smidchens-jacket-UWP.

pdf 1 11/1/13 2:52 PM

“The Power of Song serves not only as the quintessential study of

what constitutes the heart of the remarkable and inspiring move-
ments of the Baltic people, it will stand as a distinct contribution Šmidchens he Power of Song
shows how the people
to the study of civil resistance movements overall.”
—peter ackerman , founding chair of the the the of Estonia, Latvia,
and Lithuania confronted
International Center on Nonviolent Conflict and coauthor
a military superpower and

POWER
of Strategic Nonviolent Conflict and A Force More Powerful
achieved independence in the
Baltic “Singing Revolution.”
“The nonviolent liberation of the Baltic countries resulted from
When attacked by Soviet
collective self-organization as three nations mobilized the power
of song. Utilizing his knowledge of their languages and cultures, of soldiers in public displays
of violent force, singing
Guntis Šmidchens provides the texts as well as the contexts of

SONG
Balts maintained faith in non-
the music that helped three Davids to topple Goliath.” violent political action. More
—walter clemens , professor emeritus of political than 110 choral, rock, and
guntis šmidchens
science at Boston University and associate at the Davis Center folk songs are translated and
is the Kazickas Family for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University
Endowed Professor in Baltic interpreted in poetic, cultural,
Studies in the Scandinavian of and historical contexts.
“An excellent and thorough work and a significant and important
studies department at the
addition to our understanding of the role that folklore and popular
University of Washington.
culture play in shaping political events.”
—timothy tangherlini , UCLA

“A monumental study addressing a sorely neglected aspect of

design by thomas eykemans. cover photo by vilius naujikas.

one of the last century’s most dramatic geopolitical upheavals.
This book will stand, for years and even decades to come, as the
standard, authoritative source on its topic.”
—kevin c. karnes , Emory University
university of

Guntis Šmidchens
washington
press

New Directions in Scandinavian Studies museum

university of washington press
Seattle www.washington.edu/uwpress
museum tusculanum press
Copenhagen www.mtp.dk
nonviolent national culture
ISBN 978-0-295-99310-2
tusculanum
press
in the baltic singing revolution
NEW DIRECTIONS IN SCANDINAV IAN ST UDIES
t e rj e l e i r e n a n d c h r i s t i n e i nge br i t s e n ,
s e r i e s e di t or s

s
es
Pr
n
to
ng
hi
as
W
of
ity
rs
ve
ni
U
NEW DIRECTIONS IN SCANDINAV IAN ST UDIES

This series offers interdisciplinary approaches to the study of the Nordic

region of Scandinavia and the Baltic States and their cultural connections
in North America. By redefining the boundaries of Scandinavian studies
to include the Baltic States and Scandinavian America, the series presents
books that focus on the study of the culture, history, literature, and politics
of the North.

Small States in International Relations edited by

Christine Ingebritsen, Iver B. Neumann, Sieglinde Gstohl, and Jessica Beyer
Danish Cookbooks: Domesticity and National Identity, 1616–1901
Carol Gold

s
Crime and Fantasy in Scandinavia: Fiction, Film, and Social Change

es
Andrew Nestingen

Pr
Selected Plays of Marcus Thrane translated and introduced by
Terje I. Leiren n
to
Munch’s Ibsen: A Painter’s Visions of a Playwright
ng

Joan Templeton
hi

Knut Hamsun: The Dark Side of Literary Brilliance

as

Monika Žagar
W

Nordic Exposures: Scandinavian Identities

in Classical Hollywood Cinema
of

Arne Lunde
ity

Icons of Danish Modernity: Georg Brandes and Asta Nielsen

Julie K. Allen
rs
ve

Danish Folktales, Legends, and Other Stories

Timothy R. Tangherlini
ni

The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture

U

in the Baltic Singing Revolution

Guntis Šmidchens
The Power of Song
nonviolent national culture
in the baltic singing revolution

Guntis Šmidchens

s
es
Pr
n
to
ng
hi
as
W
of
ity
rs
ve
ni
U

u n i v e r s i t y o f wa s h i n g t o n p r e s s Seattle and London

museum tusculanum press Copenhagen

this book is made possible by a collaborative grant
from the andrew w. mellon foundation.

s
es
This publication is supported by a grant from the
Scandinavian Studies Publication Fund and the Baltic

Pr
Studies Program at the University of Washington.

