The elements of teaching and learning

1. The Elements of Teaching and Learning

2. The principal elements that make teaching and learning possible and attainable are the
teachers, the learners, and a conducive learning environment. The teacher serves as the prime
mover of the educational wheel. The learners are the key participants in the learning process. The
favourable environment provides essential features and ingredients that could make headway in
guiding the processes and methodologies needed for a smooth linkage among the three.
3. The Learner
4. •The Nature of the Learner
The learner is an embodied spirit, a union of a sentient body and a rational soul. His body
experiences sensations, and feels pleasure and pain. His soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the
source of intellectual abstraction, self reflection, and free rational volition.
5. •The Fundamental Equipment of the LearnerCOGNITIVE FACULTIES APPETITIVE
FACULTIES• Five (5) senses • Feelings• Instinct • Emotions• Imagination • Rational Will•
Memory• Intellect
6. • All learners are equipped with cognitive as well as appetitive faculties however, they differ
in the degree to which they are utilized and expressed on the account of the learners’ abilities,
aptitudes, interests, values and attitudes and home background.1. Ability• The students’ native
ability dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity. It determines their capacity to
understand and assimilate information for their own use and application.
7. 2. Aptitude• It refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity to learn
certain skills.3. Interests• Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong appeal or
attraction. Lessons that give the learners the chance to express themselves will be more
meaningful and easily absorbed.
8. 4. Family & Cultural background• Students who come from different socioeconomic
background manifest a wide range of behaviour due to differences in upbringing practices.5.
Attitudes• Attitude refers to an individual perspective and disposition.• Some positive attitudes
are curiosity, responsibility, creativity & persistence.
9. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory1. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence2. Logical-
mathematical Intelligence3. Spatial Intelligence4. Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence5. Musical
Intelligence6. Interpersonal Intelligence7. Intrapersonal Intelligence8. Naturalist Intelligence
10. •Learning Styles1. Sensing-thinking (Mastery Learner)2. Intuitive thinking (Understanding
Learner)3. Intuitive-Feeling (Self-Expressive Learner)4. Sensing-Feeling (Interpersonal Learner)
11. The Teacher
12. •The Professional TeacherThe professional teacher is the “licensed professional who
possesses dignity with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence...he
adheres to, observes, and practices a set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.”
(Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers, 1997). The professional teacher is the one who went
through four to five year period of rigorous academic preparation in teaching and one who is
given a license to teach by the Board of Professional Teachers of the Professional Regulation
Commission after fulfilling requirements prescribed by law such as the Licensure Examination
for Teachers (LET).
13. •Professional AttributesA professional teacher possesses the following attributes: Control
of the knowledge base of teaching and learning and use this knowledge to guide the science and
art of his/her teaching practice. Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to
instruct children in classrooms and to work with adults in the school setting. Disposition and
skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in a reflective, collegial, and problem-solving
manner. View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and skills for working
towards improving his/her own teaching as well as improving schools.
14. •Personal Attributes• Personality is the sum of one’s personal characteristics. It is one’s
identity.• Teachers are judged more strictly than any other professionals. The personality they
project determines they make upon students and colleagues.• Personalities may be described as
authoritative, weak, dynamic, or “magnetic”. Teachers’ personality must be natural and genuine,
devoid of pretences and artificiality. They must be consistent, true and authentic.
15. 1. Passion• Passion in teaching is a compelling force that emerges from one’s inborn love for
children. Passionate teachers exude spontaneity in ministering to the needs of the students
especially those experiencing learning difficulties.2. Humor• Humor stands for anything funny,
which elicits a smile, laughter or amusing reaction. It is an essential quality of teachers that
