Cleansing Agents 1

Cleansing Agents
Christian Nitsch, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chap. 1.3)

Hans-Joachim Heitland, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chap. 1)

Horst Marsen, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chap. 1)

Hans-Joachim Schlüssler, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany (Chap. 2)

1. Household and Institutional 1.3.2.6. Performance Assessment . . . . . . . 13

Cleansing Products . . . . . . . . . 1 1.4. Floor Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1. All-Purpose Cleansers . . . . . . . 2 1.5. Carpet Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2. Scouring Cleansers . . . . . . . . . 3 1.6. Toilet Bowl Cleaners . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3. Dishwashing Agents . . . . . . . . . 4 1.7. Toilet Hygiene and Deodorant
1.3.1. Manual Dishwashing Detergents . . 4 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1.1. Classical Dishwashing Detergents . 5 1.8. Drain Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1.2. Dishwashing Concentrates . . . . . . 6 1.9. Metal Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1.3. Skin-Friendly Products . . . . . . . . 6
1.10. Window Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1.4. Liquids with Antibacterial Action . 7
1.11. Automotive Cleansers . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1.5. Dishwashing Habits . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2. Automatic Dishwashing Detergents 7 1.12. Building Facade Cleaners . . . . . 19
1.3.2.1. Dishwashers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2. Cleansers and Disinfectants for
1.3.2.2. Cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Use in the Food Industry . . . . . . 20
1.3.2.3. Rinse Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.1. Cleansers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2.4. Regeneration Salt . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2. Disinfectants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.2.5. Other Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1. Household and Institutional
Cleansing Products
For centuries, people cleaned pots, pans, kettles,
and other household objects with fine sand, oc-
casionally mixing it with wood ashes or soda.
However, with the advent of goods fabricated
from increasingly sensitive materials, including
polished metal, painted wood, porcelain, and
plastics, a need for more specialized cleansing
agents arose.
The varied mechanical and chemical resis-
tances of the surfaces to be cleaned and the
chemical heterogeneity of the dirt to be removed
require a multiplicity of chemical agents, not
all of which are compatible with one another.
Moreover, cleansing agents that leave no visible
residues, produce adequate sudsing, and have
pleasant aromas are desired. Finally, the compo-
nents should be gentle to the skin, they must be
regarded as safe from a toxicological standpoint,
and the products containing them need to have a
long shelf life. In some countries, both the indi-
vidual components and the cleansing mixtures
themselves must be biodegradable. Many types
of cleansing agents have emerged to satisfy all
of these demands.
Mode of Action. Household cleansing oper-
ations are normally carried out at room temper-
ature, primarily because the small amounts of
cleansing solution typically employed rapidly
acquire the temperature of the surface being
cleaned. Dishwashing represents a special case,
in which utensils are submerged in a hot solu-
tion of the dishwashing agent, whereby they as-
sume approximately the temperature of the bath.
These higher temperatures simplify the cleans-
ing operation both by melting grease residues
and by accelerating physicochemical and purely
chemical processes.
Modern cleansing agents consist largely
of surfactants and sequestering agents; hence,
their primary action is physicochemical in na-
ture. Strictly chemical phenomena (such as the

c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10.1002/14356007.a07 137
2 Cleansing Agents
Table 1. Partial compositions for three types of aqueous all-purpose cleansers

Component Type of cleanser

Cleanser containing Cleanser containing Cleanser containing

no organic solvent, wt % an organic solvent, wt % a disinfectant, wt %

Alkylbenzenesulfonate [75534-59-7] 10 6 10
Fatty alcohol polyglycol ether [68213-23-0] 2 4 4
Pentasodium triphosphate [7758-29-4] 3 5 4
Urea [57-13-6] 5 5 4
Glycol ether [20324-32-7] 5
Aldehyde – amine condensation product [4719-04-4] 6
Colorant/perfume present present present

saponification of fats or the degradation of
starches and proteins) are of lesser significance.
The chelating properties of the polymeric phos-
phates, citrates, or other sequestering agents that
are present is of considerable importance, how-
ever, in that their ability to remove calcium and
magnesium ions reduces the extent to which
dirty residues adhere, making them easier to re-
move.
The primary steps in cleansing are adsorp-
tion phenomena occurring at liquid – vapor,
liquid – liquid, and liquid – solid phase bound-
aries. Surfactant adsorption occurs in a nonspe-
cific fashion at all interfaces, whereas that of se-
questering agents is specific to polar solids. Sur-
factant adsorption leads to a reduction in inter-
facial tension, which allows for improved wet-
ting of solids and, if oily residues are present on
the surface, displacement of the oils by roll-up
or by micelle formation. The removal of pig-
mented soils is eased by the fact that when sur-
factants or sequestering agents are adsorbed at
a liquid – solid boundary, they increase the sur-
face potential of both the substrate and the soil,
which increases their mutual electrostatic repul-
sion. As a result, the dirt particles are readily
removed from the surface and enter the cleans-
ing solution, where they remain well dispersed
[1–3].
1.1. All-Purpose Cleansers
All-purpose cleansers have a wide range of ap-
plicability. Their composition is such that they
are compatible with any household or commer-
cial surface amenable to wet treatment. Origi-
nally, most all-purpose cleansers were in pow-
dered form and contained soda. More recently,
however, liquid agents have gained wide pop-
ularity. These contain mixtures of anionic sur-
factants, nonionic surfactants, polymeric phos-
phates or other sequestering agents, solvents,
hydrotropic substances, polymeric compounds,
corrosion inhibitors, skin protective agents, per-
fumes, and colorants. Typical formulations are
given in Table 1.
All-purpose cleansers are normally applied as
dilute aqueous solutions containing ca. 10 – 15 g
of liquid or 2 – 4 g of powdered cleansing agent
per liter. The soiled object is wiped with a cloth
that has been wrung out after being dipped in the
cleansing solution. All-purpose cleansers can
also be used in undiluted form to attack heavier
dirt layers. The latter procedure requires a sub-
sequent water rinse to prevent visible residues
of the cleaner.
All-purpose cleansers are effective with most
common kinds of dirt. Their dilute solutions are
neutral or weakly alkaline, and are safe for use
on most surfaces.
Trade names: Mr. Clean (Procter & Gam-
ble), Ajax (Colgate Palmolive), Dor (Henkel),
Magic Clean (KAO).
Surface compatibility is, however, somewhat
restricted for the more strongly alkaline pow-
dered cleansers, which are based on formula-
tions of soda and surfactants. Many paints, for
example, are sensitive to alkali. Alkaline pow-
ders are best suited to the removal of the large
quantities of grease commonly encountered in
meat markets or commercial kitchens. A typical
composition for such a material is:
5 – 25 wt % anionic surfactant
0 – 5 wt % nonionic surfactant
10 – 25 wt % trisodium orthophosphate [7601-54-9]
0 – 50 wt % sodium carbonate [497-19-8]
0 – 0.5 wt % colorant and perfume
Balance sodium sulfate

Liquid all-purpose cleansers that contain
water-soluble organic solvents more effectively
remove large amounts of oily or fatty soil, fresh
paint, or other colored material than cleaners
without solvents. Appropriate additives include
glycol ethers and higher molecular mass alco-
hols. The proper choice of amount and type of
solvent can improve cleansing without causing
a loss of surface protection.
Trade names: Der Generalreiniger (Henkel).
All-purpose cleansers can be supplemented
with antimicrobial agents to confer microbistatic
or microbicidal properties. Disinfecting all-
purpose cleansers have long been in household
use in the United States and in South America,
although they have only recently begun to have
an impact in Europe. Typical active disinfec-
tant ingredients include quaternary ammonium
compounds, phenol derivatives, terpene alco-
hols (pine oil), aldehydes, and aldehyde – amine
condensation products [4].
Trade names: Lysol (Lehn & Fink), Pine Sol
(American Cyanamid), Pinho Sol (American
Cyanamid, Brazil).
Spray cleansers and foam cleansers are al-
ternative forms of application for liquid all-
purpose cleansing agents. The solutions are sup-
plied in containers either equipped with pump-
type sprayers or pressurized with a propellant
gas. In the latter case, the product is dispensed
on the surface as a foam. Some degree of re-
tention on vertical surfaces results, thereby pro-
longing the time available for action. The major
advantage of spray and foam cleansers is their
convenience.
Trade name: Formula 409 (Clorox).
1.2. Scouring Cleansers
Scouring cleansers are used to remove particu-
larly stubborn or burned-on dirt from surfaces
resistant to the effects of mechanical action.
Cleansing results largely from mechanical abra-
sion by finely divided mineral powder, although
active ingredients such as surfactants, seques-
tering agents, or alkaline salts play a supportive
role. Quartz and marble powder, less often di-
atomaceous earth (kieselgur), pumice, or corun-
dum, serve as the basis of these products. To
prevent scratching of surfaces, the mineral pow-
ders must be ground to a particle size of less
Cleansing Agents 3
than 0.15 mm. Particle size must be as uniform
as possible and larger particles must be absent.
Trade names: Comet (Procter & Gamble),
Ajax (Colgate Palmolive), ATA (Henkel), Supa
Homing (KAO).
A distinction is made between bleaching and
nonbleaching scouring powders. The bleach-
ing agents most often used are organic com-
pounds that decompose to liberate hypochlorite,
thereby also conferring disinfectant proper-
ties. Examples include sodium dichloroiso-
cyanurate [2893-78-9] and trichloroisocyanuric
acid [87-90-1], as well as the hydrated dou-
ble salt of sodium hypochlorite and trisodium
orthophosphate (“chlorinated orthophosphate”)
[56802-99-4]. Scouring powders containing
oxygen bleaches, such as magnesium perphtha-
late [93094-22-5], may also be prepared. These
have more pleasant odors than the chlorine com-
pounds.
Liquid scouring agents can be prepared with
the same characteristics as powders and are more
convenient to use. Since consumers tend to em-
ploy liquid scouring agents on more sensitive
surfaces, most of the products currently mar-
keted contain the softer abrasive marble dust.
Products of this kind will not scratch enamel,
tile, or melamine laminate (Formica) counter
tops. Examples of typical scouring cleanser for-
mulations are given in Table 2 (see next page).
Trade names: Soft Scrub (Clorox), Viss, Cif
(Unilever), ATA (Henkel), Liquid Homing
Tough (KAO).
Safety and Handling. Personnel working
with powdered quartz must be protected from
inhaling the dust by appropriate air filtration
equipment because particles smaller than 0.5 µm
can cause silicosis. Maximal exposure values
(MAK or TLV values) to dust containing quartz
have been established in a number of countries.
These values are approximately 0.15 mg/m3 [5].
Scouring agents containing quartz powder are
filled by using completely isolated filling ma-
chines operating under a slight negative pres-
sure.
Storage. Liquid scouring agents contain 25 –
50 % mineral powder with a relative density
more than twice that of the carrier liquid. Proper
choice of thickeners and stabilizers permits the
preparation of metastable suspensions with an
4 Cleansing Agents
Table 2. Partial compositions for three types of scouring cleansers

