MODULE I

RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE RESOURSES

Natural resources:
It is the variety of goals and services provided by nature which are necessary for our day to day lives.
Different elements of the worlds such as land,soil,water,air,plants,minerals,energy etc are our natural
resources to satisfy our various needs.
Depending upon the availability , resources are divided into two categories.
1. Renewable resources:-Resources which reappear themselves
Eg:- Sunlight, animals, water, living organisms etc.
2. Non – renewable resoures:- Resources which are present in fixed amounts in the environment.
Eg:- Minerals, fossil fuels, non-mineral resources etc.
Different types of resources are:
FOREST RESOURCES
 A forest can be defined as an ecosystem with dense growth of plants especially trees and
animals.
 Forests are one of the renewable source of energy.
We shall consider different uses of forests in this session.
Uses of forest:-
 Provides food for human beings and animals.
 Provides wood, which is used as a fuel for domestic and industrial purposes.
 Provides products like gums, resins, dyes, fibres etc.
 Provides plants for the preparation of medicines.
 Timber is used in buildings for making furniture, used in packing articles , sports goods etc.
 Used as raw material for manufacture of pulp for paper,plywood etc.
 Control of flood:- Thick layer of humus from trees soaks rain water and prevents run off and
thereby prevents flash floods.
 Control of soil erosion:- Forest prevents soil erosion by binding the soil.
 Fertility of soil:-The fertility of the soil is increased due to the humus formed by the decay
of forest litter.
 Control of pollution:- Forests reduce pollution by taking up CO2 and giving off O2 during
the process of photosynthesis.
 Control of climate:- Transpiration of plants increases humidity band affects rainfall and
cools atmosphere.
 Food and shelter:- Fruits, leaves,roots of plants and meat of animals forms the food of forest
tribes.

OVER EXPLOITATION:-

 It occurs due to over population, industrialisation, mining,over grazing by animals, construction

of dams and other projects.
 It leads to the loss of flora and fauna, destruction of natural habitat for animals,decrease in
rainfall, lowering of water table, reduction in oxygen, increase in carbon dioxide , soil erosion.
DEFORESTATION:-
 It is the removal of forest.
  It will lead to ecological imbalance.
 It will result in damage of habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity.
 Deforested regions causes significant soil erosion .
 It will also cause extinction of different varieties, changes to climatic conditions,
desertification,ecological imbalance etc.

Deforestation occurs due to

 Overpopulation
 Industrialisation
 Mining
 Overgrazing by animals
 Construction of dams and other projects.

Effects of deforestation

 Decrease in rainfall
 Lowering of water table.
 Reduction in oxygen
 Increase in carbon dioxide level
 Soil erosion
 Adverse climatic conditions.
 Loss of flora and fauna.
 Destruction in natural habitat for animals,tribal people etc
 Ecological imbalance.

TIMBER EXTRACTION:

 It results in deforestation and fragmentation of forests.

 It is the large scale exploitation of trees.
 It harms the valuable species of trees, birds and wild animals.
 Bad Effects of timber extraction are:
 Soil erosion
 Sedimentation of irrigation systems
 Loss of bio diversity
 Climatic changes

MINING:-

 Mining is the selective recovery of minerals and materials from the crust of the earth
 It involve the physical removal of material from the earths crust frequently in huge amounts for
the recovery of small amounts of desired products.