© 2014 by the University of Washington Press

n
to
19 18 17 16 15 14 54321
ng

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
hi

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,

as

recording, or any information storage or retrieval

system, without permission in writing from the
W

publisher.
of

University of Washington Press

PO Box 50096, Seattle, WA 98145, USA
ity

www.washington.edu/uwpress
rs

Published in Europe by Museum Tusculanum Press

ve

126 Njalsgade, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark

www.mtp.dk ISBN 978-87-635-4148-0
ni
U

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Smidchens, Guntis, 1963–
The power of song : nonviolent national culture in the
Baltic singing revolution / Guntis Smidchens.
pages cm. — (New directions in Scandinavian studies)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-295-99310-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Song festivals—Political aspects—Baltic States.
2. Choral singing—Political aspects—Baltic States.
3. Music—Political aspects—Baltic States. I. Title.
ML3917.B37S65 2013
782.4209479—dc23  2013029860

The paper used in this publication is acid-free and

meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences—
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z39.48–1984.∞
Life’s greatest moments are so simple. A people singing. 
  —Ivar Ivask

s
es
Pr
n
to
ng
hi
as
W
of
ity
rs
ve
ni
U
U
ni
ve
rs
ity
of
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
Pr
es
s
contents

Acknowledgments ix

s
es
Introduction: Three Nonviolent National Cultures 3

Pr
1. Balts Speak to America, July 4, 1998 7
n
2. Herder’s Discovery of Baltic Songs 24
to
ng

3. Three Singing Nations and Their Songs 50

hi

4. Songs of Warrior Nations 107

as

5. Soviet Power versus Power of the Powerless 135

W

6. Living within the Truth in Choral Songs 160

of

7. Living within the Truth in Rock Songs 209

ity

8. Living within the Truth in Folk Songs 261

rs

9. Nonviolent National Singing Traditions 307

ve
ni

Appendix I: Index and Map of Place Names 329

U

Appendix II: Chronology 333

Appendix III: Song Annotations and Index 339
Notes 357
Bibliography, Discography, and Filmography 409
General Index 435
U
ni
ve
rs
ity
of
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
Pr
es
s
acknowledgments

In writing this book I have had the aid of a number of institutions and
individuals whose role I gratefully acknowledge. The Ralph Rinzler

s
es
Folklife Archives and Collections provided copies of sound record-

Pr
ings that are at the center of this study. The University of Washington
Libraries ensured access to most published sources quoted here. The
n
to
EEVA Digital Text Repository for Older Estonian Literature, the Digi-
ng

tal Collections at the National Library of Latvia, the Lithuanian Folk

Culture Centre website, and Google Books gave easy online access to
hi

rare publications. The National Library of Estonia helped locate numer-

as

ous songbooks in its collection. In Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, musi-

W

cians and singers opened their homes and rehearsals to me and invited
of

me to sing with them. People whom I interviewed in person or by email

ity

gave insights beyond any information found in published sources. Their

rs

names appear in notes, but I wish to emphasize here that their generos-
ve

ity and friendly assistance enriched this work immeasurably.

ni

The University of Washington Department of Scandinavian Stud-

U

ies provided a Junior Faculty Release Quarter and a Summer Research

Grant, and made possible several expeditions to the Baltic. In 1991–
1992 and 1997, my fieldwork was supported in part by grants from
the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), with funds
provided by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the United
States Information Agency, and the US Department of State. In 1999
and 2000, travel grants from the Open Society Support Foundation
Group Research Support Scheme allowed me to meet colleagues in
Latvia for valuable discussions about national identity formation. The
UW Chamber Singers and UW Chorale invited me to travel with them
on their Baltic concert tours in 2000, 2005, and 2010, allowing me to
x Acknowledgments

witness firsthand the power that songs have in creating bridges across
language barriers.
Portions of the manuscript were read and commented on by Geof-
frey Boers, Mimi Daitz, Thomas DuBois, Ulrich Gaier, Heather
MacLaughlin Garbes, Terje Leiren, Lalita Muižniece, Živilė Ramo-
škaitė, and Rimas Žilinskas. Kanni Labi offered a particularly inci-
sive reading of several chapters. The entire manuscript was read by
Dace Bula, Kevin Karnes, Violeta Kelertas, Aldis Purs, and Zinta
Šmidchens, whose critique and encouragement were invaluable. Stu-
dents in classes I taught at the University of Washington have pro-
vided a sounding board for ideas and translation attempts. Scandina-
vian Department research assistants Sean Hughes and Axel Thorson
helped index my archive and edit the manuscript. The editors of the

s
New Directions in Scandinavian Studies Series gave support and sug-

es
gestions for improvements. Tim Zimmermann, Kerrie Maynes, and

Pr
the editors and anonymous readers at the University of Washington
Press helped shape the manuscript’s final version.
n
to
Illustrations for this book were possible thanks to the assistance of
ng

the directors and staff at the institutions mentioned in the credits. Sil-
hi

vestras Gaižiūnas, Ojārs Griķis, Ain Haas, Inta Kaņepāja, Andres Kas-
as

ekamp, Veiko Lukmann, Angonita Rupšytė, Valters Ščerbinskis, and

W

Aušra Valančiauskienė also offered critical help in acquiring images

and other resources. Zinta Šmidchens crafted a map of place names
of

mentioned in this book.