Component Type of cleanser

Powdered scouring Powdered scouring Liquid scouring

cleanser containing cleanser not containing cleanser ∗∗
bleach ∗ bleach ∗

Anionic surfactants, wt % 3.5 3

Nonionic surfactants, wt % 1 3
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate, wt % 1
Pentasodium triphosphate, wt % 5 5
Acrylic acid – methacrylic acid copolymers [9003-01-4], wt % 5
Diethanolamine [111-42-2], wt % 1.5
Colorant/perfume present present present
Marble powder, wt % 50

∗ The powdered cleansers use a quartz powder matrix.

∗∗ The liquid cleanser has a water matrix.

adequate shelf life for most purposes (about one
year). The required high viscosity of the liquid
phase is achieved either by a combination of an-
ionic and nonionic surfactants [6] or with poly-
meric thickeners such as sodium polymethacry-
late or acrylic acid – methacrylic acid copoly-
mers [7].
Quality Control. Quality control of scour-
ing agents primarily entails measuring particle
size and particle-size distribution by sieving and
measurement of settling times (elutriation).
1.3. Dishwashing Agents
1.3.1. Manual Dishwashing Detergents
Manual dishwashing detergents (MDDs) are ev-
eryday products used worldwide for cleaning
used dishes, cups, glasses, and pots. The supe-
rior performance and acceptance of this product
group is due to the liquid formulation of MDDs.
Liquid dishwashing detergents are easy to use
and offer very good fat and stain removal.
In Europe manual dishwashing detergents are
available in classical and in concentrated for-
mulations, for example, under the trade names
Palmolive (Colgate Palmolive), Pril (Henkel
KGaA), Fairy (Procter & Gamble), and various
no-name products of supplier chains.
1.3.1.1. Classical Dishwashing Detergents
The largest product group on the market are the
classical manual dishwashing detergents. These
products are manufactured with special surfac-
tant combinations and contain roughly 15 %
active material. The main ingredients are sur-
factants, water, perfume, preservatives, and col-
orants. Formulation ranges for classical MDDs
follow:
Anionic surfactant 8 – 12 %
Cosurfactant 1–4 %
Dyes, fragrance, preservatives,
hydrotropic agents, salt
Water to 100 %
A mixture of two to four surfactants is used.
The workhorse surfactant is linear alkylbenzene-
sulfonate (LAS), which offers very good fat re-
moval and a good foam profile. This petrochem-
ical surfactant has a natural counterpart: fatty al-
cohol ether sulfate (FES). For high-performance
MDDs, FES is the preferred surfactant [38],
[39]. The type mostly used in MDDs is based
on coconut alcohol (C12 – C14 ) with two moles
of ethylene oxide (EO) (Table 3; see next page).
Another widely used basic surfactant is SAS
(secondary alkyl sulfonate), which offers good
cleaning performance with reduced amounts of
hydrotropes [40]. Hydrotropic additives such
as urea, cumenesulfonate, or xylenesulfonate
help to eliminate turbidity in solution. The per-
formance of anionic surfactants is boosted by
adding cosurfactants.
One of the most widely used tests of the per-
formance of MDDs is the plate test. Plates are
soiled with different kinds of fats/protein, aged
for a defined time, and washed in an apparatus.
Evaluators count the number of washed plates
until the foam dies down [41].
 Cleansing Agents 5
Table 3. Anionic surfactants for MDDs

Surfactant (abbreviation) Formula Trade Producer

name

Linear alkyl sulfonate (LAS) Marlon Condea

Fatty alcohol ether sulfate (FES) Texapon Cognis

Secondary alkyl sulfonate (SAS) Hostapur Clariant

1.3.1.2. Dishwashing Concentrates Amine oxide

During the few last years consumer habits have
changed. Today’s consumer prefers concen-
trated products with a high content of surfactants
and reduced amounts of water. Concentrates
are packed in small bottles, typically 500 mL.
These highly concentrated products have excel-
lent cleaning performance. In some formulas up
to five different surfactants are combined. For-
mulation ranges for MDD concentrates follow:
Anionic surfactant 20 – 35 %
Cosurfactant 2 – 10 %
Betaine
APG/NMG
Nonionic surfactant 0–4 %
Ethanol 2–7 %
Cumenesulfonate/hydrotropes (optional)
Dye, fragrance, salts
Water to 100 %
The optimum cleaning performance is related
to the combination of basic surfactant (anionic)
and cosurfactants. Different cosurfactants with
special performance profiles are used (Table 4).
Cosurfactants increase the foam profile. Con-
sumers perceive a high-foaming product as
having better fat removal. Since concentrated
MDDs contain large amounts of surfactants, it
is necessary to stabilize the formulation to avoid

Table 4. Cosurfactants for MDDs

Cosurfactant Formula Trade name Manufacturer

(abbreviation)

Coco amido propyl Tego Betain Goldschmidt

betaine (CAPB)

Alkylpolyglucoside Glucopon Henkel/Cognis

(APG)

N- N-methylglucyamide Clariant
methylglucamide
(NMG)

Amine oxide (AO) Rewominox Rewo

6 Cleansing Agents
phase separation. Ethanol or other solvents like
glycerin and polyglycols are helpful but reduce
the viscosity of the product. Consumers asso-
ciate the viscosity with performance: high vis-
cosity indicates high performance [42]. Cosur-
factants do not reduce the viscosity as much as
solvents and are surface-active. Another benefit
of cosurfactants is mildness to the skin [43–45].
One of the preferred cosurfactants is coco amido
propyl betaine (CAPB) [46–48], often in com-
bination with APG.
1.3.1.3. Skin-Friendly Products
In general MDDs are neutrally formulated with
a pH range of 5 – 8 [46]. There is only a minor
tendency to irritate the skin, because MDDs are
used in very low concentrations (e.g., 2 mL of
product in 5000 mL of water). Consumers with
sensitive skin or skin problems prefer to use mild
products. To minimize skin attack softening in-
gredients like Lamesoft (protein hydrolysate),
refatting agents like fatty acid amides, APG
(alkyl polyglucosides), aloe vera, and/or pan-
thenol are added to the basic formulation. Dyes
and perfume are eliminated or reduced to a
very small amount. Formulation ranges for skin-
friendly MDDs follow:
Anionic surfactant 10 – 20 %
Betaine 5 – 10 %
Nonionic surfactant 0 – 20 %
APG 0 – 10 %
Ethanol 2–5 %
Aloe vera, panthenol, protein hydrolysate
Small amounts of dye, fragrance
Water to 100 %
Some manufactures use large amounts of
nonionic surfactants (FAEO with a particu-
lar alkyl chain length and a special degree of
ethoxylation). Another way to provide a skin-
friendly formulation is the use of APG. The alkyl
polyglycoside containing product has the best
skin compatibility of tested products (Fig. 1). A
standard test design is the patch test. A derma-
tologist evaluates the degree of changes in the
skin according to various criteria. A low irrita-
tion score (sum of erythema, edema, squama-
tion, and fissures) indicates excellent skin com-
patibility.
Figure 1. Results of patch tests on different skin-friendly
MDDs
Test conditions: 20 healthy volunteers (male and female);
concentraion: 1 % active substance; mode of application:
once, occlusive, 24-h duration
A) Brand claiming good skin compatability; B) Market
product for sensitive skin; C) Market product for sensitive
skin with APG
1.3.1.4. Liquids with Antibacterial Action
This new group of 2-in-1 products is based on
consumer habits in Europe. Today consumers
want products with an excellent performance
profile and additional benefits like easy dos-
ing. Therefore, it is important to optimize the
packaging and the formulation. Henkel intro-
duced Pril 2-in-1 in late 1999. This product
is a combination of an MDD and a handsoap
with an antibacterial action. It is very conve-
nient to use this product for both doing the
dishes and washing the hands. The package de-
sign is optimized for this application by using
a pump dispenser. Consumers are able to dose
the product easy and exactly. The formulation
includes an antibacterial component which is
tested according to EN 1276, the European stan-
dard determing the biocidal activity of ingredi-
ents in a formulation against microorganisms.
Common microorganism in household areas in-
clude Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Es-
cherichia coli (ATCC 10536), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (ATCC 15442), and Salmonella ty-
phimurium (ATCC 13311). Optimized formu-
lations offer a reduction in live microorganism
numbers by five orders of magnitude after 5 min