Effects of mining:-

Environmental impacts:-

1. Degradation of land:-The top soil removed cannot be used for further plantation. The poor soil
surface may lead to high surface temperature and wind erosion.
 2. Pollution of water resources due to the rrelease of harmful elements like cadmium,cobalt,lead
etc.
3. Salt loading(discharge of salts and minerals in the river )may alter huydrological cycle.
4. Growth of vegetation may get affected due to the release of trace elements and minerals.
5. Air pollution due to emission of dust and gases.
6. Deforestation including loss odf flora and fauna.
7. Impact on historical monuments and religious places.
Social impacts:-
1. Rehabilitation of affected population including tribals.
2. Problems in water supply,solid waste disposal systems.
Impacts in human health:-
1. Coal dust may affect respiratory system
2. Silicosis:-Free silica is responsible for this disease.
3. Asbestosis:- Dust of the mineral asbestos can give rise to asbestosis.
4. Excess chromium is related to diseases like diabetis,bronchitis etc
DAMS AND THEIR EFFECT ON FORESTS:-
 A dam is a wall constructed across a river to block water and to raise water level.
 A dam can destroy million hectares of forest.
 A dam can cause deforestation because the farmers displaced by the dam will clear more forest
area to grow their crops.
 It can cause environmental changes
 It will affect lives of local people both in dam site and in entire river basin.
 The best agricultural soil may get flooded by the reservoir
 Flora and fauna begins to disappear.
Thus it will have strong impacts on people dependent on this resources.
DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON TRIBAL PEOPLE:-
 It cause displacement of local people.
 Eg:Hirakud dam has displaced more than 20,000 people residing in 250 villages.
WATER RESOURCES
 water is the source of life on earth.
 It is the only naturally occuring fluid on earth and is called universal solvent.
 It is also known as blue gold.
 71% of earth surface is covered with water.
 About 97% of water on earth is present in oceans and in land seas which cant be used for human
uses.
 The remaininng 3 % is fresh water.
 Of that,2.997% is in ice caps or glaciers.
 Only 0.003% is available to us as rivers,streams,llaks,ground water and soil moisture.

Various water resources:-

1. Sea water:- Contain 97% of the total water in the world. But as it is salty,it is uneconomical to make
it potable.
2. Rivers & streams:-They are important sources of water supply.But the water from this sources is
generally variable.
3. Natural lakes & ponds:- They are inland depressions that hold freshwater throughout the year.
4. Reservoirs:- They are formed by constructing dams across river. It is easy to construct a dam
whether the valley is deep and narrow.The quality of water is similar to lakes in ponds.
5. Ground water:-It is the next largest fresh water reservoir. It is located under the earth surface.
6. Rain water:- It is the major component of water cycle.It is responsible for depositing most of the
fresh water on earth.
Over utilisation of water resources:-
 water is used by every living organism.
 Water requirement for man is maximum on earth.
 We use water for daily activities such as household,irrigation,industries etc.
 Population growth has increassed water demand on earth.
 But the quantity of water is not increasing with increase in population.
 According to UNO, average human being need atlest 50 ltres of water per day for his domestic
acivities.
 This utility is different in urban and rural areas.
 The modern lifestyle increases the water consumption.
 The rapid pace of urbanisation and industrialisation increased water consumption.
Water related problems:
Flood:-It is a common widespread natural disaster. It occurs due to
1. water from heavy rainfall.
2. storms
3. unexpected land slides
4. sudden release by a dam breakage
Periodic floods occur naturally on many rivers forming an area known as flood plains. As the river
carries fertile soil and deposit it there, this area is very fertile.
Impacts of flood:-
1. Causes physical damage to bridge,building,roadways,canal etc.
2. Contaminate water supplies and spread water borne diseases
3. destroy crops and food supplies.
4. destroys transport links.
5. causes economic hardship due to temporary decilne in tourism,rebuilding costs, food
shortage leading to price increase
6. causes soil erosion, land slides
7. loss of flora and fauna,life loss, financial loss, loss of vegetation etc.
Droughts:-It is an extended period of months or years when a region suffers defficiency in its water
supply whether surface or ground water.
Causes of drought:-
1. deforestation
2. global warming
3. soil erosion
4. overgrazing,industrialization.
Impacts of drought:-
 drought have significant environmental,agricultural,health,economis and social consequences
  drought can reduce water quality because lower water flows reduce dilution of pollutants and
increase contaminationof remaining water resources.
Variuos consequences are
1. Desertification:-It is the process in which an area become less capable of retaining vegetation and
progresses towards becoming a desert. It will bring changes in rainfall, temperature,wind velocity etc.
2. Famine:- Catastrophic food shortage affecting large no of people. This may caus great migration of
people to less affected area.
3. dust storms
4. shortage of water for industrial uses also
5. wild fire
6. war ocer natural resources including water and food.
Dams:-A dam is a wall construcetd across a river to block water and raise the water level.
 As the level is raised , then then it will be diverted to canals which are constructed at the side of
the dam.
 The water then flow by gravity through canals to low lying areas. It will prevent the detrimental
effects of flood
 But failure of dam resluts in loss of large no of human.
So constructing large dams an reservoirs have benefits and drawbacks.
Benefits are