ity

All of these institutions and people have improved my work consid-

rs

erably, but I alone remain responsible for this book’s content. I thank
ve

the four teachers who opened up Baltic worlds for me: Violeta Keler-
ni

tas, Lalita Muižniece, Harri Mürk, and Toivo Raun, and my father,
U

who sang with his children to pass the time on long car trips.
U
ni
ve
rs
The Power of Song

ity
of
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
Pr
es
s
U
ni
ve
rs
ity
of
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
Pr
es
s
Introduction
Three Nonviolent National Cultures

s
es
Pr
“A nation who makes its revolution by singing and smiling should be
n
a sublime example to all,” wrote the Estonian journalist Heinz Valk,
to
in the June 1988 editorial whose title, “Singing Revolution,” gave the
ng

nonviolent Baltic independence movement its name. “It is impossible

hi

to even imagine in Estonia’s city streets the riots, barricades, burning

as

automobiles and similar features of mass revolt by large nations. This

W

is not our way!”1 The Baltic way had begun a year earlier when cou-
of

rageous Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians publicly broke through

ity

Soviet restrictions on free speech and assembly. It gained force as atten-

dance at political meetings grew from handfuls to hundreds of thou-
rs

sands. It culminated in the election of the three governments that in

ve

spring of 1990 declared independence from the Soviet Union and estab-
ni

lished civilian-based defense as the means of liberation. The movement’s

U

nonviolent foundations were tested from January to August 1991, when

Soviet soldiers killed people in public displays of violent force. Esto-
nia, Latvia, and Lithuania nevertheless sustained policies based on non-
violence, and achieved their goal of political independence when they
established diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation from July
29 to August 24, 1991. At this great moment, the power of nonviolent
political action was reconfirmed. What Estonians, Latvians, and Lithua-
nians did, exclaims a leading scholar of nonviolence, “stands as a major
milestone in the history of the modern world.”2
Why did the struggle for Baltic independence come to be called the
Singing Revolution? What did they sing? And what role did singing
play in the Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian campaigns of political

3
4 Introduction

mobilization and nonviolent action? Many scholars have documented

and analyzed the events that led to Baltic independence; most have
focused on the parliamentary processes by which nonformal Baltic
citizens groups created the three governments that severed ties with
Moscow.3 Some have studied the movement’s nonviolent tactics and
expanded the Singing Revolution’s history to include events that took
place many decades or even a century earlier.4 Few, however, have
gone to the heart of Baltic nonviolent political action in the late twen-
tieth century: the songs and singing that gave the movement its name.5
At public gatherings, Balts sang. This book offers a small selection
of their choral, rock, and folk songs in English translation. Follow-
ing traditions of “thick description” in folklore studies, song texts are
presented in their historical, cultural, and poetic context.6 The goal

s
is to interpret meanings as Balts themselves may have imagined them

es
when they sang, or, following the lead of Anthony David Smith, to

Pr
enter the participants’ “inner world.”7 Ideally, Estonians, Latvians,
n
and Lithuanians should be allowed to speak for themselves, select-
to
ing, performing, and commenting on their own songs. This is why the
ng

sixteen songs in the book’s first chapter carry particular weight. They
hi

were documented at the 1998 Smithsonian Folklife Festival, in a con-

as

cert in which native participants remembered their Singing Revolu-

W

tion.8 Songs presented in later chapters, too, were usually first selected
by persons other than the author. At some point in national history,
of

each of the one hundred and twelve songs in this book was identified
ity

by an Estonian, Latvian, or Lithuanian, or in some cases by an out-

rs

side observer, as a key text, worthy of inclusion in the discourse on

ve

national identity. Some songs, for example, were foregrounded by per-

ni

sons who placed them first or last in a songbook or a concert program,

U

or by audiences who enthusiastically requested encores. Some songs

were selected because they entered national tradition, to be quoted
and adapted by poets and songwriters in new, popular songs. Many
of the songs in this book were sung during the Singing Revolution.
Documentary filmmakers and memoir authors have quoted them as a
means of capturing the movement’s spirit.
In 1998 at the Smithsonian festival, my job as interpreter for Baltic
singers and speakers as they performed on stage was to convey to the
English-speaking American audience, within a split-second, a sense of
what the singers were singing. On paper, there is more time to ponder
and translate each word, but the sounds of the singing and the faces
of the singers are gone. The written words on this book’s pages are
Introduction 5

