fire spread to second room, 463
Monte Carlo sampling, (USFA) large-volume spaces, 1824, 1831
3010–3011 U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), measuring in fire experiment
response surface replacement, 3076, 3079, 3084, 3095 hot/cold layer method (Method 4),
3010 462
sensitivity of output predictions/ locating bottom of outflow in vent
input values, 3010 V method (Method 3), 462
parameter uncertainty, 3032, 3034 Vapor clouds plane of vent method (Method 1),
performance-based design process dispersion, 2664, 2679, 2686, 2746, 459–461
application 2762 pressure difference at floor
develop distribution of design fire explosions, 2664, 2666, 2673, 2679, method (Method 2), 461–462
scenarios, 3016–3017 2687, 2691–2697, 2699–2701, nonbuoyant, 455–457, 463, 472, 474
develop/evaluate candidate 2745, 2756–2763 room pressure
designs, 3018 modeling, 2679–2688 computation of, 480–483
judge acceptability of design, 3023 sources, 2664–2673 equation to control pressure at
probabilistic statement of thermal radiation from burning steady state, 477–480
performance, 3015–3016 flame geometry model, 2648 general equation to control,
scope/goals/objectives, 3024 flame propagation velocity, 477–480
selection/documentation, 3023 2647–2650, 2652 temperature distributions, 465, 484
steps, 3016–3020 thermal radiation, 2647, 2650, 2652 through horizontal vents, 466–472
quantitive treatment of uncertainty Vapor, distinguished from gas, 85, through vertical vents, 457–459
bounding, 3007–3008 412, 491, 919, 1620, 2374, Ventilation
comparative analysis, 3008 2560, 2568 effect on halogenated agent
expert elicitation, 3008 Vaporization application, 1469
importance analysis, 3008 calculation of vapor pressure, effect on species production, 502, 508
in measurement, 3008 558–562 forced
in parameters/assumptions/values, critical temperatures/pressures, 557, CFD application, 1054
3007–3008 651 compartment fire modeling and,
parametric analysis, 3008 and ignition of liquids, 554–558 981–993
sensitivity analysis, 3008 phase diagrams, 555 effect on smoke movement,
switchover, 3008 Vapor pressure, 290, 304, 345, 531, 1055–1061
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. 555–558, 562–566, 570, 576, heat release rates and, 800, 801,
(UL), 1318, 1334, 1512. 578, 1417, 1418, 1454, 1511, 803, 827–829, 848, 892
See also UL entries 1517, 1518, 1524, 1535–1537, smoke management and, 1824,
UN Globally Harmonized System 1548, 1575, 1606, 1648, 1649, 1826–1827, 1829, 1843, 1855,
(GHS), 571, 572 1666, 1702, 2421, 2560, 2654, 1857
Unimodal data, 2855 2655, 2669, 2670, 2673, 2795, in tunnels, 3303, 3309, 3314,
United States Federal Safety 2800, 2811, 3428 3316–3318
Standards for Liquefied Variation, coefficient of, 1133, Ventilation-limited fires, 486
Natural Gas Facilities (49 1139–1141, 1875, 2857 Vents
CFR, Part 193, 1980), 2657 Vegetation. See Bushes, heat release defined, 461, 467
University of Greenwich rates; Christmas trees, heat roof, 474, 478
Dreadnought Building, 2091 release rates series of, 442, 459, 478
University of Pittsburgh (UPITT) Vehicle tunnels Venturi flow meter, 1402
toxicity test, 2271–2273 fire characteristics, 3309 Video games, heat release rates,
Unzipping, decomposition full scale experiments, 3303–3304 890–896
mechanism, 197–198 passive fire protection, 3318–3319 Video image flame detection
Upholstered furniture ventilation, 3303–3318, 3321, 3322 (VIFD), 1684
cigarette smoldering and, 2342 water spray systems, 3316, Virtual stresses. See Reynolds
heat release rates, 3212, 3213 3319–3322 stresses
Viscosity, 1–2, 4, 7, 11, 12, 15–18, Wardrobes, heat release rates, Water mist fire suppression systems
54–56, 64, 65, 81, 100, 166, 892–894, 1272 (cont.)
169, 170, 177, 190, 241, 278, Warehouses, high-expansion foam drop size distribution, 1587,
351, 367, 416, 425, 438, 457, system calculations, 1596–1601, 1604, 1609, 1625
484, 649, 689, 720, 721, 725, 1729–1732, 1734, 1736, 1737 measurement of drop size
742, 1037–1040, 1062, 1063, Washing machines, heat release distributions, 1598–1599
1251, 1321, 1359, 1375, 1379, rates, 894–895 spray cone angle, 1598, 1601
1385–1387, 1391, 1393, 1401, Water spray momentum, 1597, 1598
1422, 1506, 1536, 1537, 1539, bacteriological growth in stored, 1602 spray velocity, 1598–1601
1574, 1647, 1650, 1654–1656, drawbacks as extinguishing agent, spray heat absorption ratio, 1590
1659, 1663, 1665, 1666, 1699, 595 testing importance
1702, 1716, 2557, 2569, 2571, extinguishment mechanisms, 1592, development of fire test protocols,
2638, 2670, 2750, 3398, 3410, 1604 1589, 1613–1615, 1618
3428 heat of formation, 144, 145, 150, protocols for tunnels, 1611,
Volumetric expansion effect, 287, 1182, 1374 1615–1622, 1637
compartment fires, 985 large-scale extinguishment/ types
Volunteer fire fighters, value of suppression tests, 1610 high-pressure systems, 1626,
donated time, 3108, 3109 properties, 1298, 1378, 3429 1627
Vorticity, fluid flow, 1379, 1382 small-scale extinguishment tests, local application systems, 1615,
free vortex, 13, 84, 399 548, 1494, 1680 1621, 1622
VTT CFD model, 827, 828, 830, 832, Water hammer, 1407–1409, 1686 low-/intermediate-pressure
833, 859, 867, 868, 870–872, Water mist fire suppression systems systems, 1626, 1628
882, 892, 894, 895, 934, 1035, acceptance testing, 1634–1636 mist generation by flashing of
1589, 2160, 2444, 2476 development, 1589, 1603, 1609, superheated water, 1625
VULCAN computer program, 1945 1611–1615, 1625, 1636 pre-engineered/engineered
Vulnerability, 1237, 1249, 1865, 2038, engineering details systems, 1623, 1624, 1627
2054, 2822, 2923, 3087, 3103, application systems, 1615, 1621, total compartment application
3152, 3185, 3190, 3197, 3198, 1622 systems, 1620, 1621
3203–3206, 3220, 3355, 3371 methods of spray, 1624–1626 twin-fluid/single-fluid nozzles,
pressure regimes, 1626–1628 1620, 1624, 1626, 1634,
extinguishment/suppression 1635
W mechanisms zoned application systems, 1620,
Wake, 84, 85, 530, 624, 626, 1370, enclosure effects/turbulent 1622
2031, 2039, 2040, 2054, 2175, mixing/cycling, 1593–1594 water mist defined, 1595
2176, 2395, 2809 explosion hazard mitigation, Water Mist Fire Suppression
Walking speed, through irritant 1594–1597 Systems Health Hazard
smoke, 2249, 2340 gas phase cooling, 1590–1593, Evaluation (Halon
Wall/ceiling lining materials, heat 1604, 1621 Alternatives Research Corp.),
release rates, 890–892, 1028 kinetic effects, 1590, 1592–1593 1601
WALL2D computer program, 1983 oxygen depletion and flammable Water vapor
Wall function, 1044 vapor dilution, 1590, 1592 heat of formation, 144–145
Walls radiation attenuation, 1590, 1592 specific heat, 2, 140
conduction heat transfer through wetting/cooling of fuel surface, Weber-Fechner’s law, 24
cavity-type, 990, 1935 1592 Weibull distribution, 2839,
conduction heat transfer through fire suppression modeling, 2843–2844, 2846, 2854,
solid, 990, 1935 field models (CFD models), 2873, 2881, 2882, 2886,
effect on plume, 399, 424, 1092 1608–1611 2895, 2896, 2898, 2912–2914,
fire resistance quasi-steady-state zone models, 2917, 2938
load-bearing, 1886–1889 1605–1607 reliability analysis and, 2846, 2885,
separating function in fire transient zone models, 1607–1608 2891
conditions, 1885–1887 zone models, 1605–1609, 1612 Wet pipe sprinkler system, 1687,
separating function in normal fundamentals, 1590–1605 1748, 2890
conditions, 1886 required extinguishing medium Wien’s displacement law, 104, 115,
testing, 789, 1906, 1980 portion (REMP) parameter, 920
thermal gradient across thickness, 1591 Wildland fires
185, 272, 640, 657, 1039, spray characteristics fire behavior, 3283, 3284, 3286–
1175, 1873, 1880, 1885, 1888, additives and health concerns, 3294, 3296–3299
1889, 1891 1601 firebrands, 3285, 3291, 3298
heat transfer to, 789–791 discharge rate, 1598, 1607, 1608, fire impact, 3298, 3299
reinforced concrete, 1968 1610, 1622 models, 3284, 3286, 3292–3296
Wind Wood (cont.) Y