1. Irrigation facility
2 .ensuring water supply to towns and cities.
3. Transfer of water from areas of excess to areas of deficit using canals.
4. Flood control and soil protection for land below reservoirs.
5. Generation of hydroelectricity
6. Reservoirs are used for recreation activities such as swimming,fishing and boating.
Environmental problems due to construction of dam:-
1. Resetlement and rehabilitation of displaced people.
2. Compensation for land and houses.
3. Construction activities make loose the soil which cause land slides and soil erosion.
4. New roads and urbanisation promotes continuos exploitataion of forest wealth.
5. Flora and fauna get disturbed.
Effects after construction of dam:-
1. Some dams lose so much water through evaporation .Thus they waste more water than they
make available.
2. Accumulating sediments in the reservoir make dam useless.
3. The aquatic life along the river are disturbed by the dam
4. The enormous weight of waterbehind the dam will trigger seismic activities.
Case study:- Tehri dam in UP faced an earthquake in 1991. This has raised doubts about the
adversibility of construction of dams.
Conflicts over water:- Water projects caused several social problems.Due to scarcity, water sources
may become reason for war among different countries or different states in a country.
Eg:- 1) Construction of Farakka barrag across Ganga by India was the reasson for the dispute between
India and Bangladesh.
2) In 1992, 50 people were killed in a riot in Karnataka on a court decision to allocate additional waetr
from Cauvery to Tamilnadu.
3) Conflicts between Karnataka and Andhrapradesh due to excessive storage in oversized Almatti dam.
4) Between Maharashtra and Andhrapradesh for construction of dam on river Godavari in Maharahtra.
5) Mullaperiyar dam between kerala and Tamilnadu regarding the waterlevel in the dam.
MINERAL RESOURCES:-
 A mineral is naturally occuring chemical element or compound
 All the rocks forming earths crust consisits of minerals.
 Minerals are obtained from earth by theprocess of mining.
 Minerals of economic value which are mined for their metals are called ores.
Important mineral resources:-
1. Iron ore:- It is strong and stable and is used for manfacture of millions of items such as steel,building
materials, etc.
2. Manganese:- Important mineral used for making iron and steel.and basic raw material for the
manufacturing its alloy.
3. Mica:-It is used in electrical and electronic industry as it has insulating properties.
4. Bauxite:- Raw material for making aluminium
5. Copper:- It is malleable and ductile metal used for electrical goods,utensils and coins.
6. Gold: It serve as international currency
Exploitation of minerals:-
 Minerals are non-renewable resources.
 Minerals once mined out get depleted and lost forever.
 Mineral resources are being exploited at very fast rate.
Effects of extracting and using mineral resources:
 Pollution:Huge dust generated by explosions may lead to death ofvegetation.
 Destruction of land:Cause loss of land because of chemical contamination,dumping of waste.
 Noise:Extracting and transportation of minerals cause noise disturbances to local residents.
 Loss of plants and animals.
FOOD RESOURCES
Food is defined as anything eaten to satisfy appetite and to meet physiological needs for the growth.It
will supply energy to maintain body temperature and activity.
World food problem:-
 There is a concern about the relationship between population and food supply throughout the
world.
 World food crisis is caused primarily because of unequal distribution.
 Enough food is available to provide food for every one in the world.
 So the problem is not of production, but clearly of access and distribution.
 The other reasons for food shortage cited are population explosion,
war,droughts,flood,earthquakes etc
 There are 2 types of food insufficiency-Undernourishment and malnutrition.
 Undernourishment occurs when the body does not consume enough food or enough calories to
support its needs.As a result, the body begins to breakdown its stored fats and proteins.
 Malnutrition is the lack of the minimum amount of fluids,proteins, carbohydrates and other
nutrients essential for sound health and growth.
Changes caused by agriculture:-
 Fertilizers used for agriculture can affect environment.
 Considerable climate changes all over the world.
 Extensive changes in chemical cycle in the world.
 Deforestation, desertification, lrge scale pollution,increase in sedimentation etc are also bad
effects on environment.
Overgrazing:- It occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time
It may be by overpopulation of native or non-native wild animals.
 overgrazing reduces the productivity and biodiversity of the land and is one of the cause for
desertification and soil eerosion.
 It reduces soil fertility and agricultural productivity.
 Leads to dominance of plants that are undesirable to cattle.
Effects of modern agriculture on environment:-The use of chemicals may cause bad effects on
environment.
1.Fertilizer problem:-Fertilizers are added to soil to restore and enhance the soil fertility to improve the
quality and quantity of plant growth.The excess feertilizer will contaminate the sub soil water
resources.They are non biodegradable.
2. Pesticide problems:-Pesticides are used for killing insects and to enhance food production.Majority
of the pesticides are not very specific to target organism.So along with pests,they affect the organism
whch have a useful essential role in the ecosysem.The target pests become resistant to the poison in due
course ,making the ellimination more difficult.
3. Salinity:-It refers to increased concentration of soluble salts in the soil.
It results due to intensive agricultural practices.In areas with low rainfall and high temperature water
evaporates quickly leaving behind the salts in high concentrations.
4 Water logging:-The stagnation of water in the soil in the upper surface is known as water logging.The
productivity of water logged area is very small because oxygen availability is less in these regions.
Causes of water logging:- 1) when the surface drainage is not adequate, the rain water remains stagnant.
2)When the water applied to field is excess than the requirement of the crop 3) if a natural drainage is
obstructed 4)Natural obstruction of free flow of sub-soil water.
Eutrophication:-