at room temperature. Formulation ranges for 2-
in-1 MDD & handsoap follow:
Anionic surfactant 20 – 40 %
Betaine 2 – 10 %
APG 2 – 10 %
Ethanol 4 – 10 %
Na benzoate, benzoic acid Dye, fragrance 1–4 %
Water to 100 %
1.3.1.5. Dishwashing Habits
Different countries have different cultures, and
consumers use manual dishwashing detergents
in different ways. In northern European coun-
tries such as the Netherlands and Germany, con-
sumers prefer to fill the sink in the kitchen with
(hot) water and add the MDD. They use about
5 – 8 L of water and add ca. 2 mL of concen-
trated or 4 mL of classical products. In south-
ern countries such as Italy and Spain consumers
use MDDs on a sponge under running tap wa-
ter, mainly cold water. During cleaning they ap-
ply concentrated product to the sponge or other
cleaning devices.
1.3.2. Automatic Dishwashing Detergents
Automatic dishwashing detergents (ADDs) are
one of the fastest growing segments of the mar-
Figure 2. Functionality of a normal household automatic dishwasher
1) Water supply; 2) Magnetic inlet valve; 3) Inlet chamber; 4) Ion exchanger; 5) Salt storage; 6) Circulation pump; 7) Spraying
arms; 8) Supply tube for upper spray level; 9) Water level control; 10) Heating element; 11) Filter combination; 12) Effluent
pump
Cleansing Agents 7
ket for home-care products. The performance
of the dishwashers and detergents has reached
a high technical standard. Especially cleaners
have become a field of high dynamics and inno-
vation. The success of ADDs reflects the desire
of consumers for maximum convenience. The
product system for automatic dishwashing con-
sists of cleaners, rinse aids, and regeneration salt,
reflecting the construction of the dishwasher and
the different tasks of the dishwashing process.
1.3.2.1. Dishwashers
Since 1990 automatic dishwashers have become
one of the most important appliances in modern
households in Western Europe and the United
States, with penetration rates up to 60 %. With
an average distribution in the EU of 36 % in 1999
the growth potential is still high. On the interna-
tional market, the most important manufacturers
of automatic dishwashing machines are: Brandt
Group, BSH, Candy, Electrolux, General Elec-
tric, Maytag, Merloni, Miele, and Whirlpool.
Three sizes of dishwashers are available in
Europe: normal 60-cm-wide machines (50 cm
in Switzerland) with capacities of 12 – 14 in-
ternational place settings, narrow 45-cm ma-
chines for 7 or 8 settings, and table-top ma-
8 Cleansing Agents
Table 5. Wash temperature and water and energy consumption in modern dishwasher programs
Program Wash temp., ◦ C Rinse temp., ◦ C
Normal/universal 50 – 65 50 – 70
Strong 65 – 75 65 – 70
Special/energy-saving 35 – 55 50 – 60
chines for 4 or 5 place settings. Dishwasher sup-
pliers normally offer different models with up
to 10 washing programs. These programs can
roughly be classified as normal/universal, in-
tensive/heavy/pots & pans, and special energy-
saving low-temperature programs such as
eco/delicate/rapid/economy/glass, etc. Wash
and rinse temperatures as well as water and en-
ergy consumption of the three main program
types in modern type dishwashers are presented
in Table 5 (see above).
The functionality of an automatic dishwasher
is shown in Figure 2 (see previous page) [49].
A typical normal wash program consists of
four water fills, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Normal wash program
After a cold prewash step, the detergent is au-
tomatically added at the beginning of the main
wash by a special dispensing device, located in
the front door of the machine. The dispenser also
includes a rinse-aid unit with storage tank and
injection system, which automatically adds the
appropriate amount of rinse aid when a tempera-
ture of about 50 ◦ C is reached in the rinsing step.
According to the water quality used in the dish-
washer (e.g., residual hardness), the volume of
rinse aid can be adjusted by a mechanical switch
and amounts to 1 – 6 mL.
In contrast to the United States, most Euro-
pean dishwashers (except in Scandinavia) are
equipped with a softening device, in which the
incoming water is softened by ion exchange. De-
pending on the type of dishwasher the ion ex-
Water consumption, L Energy consumption, kWh
15 – 22 1.0 – 1.5
18 – 25 1.4 – 1.8
10 – 18 0.6 – 1.3
changer is regenerated by addition of NaCl so-
lution for about 20 min, either during the clean-
ing or final rinse step. After flushing the ion
exchange resin with fresh water, the system is
ready for a new wash program. Modern dish-
washers are commonly equipped with signal
lights on the front panel to indicate the the need
for regeneration-salt and rinse-aid refill.
In principle, dishwashers can be operated
with cold or hot water supply. In the USA, dish-
washers are recommended for use with hot wa-
ter (ca. 50 ◦ C). Therefore, the electric heating
capacity of about 1.0 – 1.5 kW is lower than that
of European dishwashers (2.0 – 3.0 kW).
In modern dishwashers the traditional elec-
tric heating rods at the bottom of the interior are
replaced by through-flow heating pipes. Conse-
quently, the final drying process can no longer be
supported by additional dry heating. For better
drying efficiency, some dishwashers use instead
an electric fan or a heat exchanger at the rear of
the machine.
The developments in dishwasher technology
in the late 1990s were driven by the need to
save energy and water to meet European leg-
islation. As with other household appliances au-
tomatic dishwashers have to carry an Energy
Label [50], [51] which lists energy and water
consumption together with cleaning and drying
performance. To reach the goal of decreased en-
ergy and water consumption at sufficiently high
cleaning performance [52], wash temperatures
in the normal programs have been decreased
from 65 to 55 ◦ C, accompanied by the develop-
ment of special technologies such as soil-sensor-
controlled automatic programs, fuzzy logic con-
trol, half-load programs, variation between up-
per and lower spray level, pulsation spraying,
and hardness-controlled regeneration systems
and the introduction of new electronically con-
trolled dishwashers.

1.3.2.2. Cleaners
Parallel to the increase in dishwasher penetra-
tion in households the European ADD cleaner
market has doubled in value since ca.1990.
The main step in the development of cleaner
formulations was the change from classical
high-alkali cleaners to the new generation of the
lower alkali cleaners in the early 1990s. The low-
alkali system served as the chemical basis for the
develoment of compact ADD cleaners [53].
The classical system was based on phos-
phate (preferably pentasodium triphosphate,
Na5 P3 O10 ) as complexing agent for the cal-
cium and magnesium ions in the wash liquor
to avoid scale formation. Metasilicate (disodium
dihydrogensilicate, Na2 H2 SiO4 ) was used as a
highly alkaline component to soak and remove
the dirt from the dishes [54].
Classical cleaners containing metasilicate
(pH of wash > 12) must be labeled as corrosive
according to the EC formulation guideline. In
addition, usually an active chlorine carrier (e.g.,
trichloroisocyanuric acid) was used as bleach.
Today, only 1 – 2 % of ADD cleaners in Europe
still contain chlorine bleach.
The development of the new cleaner gen-
eration can be divided into two main steps.
In the first step chlorine bleach was substi-
tuted by active oxygen bleach. Oxygen bleach
in current ADD cleaners contains peroxo salts
such as sodium peroxoborate or sodium perox-
ocarbonate. Usually bleach activators such as
tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED) are added
to enhance the bleaching action. Metasilicate
as alkaline carrier was replaced by sodium
carbonate, in combination with sodium hy-
drogencarbonate or less alkaline silicates such
as disilicate (tetrasodium silicate). In some
products phosphate was substituted by citrate
(preferably trisodium citrate dihydrate) and par-
tially complemented by polycarboxylates (e.g.,
acrylic acid – maleic acid copolymer, sodium
salt) and/or phosphonates (e.g., 1-hydroxy-
ethylidene 1,1-diphosphonic acid) to more com-
plex builder systems. In addition, enzymes (e.g.,
α-amylases and savinases) were incorporated in
ADD formulations to increase the cleaning per-
formance against starch- and protein-containing
soils under at lower pH (wash liquor pH 9 – 11)
[55].
Cleansing Agents 9
In the second step, since the mid-1990s, phos-
phate was re-introduced as the main builder
component, replacing citrate. Due to its high
complexing power phosphate is not only very
efficient in scale inhibition but also helps in re-
moving stains that contain calcium and magne-
sium (e.g., tea stains). Furthermore, phosphate
helps to disperse soil particles in the liquor. From
the ecological point of view the use of phosphate
for ADD seems acceptable at present, since the
relative contribution to the overall environmen-
tal phosphate input is quite low [56]. However,
there are some regulations for maximum phos-
phorus content of ADD formulas or with respect
to the dosage, e.g., in Italy, Switzerland, and the
USA.
In the field of active oxygen bleach spe-
cific metal complexes (e.g., pentaammineaceta-
tocobalt(III) nitrate and 1,4,7-trimethyl-1,4,7-
triazacyclononanmanganese(IV) [Mn3 (TACN)]
were identified that can equal or even exceed the
action of conventional bleach activators (TAED)
especially at lower temperatures of 40 – 55 ◦ C.
Today metal catalysts are used in some compact
ADD cleaners. In the field of enzymes, chang-
ing amino acid sequences by genetic engineering
led to amylases and proteases having better com-
patibility with bleach components and improved
performance profiles.
In addition, the compact cleaners usually con-
tain low-foaming nonionic surfactants such as
addition products of ethylene oxide with fatty al-
cohols and silver-protection agents such as 1H-
1,2,3-benzotriazole [57]. Due to their lower al-
kalinity and depending on the amount of irri-
tant components (e.g., disilicates) the compact
cleaners are either not labeled at all or labeled
as irritant.
Table 6 (see next page) lists examples of ADD
formulations.
ADD cleaner products can be divided into
three basic types: liquids, powder, and tablets.
Liquids were introduced in Germany as
early as 1987 but no longer play any role. In
some European countries, e.g., France and Great
Britain, they still have some importance. Over-
all they have lost market relevance year by year.
Liquids suffer mainly from their low content
of active ingredients and chemical and/or rhe-
ological instability. These negative aspects out-
weigh positive aspects like good solubility. Liq-
10 Cleansing Agents
Table 6. Percentage ADD cleaner formulations (examples)