buildings and, 23–24 grain factor, 28, 290, 309, 1987 Yates continuity correction, 2867
characteristics, 22–23 heat of combustion, 1993 Yield strength, building
effect on flame height, 422, 707–722 members (see Timber members) materials, 281, 282, 293,
effect on vapor cloud propagation, modulus of elasticity, 264, 274, 307, 295, 312
2647 309 steel, 265, 293, 295, 1892, 1961
effects generally, 18, 396, 987, 991, properties, 1994, 2002
1797, 1804, 1810, 1811, 1817, specific heat, 1994
1842, 1845, 1848, 2594, 3243, structures (see Timber structures) Z
3245, 3289, 3296 tensile strength, 265, 282, 290, 307, Zener-Hollomon parameter, 283,
effects on smoke movement, 1059, 310, 2001 320
1789, 1791, 1792 thermal conductivity, 1994, 2003 Zone models
flame trailing, 422 Wood Handbook: Wood as an application, 1030–1032
and spill/pool fire size, 1847 Engineering Material (Forest compartment fires, 1029
terrestrial boundary layer, 18, 22, Products Soc.), 2002 smoke filling (see Compartment
23, 2674 Wool fires, modeling smoke
Windows heat of combustion, 143 filling)
heat flux from, 812, 821, 848, 864, thermal decomposition, 167, 173, forced ventilation, 1030
892 174, 217, 227, 228, 240 overview, 1026–1032
heat release rates of plastic, 895 Workstations, office, heat release pyrolysis/combustion products,
Wisconsin Administrative Code, 3172 rates. See Office workstations, 1026, 2036
Wood heat release rates selection, 1030–1031
air required for complete World Fire Statistics Centre smoke management in large-volume
combustion, 1182 (WFSC), comparative data, spaces, 1099, 1824
charring, 265, 290, 309, 639, 1137, 3098, 3099 submodels, 1026–1030
1983–1985 World Trade Center bombing upper/lower layers, 1025, 1026,
coefficient of linear thermal (1993), 2024, 2040, 2099 1028, 1029
expansion, 284, 307, 320 World Trade Center fire (1975), 2216 validation, 1030–1032
components, 1988, 1997, 2000 World Trade Center terrorist attack vent flows, 447, 464, 483, 1026,
compressive strength, 307, 1874 (2001), 1874, 2054, 2073 1069
density, oven-dry, 2002 WPI/FIRE zone fire model, 987, Zone smoke control, 1750
dilatometric/thermogravimetric 1058, 1454, 1464, 1744, 1750,
curves, 284, 285, 302, 305, 1788, 1869, 2968, 3167, 3168,
307, 308, 315, 316 3339, 3356