serves a number of purposes.
16. 3. Values and AttitudesTeachers are model of values. Values connote standards, code of
ethics and strong beliefs.a. Open-mindedness is basic in promoting respect and trust between
teachers and studentsb. Fairness and impartiality eliminates discrimination. Teachers must be
unbiased and objective in judging their students work and performance.c. Professionalism is
highly treasured in the teaching profession. Teachers are adjudged professional if they are
knowledgeable, skilled and value-laden.
17. 4. Patience• In teaching, patience refers to a teacher’s uncomplaining nature, self-control and
persistence. Patient teachers can forego momentous frustrations and disappointments. They
calmly endure their students’ limitations and difficulties. The teacher’s capacity to adjust his
methodologies could allay the tension and save time and effort for appropriate remediation.
18. 5. EnthusiasmEnthusiasm is synonymous to eagerness and excitement. Enthusiastic teachers
are full of energy and dynamism. With enthusiastic teachers, students look forward to any
activity they can participate in with them.• Commitment is a “solemn promise” to perform the
duties and responsibilities mandated by the laws and code of ethics of the profession. It is an
unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and learning activities with consistency and
selflessness to the best interest of the students under their care.
19. The Learning Environment “To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to
environment, he owes the realization of these possibilities.”
20. IntroductionThe learning environment is the place where teaching and learning can take
place in the most effective and productive manner. It consists of the classroom and all the
instructional features and the non-threatening classroom climate needed in planning and
implementing all teaching and learning activities.
21. Arrangement of FurnitureThe furniture, like the table for demonstration located in front of
the room and the chairs facing it are neatly arranged with sufficient spaces in- between for ease
in moving around. Display shelves for safekeeping of projects, collections and outstanding work
are located at the sides. Attached to the wall is the bulletin board for hanging posters,
announcements and illustrations about the unit being undertaken. During discussions, the board
in front is used for clarifying step-by-step procedures and making clearer diagrams, illustrations
and figures.
22. cont.Teaching devices like globes, maps and charts are kept in nearby cabinets, together with
simple tools and materials. A temporary table is placed at the right side where supplies, materials
and handled instruments are arranged, ready for the day’s lesson.
23. Physical Condition of the ClassroomAs soon as the students enter they are attracted by a
clean and orderly set-up. Natural light and flowing fresh air add to their comfort and ease. Free
from noise coming from the surroundings, students’ concentration and interest are easily
sustained. The doors and windows could be opened and closed with less difficulty and noise. The
light fixtures are located where needed.
24. InteractionsA diverse situation may exist in the classroom at any given time. Students differ
in abilities and interests while teachers likely employ different strategies. Teachers must be
sensitive to positive or negative interactions and must immediately undertake an instant revision
or adjustment in the methodology when necessary. The primary goal is to be able to motivate
them to work harmoniously, thereafter, inculcate the values of cooperation and congeniality.
25. A Facilitative Learning EnvironmentPine and Horn (1990) described the learning
environment that facilitates learning. It is an environment: Which encourages people to be
active; Which promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal meaning of
idea; Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning in which
difference is good and desirable;
26. Which consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes; Which tolerates
ambiguity; In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self- evaluation;
Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self; In which people are
encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external resources; In which people feel they are
respected; In which people feel they are accepted; Which permits confrontation.
27. See you next meeting class!
7 Important Factors that May Affect the Learning Process
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Some of the important factors which may affect the learning process are as follows:
It has been found out that the pupil’s difficulty in learning may be due to many factors within the
child himself.
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1. Intellectual factor:

The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related to

level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering
schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual disabilities.

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A low score in one subject and his scores in other subjects indicate the possible presence of a

special deficiency. Psychology reveals to use that an individual possess different kinds to

intelligence. Knowledge of the nature of the pupil’s intellect is of considerable value in the
guidance and the diagnosis of disability.
The native capacity of the individual is of prime importance in determining the effectiveness of
the, learning process.

2. Learning factors:

Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and

narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the

school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is

mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere
with successful progress.
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In arithmetic, for instance, knowledge of basic addition is essential to successful work in

multiplication. Weakness in addition will contribute directly to the deficiency in multiplication.

Likewise, failure in history may be due to low reading ability or weakness in English.

Similarly, because of faulty instruction, the pupil may have learned inefficient methods of study.

Many other kinds of difficulty which are directly related to learning factors may interfere with
progress.
3. Physical factors:

Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and

physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards
physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth.

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Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped in

developing skills such as reading and spelling. It has been demonstrated that various glands of
internal secretion, such as the thyroid and pituitary glands, affect behavior. The health of the
learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his power to concentrate.

4. Mental factors:

Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements.

They are not to be confused with emotions that are characterized by internal visceral

disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the mental
organization and general behavior of the individual.
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Attitudes are also important in the development of personality. Among these attitudes aw

interest, cheerfulness, affection, prejudice, -open mindedness, and loyalty. Attitudes exercise a
stimulating effect upon the rate of learning and teaching and upon the progress in school.

The efficiency of the work from day to day and the rapidity with which it is achieved are

influenced by the attitude of the learner. A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning. The
factor of interest is very closely related in nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.

5. Emotional and social factors:

Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and

rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the

various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety
of tendencies.
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Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil

may have developed a dislike for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or may lack
foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional state.

Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness because of their fear of being victims of the

disapproval of their teachers and classmates. This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the
learning process to a considerable degree. This is oftentimes the result of bad training.
Social discontent springs from the knowledge or delusion that one is below others in welfare.

6. Teacher’s Personality:

The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning environment or

in the failures and success of the learner. The way in which his personality interacts with the

personalities of the pupils being taught helps to determine the kind of behavior which emerges
from the learning situation.

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The supreme value of a teacher is not in the regular performance of routine duties, but in his
power to lead and to inspire his pupils through the influence of his moral personality and
example. Strictly speaking, personality is made up of all the factors that make the individual

what he is, the complex pattern of characteristics that distinguishes him from the others of his
kind. Personality is the product of many integrating forces.

In other words, an individual’s personality is a composite of his physical appearance, his mental

capacity, his emotional behavior, and his attitudes towards others. Effective teaching and
learning are the results of an integrated personality of the teacher.

Generally speaking, pupils do- not like a grouchy teacher who cannot control his temper before

the class. It is impossible for a teacher with a temper to create enthusiasm and to radiate light and
sunshine to those about him.

Pupils love a happy, sympathetic, enthusiastic, and cheerful teacher. Effective teaching and

learning are the results of love for the pupils, sympathy for their interests, tolerance, and a
definite capacity for understanding.

The teacher must therefore recognize that in all his activities in the classroom he is directly
affecting the behavior of the growing and learning organism.

7. Environmental factor:

Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors that

affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning takes place. This includes the
classrooms, textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other instructional materials.
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In the school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favorable and adequate if

teaching is to produce the desired results. It cannot be denied that the type and quality of

instructional materials and equipment play an important part in the instructional efficiency of the
school.

It is difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type of building and without adequate

equipment and instructional materials. A school building or a classroom has no merit when built
without due regard to its educational objectives and functions.
 Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's Theory

Amy C. Brualdi ERIC/AE

Arguing that "reason, intelligence, logic, knowledge are not synomous. . .", Howard Gardner
(1983) proposed a new view of intelligence that is rapidly being incorporated in school curricula.
In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner expanded the concept of intelligence to also
include such areas as music, spacial relations, and interpersonal knowledge in addition to
mathematical and linguistic ability.

This digest discusses the origins of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, his definition of
intelligence, the incorporation of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences into the classroom, and its
role in alternative assessment practices.

Seven Intelligences

Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are
valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Using biological as well as
cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence
differs greatly from the traditional view which usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal
and computational. The seven intelligences Gardner defines are:

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence--consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively

and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical
thinking.

Linguistic Intelligence-- involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the
ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also
allows one to use language as a means to remember information.

Spatial Intelligence-- gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to
solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains-- Gardner notes that spatial
intelligence is also formed in blind children.

Musical Intelligence-- encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches,
tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in
relation to pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence-- is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's
own bodily movements. This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical
activity are unrelated.

The Personal Intelligences-- includes interpersonal intelligence -- the ability to understand

and discern the feelings and intentions of others-- and intrapersonal intelligence --the ability to
understand one's own feelings and motivations. These two intelligences are separate from each
other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in most cultures, they are often linked
together.

Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the
seven intelligences very rarely operate independently. Rather, the intelligences are used
concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve
problems. For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he has 1) strong musical intelligence
to understand the rhythm and variations of the music, 2) interpersonal intelligence to understand
how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his movements, as well as 3)
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the
movements successfully.