Ingredient Classic Liquid Compact

Step 1 Step 2

High-alkali High-alkali Low-alkali No label Low-alkali

Phosphate 30 20 50
Citrate 30 45
Polycarboxylate 8
Metasilicate 64
Soda 5 10 35 10 20
Hydrogencarbonate 23
Silicates 10 10 5
Cl compounds 1 1
Perborate 7 10 10
TAED 2 4 2
Amylase, protease 2 3–4 3–6
Surfactant 0.5 1 3 2
Silver care − − + + +
Fragrance − + − + +
Water (balance) − 55 + + +

uid cleaners are mostly based on classical for-
mulations. Up to now all efforts to establish
powerful and successful liquid or so-called gel
products of the new-generation formula with en-
zymes and active oxygen bleach on the market
failed due to compatibility problems.
Powders were the first ADD products in Eu-
rope (1960) and clearly dominated the market
until the mid-1990s. Then, in parallel to the rise
of the tablets, they constantly lost market shares.
However, in contrast to the liquids powders still
are of some importance in the market (< 30 %
share of market value in 2000). Today the ex-
isting powder products in the European mar-
ket reflect all stages of development. Although
the relative importance of the classical prod-
ucts has been decreasing over the years, com-
pact powders gained only limited importance
in Europe, except in Germany, Austria, and the
Netherlands. As chemical basis for the noncom-
pact powder segment, metasilicate formulations
were mostly replaced by “diluted” low-alkali
formulations (“traditional powders”). They usu-
ally have low contents of oxygen bleach and
enzymes and contain certain amounts of, e.g.,
sodium sulfate as filler. Often part of the com-
ponents of modern powder products are colored
with bleachable dyes to obtain speckles.
Recently, a so-called 2-in-1 powder variety
appeared on the market. Compared to the stan-
dard powder type it contains a high amount of
rinse-aid surfactant, thereby combining cleaning
and rinsing properties in a single product.
Powders are always dosed in the dosage
chamber of the dishwasher to act in the main-
wash cycle. The recommended amount of pow-
der detergent in the wash varies from 20 to 30 g
for compact powders and from 40 g to complete
filling of the dosage chamber for noncompact
powders, depending on soil load and water hard-
ness.
ADD powders are usually based on powdered
and granular components and are made by mix-
ing or by special agglomeration processes [58].
Today powders are mainly packed in flexible
plastic bags with gussets in composite packag-
ing material. Refill bags are able to stand upright
for transport and use. Plastic bottles and folding
cardboard boxes are also used.
Tablets were first introduced with a classi-
cal formulation (1990, Germany) and since then
constantly gained importance. In Europe they
are now the dominant ADD type, approaching
a total market share of ca. 70 % in 2001. Mod-
ern ADD tablets are mainly based on low-alkali
compact formulas with phosphate or, to a lesser
extent, citrate.
In contrast to powders tablets can in princi-
ple be dosed in the prewash or in the main-wash
cycle. In the cold prewash the tablet is partially
dissolved to start soaking and partially remov-
ing soil from the dishes. For example, classical
tablets of 30 g weight releasing highly alkaline
metasilicate used to work like this.
Tablets with compact formulas are nowadays
loaded into the dosage chamber where they re-

lease all ingredients in the main-wash. The cur-
rently available enzymes and the active oxygen
bleach require certain temperatures for optimal
action. Due to the dosage chamber dimensions
compact tablets have maximum weights of 25 g.
Tablets are still are the most innovative
field in ADD development. The increasing con-
sumer acceptance due to convenience was fur-
ther promoted by introduction of novel two-
phase tablets in the mid-1990s. Today there are
various two- and, since 1999, even three-phase
tablets with different structures on the EU mar-
ket. The structures range from parallel layers to
corelike.
Phase separation allows possible negative in-
teractions of potentially less compatible compo-
nents (e.g., bleach and enzymes) to be avoided,
thus leading to improved storage stability. Fur-
thermore, phase separation in combination with
different dissolution profiles strongly increases
the possibility of time-delayed release of specific
ingredients relative to one-phase tablets. For ex-
ample, two-phase tablets are on the market that
provide for controlled and separate release of en-
zymes and bleach, respectively, during the main-
wash cycle.
The current state of the art are multiphase
2-in-1 and even 3-in-1 tablets that combine sev-
eral ADD system components in a single prod-
uct. The 2-in-1 tablets were introduced in 1999
and combine cleaning and rinse-aid properties.
Compared to standard tablets they contain a sig-
nificantly increased amount of rinse-aid surfac-
tant (up to ca. 10 %), that is distributed in the
tablet phases in different ways. Depending on
their specific adsorption characteristics the sur-
factants are partially transferred from the main-
wash to the intermediate and the rinse cycles,
respectively. In some cases the 2-in-1 tablets
contain special rinse-aid phases (e.g., cores) in
which the surfactants are processed in a solid,
but water-soluble or dispersible matrix. In addi-
tion the matrix and/or further core coatings may
exhibit controlled-release effects that exploit the
change in various physical or chemical parame-
ters on the transition from the main-wash to the
subsequent cycles.
The 3-in-1 tablets were introduced in 2001
and combine cleaning and rinse-aid properties
and, in addition, contain so-called regeneration-
salt substitutes (see Section 1.3.2.4). They ex-
hibit all features of 2-in-1 tablets, as described
Cleansing Agents 11
above, but contain special builder/cobuilder in-
gredients to cope with tap water hardness. With
3-in-1 tablets the detergent manufacturers claim
that there is no need for water softening by
the ion exchanger up to certain limiting water
hardnesses, (e.g., 21 ◦ d = 3.8 mmol CaO/L). The
binding and/or dispersal of the water hardness
occurs by means of phosphate and/or polymers,
thereby avoiding residues on glass, china, and
the dishwasher interior [59].
ADW tabs are manufacured by using a tablet-
ing process. A main prerequisite for this technol-
ogy is the preparation of a free-flowing powder
premix. A suitable process unit is, e.g., a batch or
continuous granulation step in which powdered
or liquid ingredients are mixed to form granules.
Afterwards the premix is conditioned by dry-
ing, cooling, and sieving and is then finished by
postaddition of further specific raw materials or
compounds (e.g., enzymes, TAED). The powder
premix is fed into a standard tablet press to form
the required tablets. Special multistage presses
are equipped with two or more dosing and press-
ing devices to produce multilayer tablets [60–
62].
Usually the tablets are single-wrapped in a
plastic film of orientated polypropylene (OPP)
as a protection against moisture and mechani-
cal stress. They are loose packed in reclosable
folded cardboard boxes.
Trade names: Somat (Henkel), Calgonit
(Benckiser), Fairy (Procter & Gamble), Sun
(Unilever).
1.3.2.3. Rinse Aids
Rinse aids have been used from the beginning
of automatic dishwashing in private households.
Rinse aids are designed to ensure rapid and film-
like draining of the wash solution by optimized
wetting in the rinse cycle. This supports spot-
less drying of the relevant surfaces during water
evaporation in the heating and drying cycle at the
end of the dishwashing process. The use of rinse
aid is especially important if the water contains
considerable amounts of dissolved salts even af-
ter softening by the ion exchanger.
Foaming must be minimized, as for the
cleaner, since the rinsing solution must be vig-
orously circulated. To an extent that strongly
depends on the overall conditions, the rinse
12 Cleansing Agents
aid must cope with hardness, soil, and alkaline
cleaner residues from main-wash liquor tranfer.
Rinse-aid formulations have not changed
significantly with time. To fulfill the above-
mentioned requirements, they contain typically
10 – 20 % of nonionic surfactants, e.g., addition
products of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide
with fatty alcohols, 3 – 10 % organic acid (in one
case up to 35 % citric acid), 3 – 10 % solubilizers
(e.g., cumenesulfonate), perfumes, and water.
The recommended dosage is 2 – 6 mL, de-
pending on rinsing water volume and hardness.
Conventionally, the rinse aid is dosed via an
automatical dispenser in the dishwasher during
the rinse cycle. Since 1999 also so-called 2-in-1
tablets (see Section 1.3.2.2) are available. Deter-
gent manufacturers claim that with these tablets
a separate (e.g., liquid) rinse aid is no longer
neccessary.
1.3.2.4. Regeneration Salt
In contrast to laundering, automatic dishwashing
only delivers acceptable cleaning results when
soft water is used. Therefore, dishwashers are
equipped with softeners based on ion exchange.
The ion exchangers, which are based on con-
ventional ion-exchange resins, are regenerated
either in every wash program or, in new electron-
ically controlled models that monitor the hard-
ness of the tap water, when the exchange ca-
pacity is almost expired. For the regeneration
process pure sodium chloride solution is used.
Regeneration salts are special grades with low
contents of insoluble residues, free from addi-
tives such as anticaking agents. The granulome-
try must also be controlled with little or no dust
particles smaller than 0.3 mm to avoid sedimen-
tation or clogging of the regeneration system.
Since 2001 so-called 3-in-1 tablets contain-
ing regeneration salt substitutes are also avail-
able.
1.3.2.5. Other Products
Due to the attractivity of the ADD market var-
ious additives with additional consumer bene-
fit have become established. Whereas pretreat-
ment sprays based on alkaline or amylase so-
lutions did not reach the market, machine-care
and machine-deodorizing products gained im-
portance in the few last years.
Machine-care formulations contain mainly
3 – 10 % nonionic surfactants to wet and loosen
the soil residues, 10 – 30 % organic acids to dis-
solve scale, and 5 – 15 % alkohols such as glyc-
erine as care component. Machine-care prod-
ucts can be applied by hand to rubber seals to
keep them pliable and dosed automatically in
the cleaning cycle by special devices.
Deodorants are designed to overcome un-
pleasant odors derived from the soil load after
when the dishwasher is opened. They consist
of hanger devices for the rack and contain per-
fumes, which are released through appropriate
membranes during the washing program.
1.3.2.6. Performance Assessment
Cleaning Performance. The usual methods
for cleaning performance tests are EN 50242
[63] and IEC 436 [64]. However, both meth-
ods are designed to measure the performance
of electric dishwashers. They were developed at
a time when the new compact detergents con-
taining enzymes had not yet become established
on the market. Consequently, these methods are
often incapable of adequately reflecting the com-
plete wash profile of such detergents. It therefore
became necessary to develop a new system for
a more comprehensive assessment of the wash
performance of dishwasher detergents.
In the mid-1990s, under the auspices of the
German Industrial Association of the Manufac-
turers of Toiletries and Detergents [Industriever-
band Körperpflege- und Waschmittel (IKW)], a
new method was created to select forms of soils
from existing methods or develop new soils if
necessary for determining the wash profile of
the detergent [65].
The types of soil can be roughly classified as:
– Colored, bleachable (tea, ketchup, lipstick,
etc.)
– Persistant, burnt-in (burnt meat, burnt milk,
burnt casseroles, etc.)
– Dried starch-containing (porridge, starchy
sauces, pasta, potatoes, etc.)
– Dried proteinaceous (egg yolk, meat, etc.)
The laboratory soil is specially designed to
be difficult to remove in order to distinguish bet-
ween similar formulations.