ENERGY RESOURCES:-
 Energy is defined as ‘the capacity to do work’.
 Sun is the primary source of energy. Joule is the standard unit of energy in SI units.
All livimg beings are operated by means of energy. Energy sources can be broadly classified into two
major categories
(i)non-commercial
(ii) commercial: it can again divided into conventional and non-conventional resources.

Non renewable sources:-

1. Oil:- Being abundant,oil replaced coal and other traditional sources of energy.Presently the share of
oil and gas in the mix of commercial energy is normal around 35%.Most of our activities in the
industry,agriculture,transportation depend on one or more petroleum products.
2. Natural gas:It has met energy needs of industrial projects aand to set up gas based power plants.
3. Coal:-It is of multipurpose use like heating work, steam engines etc.It is used for generation of
electricity in thermal power plants.Coal is a pollutant and when burnt it produces CO2 and
CO.Extensive use of coal will disturb the ecological balance.
Renewable sources:-
1. Solar energy:One of the most important sourceof energy.It is received in theform of radiation and
can be converted to other forms of energy which can be utilised by man.Applications of solar energy
are
1. Solar water heating
2. Solar pumping
3. Solar furnaces
4.Solar cooking
5. Solar electric power generation
6. Solar thermal power production
Drawbacks of solar energy:-
1. Dilute form of energy
2. difficult to store in large quantity
3.Availability is limited due to clouds,wind etc
4. Large space is required

2. Wind energy:-It is a renewable source of non-polluting energy.Energy recovered from force of wind
is called wind energy.As it is caused by unequal heating of air, it is called as an indirect form of solar
energy.Wind turbines are used for converting wind energy to mechanical energy.By connectingwind
turbine to an electric generator, wind energy can be converted into electric energy.Windmills
succesfully fulfill the local power requirements.

3. Bio energy:-Green plants capture solar energy through photosynthesis and convert it into organic
matter and this organic matter is known as biomass.Anaerobic decomposition of organic materials
produces biogas which is a mixture of methaane and carbon dioxide.It has high calorific value and can
be used for cooking,operating small engines and for pumping water, for lighting etc.

4. Geothermal energy:-It is the energy which is embedded in earth's crust. Temperature of the earth
increases at a rate of 20-750C per km, when we move down the earth surface.High temperature and
high pressure steam fields exists below the earth’s surface in many places. The energy obtained from
the high temperature present inside the earth is called geothermal energy. All the heat stored in earth's
crust as thermal energy constitutes geothermal energy. This can be used to operate tubines to produce
electricity.The disadvantages are