Basis for Intelligence

Gardner argues that there is both a biological and cultural basis for the multiple intelligences.
Neurobiological research indicates that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the
synaptic connections between cells. Primary elements of different types of learning are found in
particular areas of the brain where corresponding transformations have occurred. Thus, various
types of learning results in synaptic connections in different areas of the brain. For example,
injury to the Broca's area of the brain will result in the loss of one's ability to verbally
communicate using proper syntax. Nevertheless, this injury will not remove the patient's
understanding of correct grammar and word usage.

In addition to biology, Gardner (1983) argues that culture also plays a large role in the
development of the intelligences. All societies value different types of intelligences. The cultural
value placed upon the ability to perform certain tasks provides the motivation to become skilled
in those areas. Thus, while particular intelligences might be highly evolved in many people of
one culture, those same intelligences might not be as developed in the individuals of another.

Using Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in
terms of classroom instruction. The theory states that all seven intelligences are needed to
productively function in society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as equally
important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically place a strong
emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligences. Thus, the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences implies that educators should recognize and teach to a broader
range of talents and skills.

Another implication is that teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style which
engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the revolutionary
war, a teacher can show students battle maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play
of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and have the students read a novel about life
during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students about learning, but it also
allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide
assortment of intelligences, teaching in this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the
subject material.

Everyone is born possessing the seven intelligences. Nevertheless, all students will come into the
classroom with different sets of developed intelligences. This means that each child will have his
own unique set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how easy (or
difficult) it is for a student to learn information when it is presented in a particular manner. This
is commonly referred to as a learning style. Many learning styles can be found within one
classroom. Therefore, it is impossible, as well as impractical, for a teacher to accommodate every
lesson to all of the learning styles found within the classroom. Nevertheless the teacher can show
students how to use their more developed intelligences to assist in the understanding of a subject
which normally employs their weaker intelligences (Lazear, 1992). For example, the teacher can
suggest that an especially musically intelligent child learn about the revolutionary war by making
up a song about what happened.

Toward a More Authentic Assessment

As the education system has stressed the importance of developing mathematical and linguistic
intelligences, it often bases student success only on the measured skills in those two
intelligences. Supporters of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences believe that this emphasis
is unfair. Children whose musical intelligences are highly developed, for example, may be
overlooked for gifted programs or may be placed in a special education class because they do not
have the required math or language scores. Teachers must seek to assess their students' learning
in ways which will give an accurate overview of the their strengths and weaknesses.

As children do not learn in the same way, they cannot be assessed in a uniform fashion.
Therefore, it is important that a teacher create an "intelligence profiles" for each student.
Knowing how each student learns will allow the teacher to properly assess the child's progress
(Lazear, 1992). This individualized evaluation practice will allow a teacher to make more
informed decisions on what to teach and how to present information.

Traditional tests (e.g. multiple choice, short answer, essay. . .) require students to show their
knowledge in a predetermined manner. Supporters of Gardner's theory claim that a better
approach to assessment is to allow students to explain the material in their own ways using the
different intelligences. Preferred assessment methods include student portfolios, independent
projects, student journals, and assigning creative tasks. An excellent source for a more in-depth
discussion on these different evaluation practices is Lazear (1992).

Conclusion

Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-
confidence. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for
recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all
students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other
areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing
learning in this manner allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom
learning.

Sigmund Freud and Child Development

Angela Oswalt, MSW

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents
dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities
developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults. Freud described
children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal,
Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
 In Freud's view, each stage focused on sexual activity