The cleaning performance is assessed for
the different types of soil on a scale ranging
from 0 to 100 %. The evaluation of the clean-
ing performance is either based on visual in-
spection of washed and unwashed articles or
gravimetrically. For the removal of tea stains
a hypochlorite-containing classical detergent
and a high-phosphate compact detergent dis-
play performance advantages compared with a
phosphate-free system with conventional bleach
activator. Owing to its higher alkalinity the clas-
sical formulation would also remove stubborn
and burnt-in soil better than the phosphate-free
compact product. However, due to the appli-
cation of enzymes, the newer generations of
phosphate-containing and phosphate-free com-
pact detergents exhibit clear performance advan-
tages on starch and proteinacious soils. This in-
dicates that there are differences between the
cleaning performance aspects of the classical
cleaner and the two types of low-alkali compact
detergents.
Material Care. The European draft standard
EN 12875 [66], [67] specifies a dynamic, multi-
cycle test method for the determination of the
mechanical dishwashing resistance of domes-
tic articles. This method is also recommended
to differentiating between different dishwashing
detergents.
With regard to their corrosion-protection ef-
fect compact detergents with a high disilicate
content are advantageous for porcelain on-glaze
decoration. However, thanks to an improved
burning technique and the use of in-glaze and/or
sub-glaze decorations, sensitive on-glaze dec-
orations are today hardly found in the market.
On the other hand, after a few dishwashing pro-
grammes cleaners with a high disilicate content
cause corrosion phenomena such as iridescence
and clouding on glassware (e.g. soda lime glass,
potash crystal, and lead crystal glass). Irides-
cence is caused by the formation of a thin sil-
ica layer with different refractive index causing
interference patterns which result in a colored
appearance.
Permanent clouding, mostly symmetric and
ring-shaped, is a further phenomenon that arises
from corrosion of glass in automatic dishwash-
ing. The reason for this is the leaching of alkali
metal ions due to an uneven temperature dis-
tribution in the glass surface during glass pro-
Cleansing Agents 13
duction [68]. This occurs, for example, during
the smelting process of the top edges or the at-
tachment of stems. Finally, this leads to the con-
clusion that corrosion protection of delicate on-
glaze decorated porcelain can only achieved at
the expense of increased glass corrosion.
Additional, glass corrosion is mainly effected
by high temperatures (> 65 ◦ C) and very low
water hardness (< 18 ppm CaCO3 ) in the dish-
washing machine and the composition and man-
ufacturing process of the glass itself.
The phenomenon of silver tarnishing has
increased with the introduction of low-alkali
compact detergent. The formulation parameters
(lower pH, activated oxygen bleach) results in a
more sensitive reaction of the silver surface. Ad-
ditional parameters like higher water hardness,
chloride ion concentration, soil, and temperature
influence the corrosion behavior as well [69].
Silver tarnishing is prevented by adding agents
such as benzotriazole that form an adsorptive
layer.
Scale Inhibition. Sufficient complexation of
residual water hardness during dishwashing will
prevent the formation of insoluble precipitates
(e.g., carbonates) on washed dishes and machine
parts. Depending on the type of detergent, this is
achieved by complexing agents like citrate [55],
citrate – phosphate or phosphate, sometimes in
combination with phosphonates and cobuilders
like polycarboxylates [70].
Evaluation methods [71], [72] are mainly
based on visual inspection of the tableware, es-
pecially glasses and cutlery, with different rating
systems, sometimes also with addition of soil in
multicycle tests.
Rinse and Shine Effect. Specific test meth-
ods for the evalution of rinse or shine effects de-
pending on various parameters during the dish-
wash program are described in [73], [74]. As
in the scale-inhibition evaluation they are based
on visual inspection of tableware, especially
glasses and cutlery, on effects like spotting using
rating systems, also with addition of soil.
1.4. Floor Cleaners
The all-purpose cleansers described in Section
1.1 are suitable for daily floor cleaning use.
14 Cleansing Agents
However, strippers are better for cleaning badly
soiled floors and removing built-up layers of
self-polishing floor wax. These are ammoniacal
surfactant preparations containing glycol ethers
(e.g., 2-butoxyethanol [111-76-2]).
A typical stripper contains 2 – 10 wt % sur-
factant, 2 – 8 wt % phosphate, 1 – 3 wt % ammo-
nia, 5 – 20 wt % glycol ether, and a perfume in
aqueous solution.
Solvent cleaners (mineral spirits) are needed
to clean and remove old wax from floors made of
moisture-sensitive substrates, such as unsealed
wood or parquet. Combination, single-step floor
finishes are convenient for routine maintenance
of floors. These are products that simultaneously
clean and wax. Floor cleaners stress cleaning
power, whereas floor polishes are primarily floor
finishers (waxes). The cleaners are designed to
be added in small quantity to ordinary wash wa-
ter. They consist of a combination of soap and
other detergents, including alkanesulfonates or
fatty acid alkanolamides, and they may also con-
tain dispersions of wax or waxlike substances
(e.g., montanic acid and montanic acid esters).
A typical floor cleaner contains 10 – 30 wt %
potassium soap, 2 – 10 wt % other surfactants,
0 – 6 wt % waxes, and a perfume in aqueous so-
lution.
Floor polishes are self-polishing wax emul-
sions with a high content of polymeric sub-
stances and a smaller amount of surfactants.
Products of this type are spread on the floor in
undiluted form to produce a thin layer. When
dried, they leave a protective film with a high
polish. Treated floors can be maintained by reg-
ular washing with water that contains a small
amount of the same product.
A typical floor polish contains 20 – 40 wt %
polymer dispersion (40 %) (e.g., polyacry-
late or polystyrene), 2 – 5 wt % surfactant (e.g.,
fatty alcohol or alkylphenol polyglycol ether),
2 – 6 wt % waxes (e.g., montanic acid esters,
polyethylene wax), 1 – 3 wt % plasticizers (e.g.,
tributoxyethyl phosphate or dimethyl phthalate),
2 – 4 wt % solubilizers (e.g., glycol ethers), a
perfume, and some preservatives in aqueous so-
lution.
Quality control tests and standards for floor
finishes, floor cleaners, and strippers are, e.g.,
solids content, solvent content [8–11].
1.5. Carpet Cleaners
Only loose carpets and rugs can be washed or
dry cleaned by the techniques employed with
other textiles. Rugs can be washed by using gen-
tle, low-sudsing detergents or dry cleaned with
organic solvent mixtures. These processes are
carried out in very large, dedicated machines.
Various techniques are used to clean perma-
nently installed carpets [12], [13]. Carpet sweep-
ers and vacuum cleaners are commonly used to
remove loose dust and dirt, but loose rugs are
better cleaned by brushing devices. The removal
of stubborn, oily dirt requires special cleansing
agents. Adhering soil must be loosened from the
fibers and transformed into a state that allows its
removal by brushing or vacuuming.
Wet processes and dry processes can be dis-
tinguished, depending on whether the dirt that
has become associated with the cleaning agent
is removed immediately along with the cleans-
ing solution (wet process) or after the carpet has
been allowed to dry (dry process) [14]. The dry
processes are further subdivided into shampoo-
ing and powder cleaning, whereas the usual wet
process is known as spray extraction cleaning
or steam cleaning.
Shampooing is accomplished by applying a
dilute aqueous solution of carpet cleaner directly
to the surface to be cleaned [15]. Typically, a spe-
cial device containing rotating brushes, which
ensure production of a heavy foam and simulta-
neously work the foam into the carpet, is used.
Excess foam is then removed, and after the car-
pet dries (which may require several days), the
dirt-laden cleanser residue is removed by vacu-
uming. Given its mode of action, a carpet sham-
poo must be capable of producing a stable foam
and leaving behind a dry solid residue that is eas-
ily collected. Only a very few surfactants gener-
ate sufficient dry residue. Appropriate formula-
tions contain anionic surfactants, such as sodium
(C15−18 )olefinsulfonate [91082-14-3], lithium
(C12−14 )alkylsulfate [90583-20-3], or sodium
(C12−16 )alkylsulfate [73296-89-6], along with
such polymers as styrene maleinate resin,
polystyrene [9003-53-6], polyacrylic resin
[9003-01-4], or poly(methyl methacrylate)
[9011-14-7]. The partial composition of a typ-
ical carpet shampoo is given, along with the
 Cleansing Agents 15
Table 7. Partial compositions of a carpet shampoo, a spray extraction cleaner, and a cleaning powder