1. Results in air pollution due to the release of gases like H2S,NH3, CO2
2. Noise pollution from the drilling operations from geothermal fields.
3. Efficiency of power production is low.
5. Ocean energy:-It is an indierect form of solar energy. The seas and oceans absorb solar energy and
results in temperature gradients in the water surface.Ocean thermal energy convesion plants will
convert this solar energy as heat into electrical energy.
Tides are formed due to gravitational effect of the sun and the moon.This causes a periodic rise and fall
of the water levels of the sea. This is called a tide and can be used to produce electric power wwhich is
known a tidal power.
6. Hydro energy:- It can be produced from falling water.When it falls from a height it will have lot of
potential energy which can be converted to mechanicl energy or electrical energy. Water is released
slowly and is used to drive hydraullic turbines and electrical generators to produce electricity.
Generation of electricity by hydroelectris power plants results in pollution and massive ecological
disruption such as land flooding.eutrophication etc.
LAND RESOURCES:-
Land is the major part of the lithosphere.The vrious purposes for which land is used may include
agriculture,food production, human dwellings,energy production, industrial and commercial purposes
etc.

Impact of land use on environment:-

1. emssion of water pollutants
2. Emission of air pollutants
3. Soil degradation
4. Destroying wild life habitats
5. disturbing ecological cycle
6. problem of disposal of waste
7. pollute the ground and surface water.
8.Agricultural land used as urban area
9. forest area cleared for agriculture.

Land use and natural disasters:-

1. Natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and landsslides have a geological land based
origin
2. disasters such as drought,flood etc.
3. Careful land use planning, preventive policies for building technologies etc can help to reduce
damages.
Land degradation:-It is theloss of fertility or productive capacity of the soil. Fertility depens on the
minerals it contain.
Factors affecting land degradation:-
1. Soil erosion:- Removal of the superficial layer of the soil by the action of water, wind or by the
activities of man is stermed as soil erosion. It occcurs due to heavy rainfall and steep slpoe of ground.
Nature of soil and the vegetation cover over soil also affect soil erosion
2.Soil pollution
3. Salination and water logging
4. Shifting cultivation:-selected portions of the forest were cut and burnt and crops were cultivated in
this aarea. When the field become sterile ,they were abandoned and a fesh portion of forest were burnt
for crop cultivation. This led to complete destruction of forests on many area and soil erosion.
5. desrtification:-Due to increasing population vast areas of land has been used for cultivation of
agricultural crops. The destruction of natursl vegetation results in soil erosion. Erosion od the top fertile
soil results in soil productivity and formation of deserts.
6. Urbanisation :-Productive area is fast reducing by urbanisation activities such as human
settlements,industries,roads, dms etc.
Control of land degradation:-
 1. Afforestation and reforestation:- Afforestation means growing forests where there were no
forests.Reforestation means replanting forests at places where they were destroyed. At that
places natural regeneration is not possiblenans artificial planting of trees is necessary.
2. Terracing:- A large sloping drainage is divided into separte small flat fields called terraces.
This will slow down the speed of the runoff of water and hold the water longer.
3. Regular cultivation:-It will reduce soil erosion and maximum infilters into the soil.
4. Crop rotation:-This involves sowing of different crops in the same field in a regular sequence
for a number of years.
5. Fallowing:-Aeration, texture and fertility of the soil can be improved by ploughing the fields
extensively and thenleaving them without sowing for a year or two.
Role of individual in conservation of natural resources:-
1. Awareness of the people to promote ecofriendly developments should be enhanced.
2. Need and conservation should over power greed and affordability of luxury.
3. Wastes should be reduced,reused or recycled.
4. Process design should incorporate minimum consumption and maximum efficiency
tecchniques.
5. Encouraging the use of renewable resources in place of non renewable resources.
6. Planning and implementation of strategies in terms of new product and techniques.
Equitable use of resources for sustainable life cycle:-
1.Adopt a green way of life.Think green, Plan green, Act green through 7 R's.: Refuse or
reject;Reduce,recover,repair,Reuse,Recycle and Rethink.Avoid exploitation of esources.Avoid
overfeeding,overbreeding,overploughing,overgrazing,overfelling.
2 Use resources wisely for your need, not for your greed.
3. Encourage organic farming.Store and sell glasss,metals and papers and compost organic
wastes.
4. Plant trees.Encourage recycled paper.
5. Dont use disposible products and use & throw products.
6.Insist on solar cooking system rather than LPG.
7.Try to avoid polyethylene.
8.Replace regular light bulbs with CFL's and LED's.
MODULE II
ECOSYSTEM :
Ecology: The study of the relationship between organisms( Plants, animals, man and micro organisms)
and the environment.
Ecosystem: The community of living organisms together with non-living components like soil, water,
air and sunlight.
 Ecosystem can be natural or artificial
 Natural ecosystem
a) Terrestrial ecosystem (forest, grassland, desert)
b) Aquatic ecosystem
i) Fresh water ecosystem
ii) Marine ecosystem
 Artificial ecosystem (agricultural land, artificial pond, industrial area etc)