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Index for SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fifth

A Aircraft hangars Alkynes, 913, 1211, 1212, 3461,

M.J. Hurley (ed.), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 1

Calorimeters (cont.) Carbon dioxide (CO2) (cont.) Ceiling fires

Combustion kinetics Compartment fire modeling (cont.) Compartment fires (cont.)

Concrete (cont.) Concrete structures, temperature Cone calorimeter (cont.)

Convection heat transfer Corridors (cont.) CUrisk risk assessment program,

Decision analysis (cont.) Detection system design (cont.) Diffusion flames

Dust(s) Electrical fires (cont.) Endothermic reactions, 142, 155,

Engineering economics (cont.) Environmental protection Evacuation

F distribution, 2840 Fire consequences, measuring in Fire plume(s), 399–400

Flame radiation to external target, Flashpoint Fluid motion, kinematics of (cont.)

Gas(es) (cont.) Guidelines for Evaluating the Halogenated agent extinguishing

Handicapped/impaired persons Heat detectors (cont.) Heat of combustion

Hydrocarbon fires, thermal Ideal gas(es) Incompressible fluid motion, 5, 6,

Lightning, ignition cause, 691 Log-normal distribution, 1133, Mass, conservation of

Nusselt number, 70, 80, 84, 85, Oxygen Performance-based design

Products (finished), fire risk Pyrolysis (cont.) Random-chain scission,

Smoke detectors (cont.) Software bug, 2918 Sorption isotherm, building

Spill(s) (cont.) Sprinkler systems Statistics (cont.)

Thermal radiation (cont.) Timber members (cont.) Toxicity assessment

Wind Wood (cont.) Y

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