and the pleasure received from a particular area of the body. In the oral phase, children are
focused on the pleasures that they receive from sucking and biting with their mouth. In the Anal
phase, this focus shifts to the anus as they begin toilet training and attempt to control their
bowels. In the Phallic stage, the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual identification
that comes with having or not having a penis. During this phase, Freud thought that children turn
their interest and love toward their parent of the opposite sex and begin to strongly resent the
parent of the same sex. He called this idea the Oedipus Complex as it closely mirrored the events
of an ancient Greek tragic play in which a king named Oedipus manages to marry his mother and
kill his father. The Phallic/Oedipus stage was thought to be followed by a period of Latency
during which sexual urges and interest were temporarily nonexistent. Finally, children were
thought to enter and remain in a final Genital stage in which adult sexual interests and activities
come to dominate.
Another part of Freud's theory focused on identifying the parts of consciousness. Freud thought
that all babies are initially dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish urges for immediate
gratification which he labeled the Id. As babies attempt and fail to get all their whims met, they
develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic and possible, which Freud called the
"Ego". Over time, babies also learn about and come to internalize and represent their parents'
values and rules. These internalized rules, which he called the "Super-Ego", are the basis for the
the developing child's conscience that struggles with the concepts of right and wrong and works
with the Ego to control the immediate gratification urges of the Id.
By today's rigorous scientific standards, Freud's psychosexual theory is not considered to be very
accurate. However, it is still important and influential today because it was the first stage
development theory that gained real attention, and many other theorists used it as a starting
place.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

By Saul McLeod, updated 2019

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido
(roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person
grows physically certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration
(erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature
biologically. (NB Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean all pleasurable
actions and thoughts).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between
frustrated wishes and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for
gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body
at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.

The Role of Conflict

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved
before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more
energy that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage
remain with the individual as he/she matures psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops
advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the
battle (resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next
battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops
to remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason
for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have
been adequately met in which case there is frustration.
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave
the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been
permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

You can remember the order of these stages by using the mnemonic: “old (oral) age (anal)
pensioners (phallic) love (latent) grapes (genital).

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets
much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities
all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities
engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from
defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their
wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has
developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict
with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who
hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's
then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-
training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like
giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a
new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes
blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively
and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take
away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his
penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in
masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old
boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another
person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego
ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the
father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis
envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis
with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates
great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to
take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The
libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy
can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in
puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions
may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
Critical Evaluation
Is Freudian psychology supported by evidence? Freud's theory is good at explaining but not at
predicting behavior (which is one of the goals of science).
For this reason, Freud's theory is unfalsifiable - it can neither be proved true or refuted. For
example, the libido is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly
unscientific.
Freud may also have shown research bias in his interpretations - he may have only paid attention
to information which supported his theories, and ignored information and other explanations that
did not fit them.
However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that Freud’s theory should be evaluated in terms of
specific hypotheses rather than as a whole. They concluded that there is evidence to support
Freud’s concepts of oral and anal personalities
The Fundamental Equipment Of The Learner In Learning
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There are certain fundamental qualities of a learner that can be considered as the learner’s
equipment in order for him of for her to absorbed knowledge in learning. These fundamental
equipments are the learners cognitive as well as the learner’s appetitive faculties. These faculties
will naturally help or guide the learner as he dealt with the learning process.

The cognitive faculties of the learners included his or her five senses, his memory, his
imagination, as well as his intellect. All of these faculties is related to the basic operation of the
human brain and are necessary for the learning process.

Through

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the learner’s five senses, the learners can be able to see, to hear, to taste and to smell. He or she
can be able to grasp different information from his or her surrounding environment using these
natural senses.
With the learner’s imagination, he or she can be able to form pictorial representation of material
objects in his or her mind. This ability is an important factor in the learning process.
The learner’s memory is one of the important factors in learning. With the use of the memory,
the learner can recall or retain post mental actions in his or her mind. The memory serves as the
storage of the prior knowledge of the learner.

The learner’s intellect is also an important factor in learning. With the use

of the learner’s intellect, he or she can be able to form concepts of ideas as he or she thinks as
well make judgment from given information and reason out.
The appetitive faculty of the learner that can also be considered as equipment in learning
includes the feeling, the emotion as well as the learner’s rational will.

Using the learner’s feelings as well as his or her emotions, he or she can be able to experience
the pain or the joy, as well as the feelings of being happy, being sad or being angry to a particular
subject or situation. With his or her feelings, he can be able to identify and experience the real
feelings about a particular thing or situation.

Using the learner’s rational will, he or she has the capacity to think and choose what he or she
thinks to be desirable according to his or her own analysis. His or her rational will, will serve as
a kind of guiding force or a main integrating force in his or her character.