Component Carpet Spray extraction Cleaning

shampoo ∗ cleaner ∗ powder

Surfactant, wt % 5 – 20 2 – 30 1 – 10
Polymers, wt % 2–8
Sequestering agent (e.g., sodium triphosphate, EDTA, NTA), wt % 0–2 2 – 30
Solvent (isopropanol, hydrocarbon), wt % 0 – 20 0 – 25
Carrier material, wt % 15 – 60
Perfume present absent present
Preservative present present present

∗ The two liquid cleaners are aqueous solutions

composition of a spray extraction cleaner and 1.6. Toilet Bowl Cleaners

a cleaning powder, in Table 7 (see above).
In the spray extraction method, a highly dilute
cleansing solution is applied on and into the sur-
face layers of the carpet with special equipment
that then removes the wash solution [16]. The
carpet fibers are effectively flooded with cleans-
ing agent, and dirt is immediately flushed out of
the depths of the pile as a part of the cleaning
process. The cleansers contain mixtures of low-
sudsing surfactants and sequestering agents in
aqueous solution (see Table 7).
Powdered cleansers are especially suitable
for home carpet cleaning because their use does
not involve any special equipment. Cleansing
powder is spread over the carpet, brushed in,
allowed to collect the dirt, and then removed
with an ordinary vacuum cleaner. The pow-
ders themselves are easily dispensed prepara-
tions of a carrier material, which has been
presaturated with an aqueous surfactant solu-
tion, occasionally supplemented with alcohol
or hydrocarbons. Suitable carriers include saw-
dust and finely granular preparations of ei-
ther polyurethane foam or urea – formaldehyde
resins (see Table 7).
Toilet bowl cleaners must remove calcium and
rust deposits from porcelain surfaces; thus,
acidic preparations are effective agents [17]. The
most commonly used products are powders that
contain sodium hydrogen sulfate [7664-38-2]
as the major component. They may also con-
tain sodium carbonate [497-19-8] or sodium hy-
drogen carbonate [144-55-2], along with small
amounts of surfactants such as sodium olefinsul-
fonate [91082-14-3]. The carbon dioxide that is
liberated when these products are sprinkled into
water serves to agitate the solution and enhance
the cleansing action. The partial composition of
a typical powdered toilet bowl cleanser, along
with the compositions of a liquid cleanser and
an alkaline cleanser, is shown in Table 8 (see
below).
Liquid bowl cleaners usually con-
tain hydrochloric [7647-01-0], phosphoric
[7664-38-2], or formic acid [64-18-6], along
with surfactants (see Table 8). The use of a
1 : 4 mixture of sodium alkylbenzenesulfonate
and an alkylphenol polyglycol ether containing

Table 8. Partial compositions of several types of toilet bowl cleansers

Component Powdered Liquid Alkaline

cleanser cleanser∗ cleanser∗

Sodium hydrogen sulfate, wt % 58 – 100

Phosphoric, hydrochloric, formic acid, wt % 5 – 50
Sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, wt % 0 – 40
Chlorine bleach (13 % active Cl), wt % 25 – 75
Surfactant, wt % 0–2 1 – 10 0–5
Sodium hydroxide, wt % 0–5
Colorant present absent absent
Perfume present present present

∗ The two liquid cleaners are aqueous solutions

16 Cleansing Agents
ten moles of ethylene oxide has been found to
be particularly advantageous.
Alkaline products containing bleach (hypo-
chlorite) are often used for cleaning toilet bowls
even though they are not able to remove calcium
deposits (see Table 8). Such materials must not
be used in combination with acidic products be-
cause the evolution of deadly chlorine gas would
result.
1.7. Toilet Hygiene and Deodorant
Products
Toilet hygiene and deodorant products include
disinfectant cakes, tank disinfectant dispensers,
and toilet bowl deodorants.
The deodorant and bowl cakes are solid sur-
factant preparations with a high perfume con-
tent. These are normally supplied in a plas-
tic holder that can be suspended from the
edge of a toilet bowl. Each time the toilet is
flushed, the incoming water dissolves a small
amount of the cake material, which both cleanses
and deodorizes. Deodorant properties are also
sometimes conferred by cakes containing p-
dichlorobenzene [106-46-7] (with or without
surfactant), although the use of this compound
has raised serious ecological questions. The ef-
fectiveness of p-dichlorobenzene stems from its
inherently strong odor and its high vapor pres-
sure. Table 9 (see below) gives the compositions
of typical toilet hygiene and deodorant products.
Automatic tank dispensers are highly colored
surfactant blocks that are packaged in plastic
containers or in a water-soluble film. They are
placed directly in the toilet tank to lower the sur-
face tension and color the water used for flush-
ing. The surfactants employed are highly foam-
ing anionic agents, preferably sodium alkylben-
Table 9. Partial compositions of toilet hygiene and deodorant products
Component Toilet-bowl
deodorant cake
Surfactant, wt % 10 – 94
Polyglycol ether, wt % 5 – 30
Waxy substances, wt % 0–5
Structural material (e.g., sodium sulfate, phosphates), wt % 0 – 40
Perfume, wt % 1 – 15
Preservative present
Colorant, wt % (if applicable) present
p-Dichlorobenzene, wt % absent
zenesulfonates, and structure-building nonionic
compounds, such as highly ethoxylated (> 25
ethylene oxide units) fatty alcohol [68439-49-6]
or alkylphenol polyglycol ethers [9016-45-9].
The solubility of the product is adjusted by
adding waxy substances such as stearic acid
[57-11-4], cetyl alcohol [36653-82-4], mon-
tanic acid [68476-03-9], or montanic acid esters
[73138-46-2] (see Table 9).
1.8. Drain Cleaners
Drain cleaners are strongly alkaline products de-
signed to unclog the drains and traps of sinks,
bathtubs, etc., when these become plugged with
hair, grease, food residues, soap deposits, or the
gelatinous masses that can result from the action
of microorganisms [18].
Powdered drain cleaners are effective
partly because their dissolution in water gen-
erates heat. A temperature of 90 ◦ C can be
achieved by using ca. 25 g/100 mL. Many drain
cleaners also contain finely granulated alu-
minum, which reacts with the hot aqueous alkali
to evolve hydrogen gas. Sodium nitrate converts
this hydrogen to ammonia. This gas evolution
provides mechanical assistance for the removal
of residues and deposits.
Liquid drain cleaners are used largely to
prevent clogging. The inclusion of substances
that release chlorine ensures the decomposi-
tion of hair. Compositions of drain cleaners are
shown in Table 10.
Drain cleaners in aerosol cans – so-called
pressure cleaners – are an example of propellant
packaging. In the course of their use, a burst of
Toilet-bowl Toilet-tank
p-dichlorobenzene cake agent
0 – 30 15 – 94
0 – 20 5 – 30
0–5
0 – 30 0 – 40
1 – 10 0–5
absent present
present 1–5
10 – 99 absent
 Cleansing Agents 17
Table 11. Partial compositions of some metal cleaners

Component Stainless steel, nickel, Nonferrous metal Silver

and chromium cleaner cleaner polish

Abrasive (e.g., Neuburger siliceous chalk, diatomaceous earth), wt % 10 – 30 10 – 30