Characteristics of Ecosystem:
 Ecosystem can vary in size. Eg:- Small size of few square centimeter in microbial
ecosystem, large size of square kilometers in forest ecosystem.
 All ecosystem have the common features of flow of energy and cycling of chemicals.
 Ecosystem may be permanent(in forest, ocean) or temporary (in pool, agricultural field).
 Ecosystem is usually an open system of energy and materials.
Structure of ecosystem:
Ecosystem has two components. Biotic and Abiotic components.

Biotic components:
The living organisms include plants, animals and micro organisms. They can be classified into a)
Producers. b) Consumers. c) Decomposers.
a) Producers (autotrophs): These are the green plants which trap the solar energy with the help
of chlorophyll and produce the food by using water and CO2. The process is known as
Photosynthesis. Eg: Plants, green algae.
b) Consumers (heterotrophs): They are unable to prepare their own food and depend on the
producers for food.
i) Primary consumers(herbivores): Animals feed on plants. eg:
rabbit, cow, deer etc
ii) Secondary consumers (carnivores): Animals feed on primary consumers. eg:
fox, dog, snakes etc
 iii) Tertiary consumers: Animals feed on secondary consumers. eg:
Wolves, Snakes etc
iv) Quarternary consumers: Largest animals feed on tertiary consumers and they are
not eated up by other animals. eg: lion, tiger etc.
c) Decomposers: The organisms which feed on dead organisms (plants and animals). They
transform the organic compounds to simple inorganic compound. Eg: fungi, saprophytic
bacteria.
Abiotic components:
 It is the non living component of an ecosystem
 It include the physical factors like soil, light, temperature and water.
 The chemical factors such as organic and inorganic compounds. Inorganic substances are H, N,
K, P, S etc which are involved in natural cycle. Organic substances include carbohydrate,
liquids, proteins etc.
Functions of an ecosystem:
Functions of an ecosystem means how an ecosystem operate under natural conditions.The abiotic and
biotic components of an ecosystem are inter linked.
a) Nutrient cycling:
 It provide minerals in the ecosystem
 Producers absorb inorganic nutrients from the environment and prepare organic matter.
 The nutrients present in organic matter goes to the herbivores which consume it.
 From the herbivores in the form of faecal matter or dead bodies the nutrients again reach
to the environment by the help of decomposers.
 In this way the nutrients circulate between living and non-living organisms.
b) Flow of energy:
 Flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional
 Produces change in solar energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
 A part of this energy used for the growth and activities of the producers and the
remaining is stored in the form of matter.
 This energy transferred from producers to herbivores by consuming them.
 A part of the energy used for the growth and activities of herbivores and finally energy
reaches to decomposers.
 Simply energy flows non cyclic unidirectionally from sun to decomposers.