voices from the past, “textual shards of a once-living work of verbal

art,” removed by decades from their original performances, transcribed
and translated into a language and cultural context very different from
their own.9 Space restrictions do not allow inclusion of musical notation
or texts in the original languages; these sources may nowadays be easily
retrieved online, or found in the publications listed in notes. This book
needs to stand alone, too. It should contain poetry that might, albeit dis-
tantly, recreate the feelings of the people who once sang it. My English
translations attempt to use sounds and rhythms that might help a reader
“hear” them, perhaps, as a native might experience them in Estonian,
Latvian, Lithuanian, German, or Russian. Some of the translations fol-
low the original meter precisely, others retain some poetic form but are
not “singable,” while still others sacrifice poetic form to reproduce con-

s
tent or intertextual connections. Together, these texts make up a web

es
of songs and performances in cultural and historical context, recreating

Pr
meanings beyond the sum total of individual texts.
n
The chapters of this book offer some pieces in the puzzle of the
to
Singing Revolution. Why were songs particularly resonant symbols of
ng

national identity and political action? The story begins in chapter 2 with
hi

the eighteenth-century philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, who iden-

as

tified songs as symbols of heritage and as models for effective poetry,

W

and used them as rhetorical tools that would bring about social change.
How did these ideas diffuse to the masses of the three nations? Chap-
of

ter 3 sketches out the transition from Herder’s philosophical interest

ity

in folk poetry to the nineteenth-century construction of Baltic national

rs

cultures, and to the birth of singing nations in song festival traditions.

ve

Singing traditions established a fundamental means of nonviolent politi-

ni

cal change, but parallel strands of violent national military songs also
U

emerged; these are engaged in chapter 4. Chapter 5 introduces the ideo-

logically charged traditions of Soviet mass culture that were imposed
upon the Baltic under Stalinism, and presents a mechanism by which
individuals could maintain non-Soviet identities, most notably by sing-
ing songs that did not follow the officially prescribed rules of Soviet
socialist realism. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 outline non-Soviet singing that
emerged in three styles: choral, rock/pop, and folk. All of these tradi-
tions converged in the Singing Revolution.
This book aims to expand our knowledge of Baltic national cul-
tures and nationalism. It also contributes to our understanding of
nonviolent political movements. In the international study of nonvio-
lence, many books have been devoted to political tactics, and to the
6 Introduction

biographies and moral and philosophical writings of movement lead-

ers.10 The past two decades have produced many ethnographic descrip-
tions of conflict resolution in “peaceful societies.”11 We know less,
however, about the shared texts and traditions through which large
masses of individuals assumed ownership of tactical and philosophi-
cal principles and joined these movements to give them their “people
power.”12 Singing is often overlooked. The standard history of non-
violence by Peter Ackerman and Jack DuVall, A Force More Power-
ful, a companion volume to the six-part PBS broadcast, lists in its
index many key words related to nonviolent struggle: ahimsa, armed
struggle, boycotts, Catholic Church, civil disobedience, doctors, elec-
tions, financial sanctions, general strikes, hunger strikes, Internet, leaf-
lets, marches, media, negotiating, noncooperation, petitions, refusal

s
to work, resignations, self-rule, sit-ins, strikes, (withholding) taxes,

es
underground press, violence, work stay-aways—but no singing, and

Pr
no songs. A case study of the Baltic Singing Revolution may help add
these key words to the study of nonviolence.
n
to
Because the Baltic independence movement combined nationalist
ng

and nonviolent ideologies, this book engages a well-known problem,

hi

the question of whether it is possible to reconcile nonviolent prin-

as

ciples with a pursuit of nationalist power.13 In the Baltic, Mark Beiss-

W

inger finds that “non-violence and passionate ethnic identity need not
be incompatible,” and argues that the emotional bonds created by
of

nationalism were a resource for peaceful mass politics.14 The three

ity

national cultures provided Baltic activists with much more than ethnic
rs

solidarity. They contained a powerful arsenal of symbols that could

ve

inspire and sustain faith in nonviolent struggle. Connections between

ni

the ideology of nonviolence and Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian

U

national identities reach back two centuries, drawing deep strands

from the nineteenth-century works of native Baltic nation builders.
In 1873, the Latvian national poet Auseklis exclaimed, “The power
of songs drove away war!” Auseklis’s poem passed into the national
choral canon, and resurfaced a century later at the national song fes-
tival of 1990. In the Baltic, nonviolence and the struggle for national
political independence were not merely compatible—they merged in a
powerful, unified current of songs. To be Estonian, Latvian, or Lithu-
anian in 1988–91 meant to be politically nonviolent. True to Heinz
Valk’s assertion quoted above, Auseklis’s song and many other songs
of the Baltic Singing Revolution offer inspiration to the nonviolent
people and nations of our world.