Acid, wt % 1–5 1–5
Ammonium soaps, wt % 5 – 10
Nonionic surfactants, wt % 2 – 10 0–5 1–5
Chelating agents, wt % 0–5
Solvent (e.g., mineral spirits), wt % 20 – 40
Thiourea, wt % 5 – 10
Perfume present present or absent absent

∗ All three types of cleaners are prepared in aqueous solution

pressure is developed that dislodges the block- [7664-93-9]. Table 11 shows the compositions
ing agent. of several types of metal cleaners.
Table 10. Partial compositions of drain cleaners

Component Powdered Liquid 1.10. Window Cleaners

cleaner cleaner∗
Window cleaners must leave no residue on glass
Sodium hydroxide, wt % 25 – 100 5 – 25
Sodium nitrate, wt % 0 – 40
surfaces. Such products are composed almost
Sodium chloride, wt % 0 – 30 exclusively of liquid with small amounts of nec-
Aluminum, wt % 0–5 essary surfactants. Two types of window clean-
Surfactant, wt % 0–5
Chlorine bleach, wt % 0 – 60 ers are available. One comes packaged in a plas-
tic bottle equipped with a sprayer or spray pump
∗ The liquid cleaner is an aqueous solution
and is ready to use. The other, known as window
washing concentrate, is a mixture that must be
diluted with water before use [19]. The compo-
1.9. Metal Cleaners sitions of the two types of window cleaners are
shown in Table 12.
Special metal polishes are used to clean such Table 12. Partial compositions of window cleaners∗
metal surfaces as stainless steel sinks, faucets,
metal trim, silverware, etc. These products Component Ready-to- Window
use washing
contain fine abrasives with a particle size window concentrate
< 20 µm. Weakly acidic materials containing cleaner
lactic [50-21-5], citric [77-92-9], or phosphoric Surfactants (e.g., olefinsulfonates,
acid [7664-38-2] are preferred for cleaning fatty alcohol ether sulfates), wt % 0.1 – 0.2 2–6
stainless steel, nickel, and chromium. Fatty al- Ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, wt % 2 – 20 0 – 10
Glycol ether, wt % 0 – 15
cohol [68439-49-6] or alkylphenol polyglycol Ammonium hydroxide, wt % 0–1 0–1
ethers [9016-45-9] with 7 – 12 ethylene oxide Colorant present or present
absent
units are added as emulsifiers and dispersing Perfume present or present
agents. absent
Polishes for the nonferrous metals are weakly ∗ These mixtures are prepared in aqueous solution
ammoniacal. The usual dispersing agents are the
ammonium salts of oleic [544-60-5] or stearic
acid [1002-89-7]. Chelating agents are often
added to enhance cleaning. These include am- 1.11. Automotive Cleansers
monium citrate [3458-72-8] and ammonium ox- Automotive cleansers must not damage auto
alate [1113-38-8]. Silver objects can be freed paint. They must be freely soluble in and com-
of sulfide tarnish by dipping them in products patible with hard water, be roughly neutral (i.e.,
containing thiourea [62-56-6] along with ei- pH), and possess effective wetting and clean-
ther hydrochloric [7647-01-0] or sulfuric acid ing powers. The active detergent in most liquid
18 Cleansing Agents
car cleaners is comprised of alkylbenzenesul-
fonates, alkylsulfonates, or fatty alcohol sulfates
together with fatty alcohol or alkylphenol polyg-
lycol ethers [20].
Commercial car washes require low-sudsing
products with a high content of polyphosphates.
These normally leave behind trace residues
of hydrophilic cleaning agents. Consequently,
washing should always be followed by treat-
ment with a protective agent to return the
paint to its normal hydrophobic state. This en-
sures that water on the surface will gather into
droplets and run off. Actual drying is neces-
sary only on horizontal surfaces, and this is ac-
complished in automatic car washes with the
aid of an air stream. The protective agents
commonly employed are cationic preparations
containing dimethyldistearylammonium chlo-
ride [61789-80-8] [21].
The compositions of typical automobile-
finish cleaners and automobile-finish protective
agents are given in Table 13.
Table 13. Partial compositions of automobile-finish cleaners and
protective agents
Component Automobile- Automobile-finish
finish protective agent ∗
cleaner ∗
Anionic surfactant, wt % 10 – 20
Nonionic surfactant, wt % 5 – 10 4–8
Cationic surfactant, wt % 5 – 10
Solvating agent (e.g., iso-
propyl alcohol, urea), wt % 2 – 5
Polyphosphate, wt % 0 – 10
White oils, wt % 10 – 20
Preservative present absent
∗ These preparations are in aqueous solution
In general, car windshields are washed with
common window cleaners. Especially stubborn
dirt such as silicone films is removed by using a
suspension of a mild abrasive such as siliceous
chalk or finely dispersed silicic acid in an al-
coholic solution containing a wetting agent. To
clean the windshield effectively while a vehi-
cle is in motion, wetting agents compatible with
hard water are added to the windshield washer
reservoir. Appropriate substances include alkyl
polyglycol ether sulfates or fatty alcohol polyg-
lycol ethers. For winter use, addition of an an-
tifreeze such as alcohol or some other freez-
ing point depressant is necessary [22–24]. The
compositions of windshield washer additives for
summer and winter use are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. Partial compositions of windshield washer additives for
summer and winter use
Component Additive for Additive for
summer use∗ winter use
Surfactant, wt % 15 – 20 1–2
Sequestering agent, wt % 1–5
Ethanol, wt % 78 – 94
Ethylene glycol, wt % 5 – 20
∗ The preparation is used in aqueous solution
Tar removers, surfactant-containing solvent
cleaners, are used to remove spots of tar or as-
phalt. Suitable surfactants include alkylphenol
polyglycol ethers having 8 or 9 ethylene oxide
units. The product is sprayed or painted on the
spot, and then removed with water [25].
A typical tar remover contains 60 – 80 wt %
mineral spirits, 15 – 25 wt % perchloroethylene
or citrus terpenes, and 5 – 15 wt % surfactants.
1.12. Building Facade Cleaners
Because of the number of materials employed
in the facades of buildings and the variability of
their resistance to chemicals, any cleansers to be
used on them must be thoroughly tested for suit-
ability [26]. Facades made of acid-resistant ma-
sonry (including brick) are usually treated with
strongly acidic cleansers, preferably those con-
taining acids such as hydrofluoric [7664-39-3] or
phosphoric acid [7664-38-2] that form sparingly
soluble calcium salts. A typical such cleanser
contains 10 – 20 wt % hydrofluoric acid, 10 –
20 wt % phosphoric acid, and 5 – 15 wt % sur-
factants in aqueous solution.
Acid-sensitive materials, such as concrete or
plaster, require the use of strongly alkaline me-
dia. Alkaline treatment must be followed by
neutralization with dilute acid to prevent pos-
sible subsequent efflorescence. A typical such
alkaline cleanser contains 10 – 30 wt % sodium
hydroxide and 1 – 4 wt % thickener (e.g., poly-
acrylic acid) in an aqueous solution.
Stainless steel facades are cleaned with
mineral spirit – mineral oil emulsions. Heavily
soiled or weathered objects require the use of
either emulsions containing abrasives or weakly
acidic cleansers containing 20 – 40 wt % phos-
phoric acid and 5 – 15 wt % surfactants in an
aqueous medium. Such emulsions with abra-
sives typically contain 15 – 25 wt % mineral oil,