c) Interrelation:
 Ecosystem exchange biotic and abiotic materials
 Plants provide O2, food, shelter to animals and animals supply CO2 to plants
 Different animals are interrelated by becoming food to another animals.
 When plants and animals die decomposers releases some raw materials to soil which are
reused by plants.
 Thus ecosystem maintains the functional balance between various components. This is
called Homeostasis.
Biome:
 It is a large ecosystem.
 It is an area on earth surface that has similar climate, plants and animals.
 Eg: forest biome, fresh water biome etc.
 Biomes classified on the basis of habitat and environmental condition.
 Classfication of biomes.
a) Aquatic biome
i) Fresh water biome
ii) Marine biome
iii) Estuarine biome
b) Terrestrial biome
i) Tundras biome
ii) Forest biome
iii) Grass land biome
iv) Desert biome
Ecological succession:
 The phenomenon of transition from one biotic community to another is called ecological
succession.
 Over the time interval some species may become less abundant or may vanish from the
ecosystem. Similarly some species may become more abundant or a new species may invade
into the community from adjacent ecosystem.
 It may be initiated by the formation of a new unoccupied habitat (Eg : lava flow or landslide) or
by formation of some disturbance (Eg: fire, wind etc)
 Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on a lifeless
area. Eg: establishment start in a watery area like pond and lake.
 Secondary succession: It involves the establishment of biotic communities on an area where
some biotic community already present.
 Every species has a set of environmental conditions under which it will grow and reproduce
normally. So a species will grow most efficiently and produce more if its required conditions
are present in that ecosystem. As long as conditions remain constant, these species will flourish.
But when environmental conditions changes; it will not be easy for that species to survive,
obviously any other species which is optimal for the changed conditions will flourish.
 Ecological succession may occur when conditions of an environment suddenly changes.
Food chain:
The transfer of food energy from producers to decomposers through a series of organisms is called a
food chain.
 A food chain consists of producers(green plants) and consumers ( animals and man) and
decomposers. (microorganisms)
 It is the single pathway through which food energy travels in an ecosystem.
 Various steps in food chain are called tropic levels.
producers primary consumers secondary consumers decomposers
Eg: Grass Grass hoper bird microorganisms.
A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other population. This
interdependence of the population within a food chain helps to maintain the balance of plant and
animal populations within a community.
Food web:
In the environment a simple food chain cannot occur. The same organisms may operate at different
tropic levels in the same ecosystem. One organism may eaten by many other organisms.
In an ecosystem various food chains are linked together to form a network which is called food web. It
will illustrate the feeding relation ships between plants and animals in a certain area.
Eg:- Grass grasshopper hawk
Grass grasshoper lizard hawk
Grasss rabbit hawk
Grass mouse hawk
Grass mouse snake hawk
Ecological pyramids:
 This is a concept in ecosystem.
 The number of organisms at one tropic level is higher than that at the net successive level.
When these levels are plotted graphically it assumes the shape of a pyramid.
 This is because smaller animals have higher reproductive potential than larger animals.
 Producers occupy the base of the pyramid and tertiary carnivores occupy the apex of the
pyramid.

Types of pyramids:
1) Pyramid of number (showing population)
2) Pyramid of biomass (showing total mass of organism)
3) Pyramid of energy (showing energy flow)
Pyramid of number:
 Shows the relationship between producers, herbivorous and carnivorous in terms of their
numbers.
 In any ecosystem there are more producers than consumers, more primary consumers than
secondary consumers and more secondary consumers than tertiary consumers
 It indicates the no:of individual organism at different tropic level of food chain.
 The organism at lower end of the chain are most abundant.

Grassland ecosystem Forest ecosystem

Pyramid of biomass:
  The amount of living material present in the organism are called biomass.
 It measured as fresh or dry weight.
 In this relationship different tropic level is presented in terms of weight of organism.
 The pyramid of biomass shows decrease in biomass in each tropic level from base to apex.
 In grassland ecosystem total bio mass of producers is more than the total biomass of primary
carnivores and biomass of secondary and tertiary carnivores decreases.
 But in the pond ecosystem producers are small organisms, their biomass is lower and the
biomass increases gradually towards the apex of the pyramid. Thus the pyramid obtained is
inverted.

Grassland ecosystem Pond ecosystem

Pyramid of energy:
 The pyramid not only indicates the amount of energy flow at each level but also indicate the
actual role of various organisms in energy transfer.
 Energy pyramids are always upright because energy transferred from one level to other is
always less than the energy gained by it.
 The energy content is expressed in Kcal/ m2/Yr.