15 – 25 wt % mineral spirits, 5 – 10 wt % emulsi-
fiers, and 10 –20 wt % abrasive (e.g., Neuburger
siliceous chalk or diatomaceous earth) in an
aqueous solution. Anodized aluminum[27] fa-
cades are cleaned with mineral spirit – mineral
oil emulsions, although special acidic cleaners
containing nitric acid [7697-36-2] [28], [29], or
fluorosilicic acid [16961-83-4] can also be used
[30], [31]. Mineral spirit – mineral oil emul-
sions typically contain 20 – 30 wt % mineral oil,
20 – 30 wt % mineral spirits, and 5 – 10 wt %
emulsifiers in an aqueous solution.
2. Cleansers and Disinfectants for
Use in the Food Industry
All surfaces that come in contact with foodstuffs
during their manufacture, processing, or trans-
port must undergo cleansing at prescribed inter-
vals. The various branches of the food indus-
try (e.g., beverage and canned goods manufac-
turers and the sugar, dairy, meat, and fats in-
dustries) are susceptible to different kinds of
contamination; thus, cleansing in this context
necessitates the availability of a wide variety
of different chemical agents. Specific bacteri-
ological concerns must also be addressed. Most
can be satisfied only by a special disinfectant
treatment, either subsequent to or as a part of
the cleaning process. Numerous special disin-
fectants have been developed, and combination
agents that contain mixtures of detergents and
disinfectants are available.
2.1. Cleansers
Cleansing agents must be capable of removing
contaminants containing proteins, fats, carbohy-
drates, and certain inorganic contaminants. The
corresponding products are invariably mixtures
of several components and are supplied as con-
centrated powders or liquids, less commonly as
pastes; these are to be diluted with water to final
concentrations of 0.5 – 2 wt % (0.05 –0.5 wt %
for disinfecting agents). Such products must not
corrode the various treated surfaces. They must
dissolve readily and show a limited foaming ten-
dency in largely automatic processes; they must
also prevent the deposition that might otherwise
result from hard water.
Cleansing Agents 19
Decontaminators. The primary decontam-
inators usually are alkaline. These include
sodium or potassium hydroxide, sodium or
potassium carbonate, alkali-metal salts of
orthophosphoric acid and organic acids, and
sodium and potassium water glasses having
silicon dioxide to alkali-metal oxide ratios of
0.7 – 3.3 [32].
Inorganic acids, such as sulfuric, nitric, and
phosphoric acids, are used to remove largely in-
organic contaminants such as milk or beer scale
[33]. Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids are
employed only in exceptional cases, such as in
cleansers for masonry floors.
Sequestering Agents (“Builders”). A num-
ber of suitable organic and inorganic seques-
tering agents have been employed to com-
plex the calcium and magnesium ions present
in water and, thereby, prevent the formation
of incrustations or deposits on boundary sur-
faces [34]. These substances also aid in the
cleansing operation by breaking up soil lattices.
The alkali-metal salts of the oligophosphoric
acids, diphosphates, triphosphates, tetraphos-
phates, and more highly condensed phosphates
(e.g., hexametaphosphate) remain the most im-
portant inorganic sequestering agents, but their
hypertrophic effects on streams are a serious en-
vironmental concern.
Unlike phosphate, organic sequestering
agents are not decomposed by hard indus-
trial waters, and they are useful for alkaline
and high-temperature applications. Nitrilotri-
acetic acid (NTA), ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA), gluconic and polyacrylic acids
and their alkali-metal salts, and phosphonic acid
or phosphonates are examples of such organic
sequestering agents. Both organic and inor-
ganic sequestering agents usually perform sev-
eral functions. They serve simultaneously as al-
kaline soil removers, as dispersants, and as wa-
ter softeners and are among the most important
cleanser ingredients.
Surface Active Agents. The removal of
greasy dirt requires additional surface active
agents [34]. Such anionic surfactants as fatty
alcohol sulfates, alkylbenzenesulfonates, and
soaps are used. The nonionic polyglycol ethers
of fatty alcohols and alkylphenols, the latter syn-
20 Cleansing Agents
thesized by reaction of the corresponding alco-
hols with ethylene oxide, are also suitable. The
solubility and foaming characteristics of such
compounds depend on the degree of ethoxyla-
tion. Propylene oxide adducts also find some
application, as do alkylamine oxides. Heavily
foaming mixtures of these latter surfactant, often
in combination with alkaline or acidic cleansing
agents, are used in cleansing operations that en-
tail production of stable foams. Such foaming
processes are preferred in the meat-cutting and
meat-packing industries for external cleansing
operations on processing and transport equip-
ment. The stable foam permits the cleansing or
disinfecting agent to act over a prolonged period
of time.
Corrosion Inhibitors. Light metals such as
aluminum and its alloys are attacked more or less
vigorously by alkaline and most acidic cleansers
[35]. Water glass (sodium silicate) is virtually
the only agent used to minimize destructive cor-
rosion under alkaline conditions. A number of
inhibitors can be employed in acidic situations.
The proper choice depends on the specific ma-
terial and acidic cleanser. The increasing use of
stainless steel is reducing the need for inhibitors.
Tin- and zinc-plated utensils and equipment are
rarely encountered.
Foam Inhibitors. Foam is a consequence
of the normal behavior of components of the
cleansing agents, and it can also be produced
by certain contaminants, such as those encoun-
tered in beverage bottles. Special ethoxylated
and propoxylated compounds can be introduced
to reduce foaming, as can such water-insoluble
materials as paraffin oil and silicones [34], [36].
Ethoxylated – propoxylated block polymers are
particularly ideal for cleansing operations be-
cause these materials can show decreasing sol-
ubility with increasing temperature and thereby
increasingly inhibit foaming as the temperature
is raised during cleansing. At the low tempera-
tures found in subsequent rinse steps, they regain
their solubility and can be rinsed cleanly from
the newly washed surfaces.
Dust Inhibitors, Anticaking Agents, and
Solubilizers. Products marketed in powdered
form often contain compounds that inhibit dust
formation, thereby minimizing dust exposure for
personnel working with them. Other additives
may be needed to prevent caking of the powders.
Aqueous products often require the presence of
solubilizers, commonly derived from mono- and
polyfunctional alcohols.
Enzymes. Enzymes such as proteases and
amylases are useful in attacking protein- and
starch-containing contaminants. They are partic-
ularly valuable for cleaning corrodible objects.
An example is the cleaning of membranes em-
ployed in apparatus for ultrafiltration (reverse
osmosis).
2.2. Disinfectants (→ Disinfectants)
The food industry employs as disinfectants
mainly active chlorine compounds, quaternary
ammonium salts, ampholyte soaps, iodophors,
peroxy derivatives, and certain aldehydes [36].
For disinfection of the hands, various mono- and
polyfunctional alcohols are used. Phenolic dis-
infectants are seldom used in the food process-
ing industry. In addition to their microbiological
activity [37], disinfectants must not be corrosive
or cause foam, odor, or skin irritation. They may
not leave residues on food unless these can be
considered absolutely harmless.
Chlorine-Producing Compounds. The dis-
infectant use of salts of hypochlorous acid, both
in powdered and liquid form, continues because
they are inexpensive and have a broad spectrum
of microbiological activity. Liquid products usu-
ally contain alkali-metal hypochlorites. Among
powdered materials, the adducts of alkali-metal
hypochlorites with trisodium phosphate and also
the salts of mono-, di-, and, to some extent,
trichlorocyanuric acid are used. Chloramines,
such as chloramine-T (→ Chloramines), which
form hypochlorites in aqueous solution are also
used.
Hypochlorite is also used in combination dis-
infectant cleansers, which contain ingredients
other than the cited alkaline substances to en-
hance cleansing. Dispersants, wetting agents,
and corrosion inhibitors such as silicates are
among these additives. Hypochlorite disinfec-
tants typically contain 60 – 70 wt % sodium or
potassium hypochlorite, 10 – 20 wt % sodium

or potassium hydroxide, and 3 – 5 wt % penta-
sodium or pentapotassium triphosphate in an
aqueous solution.
Peroxy Derivatives. The common peroxy
derivative disinfectants are hydrogen peroxide
and peroxyborate, although salts of peroxodisul-
furic acid are also occasionally used. Hydrogen
peroxide and peroxyborate are noted for their
long shelf life, but their disinfecting action is too
slow for most purposes. Peroxy derivatives of the
lower fatty acids, especially peroxyacetic acid,
are more suitable because they display more
rapid microbiological effects. Such products are
used almost exclusively in acidic to neutral envi-
ronments and usually contain stabilizers of var-
ious types. Both organic peracids and hydrogen
peroxide are used in one-step acidic cleansing
products.
Iodophors. Disinfectants based on iodine
contain high molecular mass substances with
surfactant properties, preferably nonionic wet-
ting agents. These are particularly effective dis-
persants for elemental iodine and thereby pro-
mote its dissolution in water. Such disinfectants
also contain varying amounts of phosphoric
acid, antifoam agents, and corrosion inhibitors.
They are usually offered as liquids, although ma-
terials in powdered form also exist. A disinfec-
tant of this kind typically contains 10 –40 wt %
phosphoric acid, 1 – 3 wt % iodine, 1 – 2 wt %
corrosion inhibitor, 0 – 20 wt % isopropyl alco-
hol, and 1 – 6 wt % ethoxylated – propoxylated
block polymer in an aqueous solution.
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds.
Salts under this heading are neutral disinfec-
tants that possess surfactant properties. The
(C12−18 )alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlo-
rides are examples. Various quaternary ammo-
nium compounds are often combined to in-
crease the activity of the product against spe-
cific microorganisms. Some quaternary am-
monium compounds can be combined with
phosphoric or sulfuric acid or with alkaline
cleansing agents to yield disinfectants with
cleansing properties. A typical quaternary am-
monium salt disinfectant contains 5 – 20 wt %
(C12−18 )alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlo-
ride, 5 – 10 wt % (C12−18 )alkyldichlorobenzyl-
dimethylammonium chloride, 1 – 3 wt %
Cleansing Agents 21
alkyl polyglycol ether, and 0 – 3 wt %
ethoxylated – propoxylated block polymer in
aqueous solution.
Ampholytes. Ampholytes, ampholytic sur-
factants, or ampholytic soaps have a betaine
structure. They find use as disinfectants, often in
combination with related materials or, occasion-
ally, with quaternary ammonium compounds.
Halocarboxylic Acids. Halocarboxylic
acids, particularly monochloro-, monobromo-,
and monoiodoacetic acids, are used as disin-
fectants, especially in the beverage industry.
The haloacids are supplied in combination with
sulfuric or phosphoric acid, or both. Combi-
nations including surfactants, foam inhibitors,
sequestering agents, and solubilizers provide
one-step disinfectant cleansers. Products based
on a halocarboxylic acid are more stable than
peroxide- or iodophor-based acidic disinfectant
cleansers and, consequently, display a longer
active lifetime. Their use in a carbon dioxide
atmosphere for the cleansing and disinfecting
of fermentation tanks in the brewing industry is
particularly noteworthy (→ Beer).
Aldehydes and Alcohols. Only formalde-
hyde and glutaraldehyde are used as disinfec-
tants to any extent. They are generally supplied
in the form of mixtures containing other surfac-
tants. Aqueous alcoholic products, often con-
taining perfumes, are commonly employed for
disinfecting the hands.
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22 Cleansing Agents
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