Pyramid of energy (Kcal /m2 /year)

Forest ecosystem:
 In the forest ecosystem tall and dense trees grow, that support many animals and birds
 It is the undisturbed area receiving moderate to high rain fall.
 It occupies the 40% of world’s land and 19% total land of india.
Types & features of forest ecosystem:
Depending upon the climate condition forest classified into the following.
1) Tropical rain forest: They are found near the equator, characterized by high temperature. They
have broad leaf trees like teak and animals like Lion, Tiger, Monkey etc.
2) Tropical deciduous forest: They found little away from the equator, characterized by warm
climate and rain only during the monsoon. They have the trees like maple, oak and animals like
deer, fox, rabbit etc
3) Tropical scrub forest: They characterized by dry climate for long term. They have small trees
and shrubs and animals like deer, fox etc
 4) Temperate rain forest: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rain fall. They have
trees like pine, red wood and animals like squirrels, fox, cat, bear etc
5) Temperate deciduous forest: They are found in the area of moderate temperature. They have
trees like oak and animals like fox, deer, bear etc
Characteristics of forest:
 It make the generation of many ponds, streams etc.
 It maintains the climate and rainfall.
 It protect many wild life and biodiversity.
 Its soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients
Structure and functions:
1) Abiotic components: The organic, inorganic substances and minerals found in the soil and
atmosphere.
2) Biotic components:
 Producers: The plants absorb the solar energy and produce food eg: Trees, shrubs,
ground vegetation
 Consumers
a) Primary consumers: directly depend on the plants for food eg: ants, flies,
insects, mice, squirrel, deer etc
b) Secondary consumers: depend the herbivores for food eg: snakes, birds, fox
c) Tertiary consumers: depends on the carnivores for food eg: lion, tiger
 Decomposers: decompose the dead plants and animals. eg: bacteria, fungi.

Grassland ecosystem:
Grassland occupies 20% of earth surface. In addition to grass it contains small trees and shrubs.
Types & features of grassland ecosystem:
1) Tropical grassland: Found near the borders of the tropical rain forest and characterized by high
temperature and moderate rain fall. They have tall grasses, shrubs and animals like zebras,
giraffes etc
2) Temperate grassland: Found in the centers of continents, on flat, sloped hills and characterized
by very cold winters and hot summers. They not have trees and shrubs.
3) Polar grassland: Fond in artic polar regions and characterized by severe cold and strong winds
along with ice and snow. They have small annual plants and animals like artic fox, artic wolf
etc.

Characteristics of Grassland ecosystem:

 It is plane land occupied by grasses
 Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter
 Since it is has tall grass, it is the ideal place for grazing
 Characterized by low or uneven rainfall.
Structure and functions:
1) Abiotic components: abiotic components are supplied by CO2, H2O, nitrates, phosphates etc.
eg: Nutrients, C, H, O, N,P etc
2) Biotic components:
 Producers: They produce food Eg: Grasses, forbs, shrubs etc
  Consumers:
a) Primary consumers: depends grasses for their food Eg: cows,
buffaloes, deer etc
b) Secondary consumers: they feed on herbivore. Eg: snakes, lizards,
birds, fox etc.
c) Tertiary consumers: feed on secondary consumers. Eg; hawks,
eagles etc
 Decomposers: decompose the dead plants and animals. Eg: fungi, bacteria.
Desert ecosystem:
 It is about 35% of world’s land.
 Characterized by less than 25cm rain fall.
 The atmosphere is dry.
Types and features of desert ecosystem:
1) Tropical desert: Characterized by few species. Wind blown, sand dunes are common. Eg :
Sahara desert, Thar desert.
2) Temperate desert: Characterized by very hot summer and very cold winter. Eg:
Majave. (south California)
3) Cold desert: Characterized by cold winters and warm summers.
Eg: Gobi desert (china).
Characteristics of desert ecosystem:
 Desert air is dry and climate is hot
 Soil is poor in nutrients and organic matter.
 Vegetation is poor.
Structure and functions:
1) Abiotic components: Eg: temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water etc
2) Biotic components
 Producers: In desert mostly succulent plants ( Eg: cacti) are found. They have
water inside them to stay alive and waxy layer on outside to protect them from
sun. Eg: Shrubs, bushes some grasses
 Consumers: The animals dig holes in the ground to live in. they come out at
night to find food. Eg: squirrels, mice, fox, reptiles etc
 Decomposers: Desert has poor vegetation and animals, the dead organic matter
is decomposed by few decomposers. Eg: fungi , bacteria

Aquatic ecosystem:
Depending upon the quality and nature of water the aquatic ecosystem are classified into three.
o Fresh water
Eg: lakes, ponds, streams, rivers etc
o Marine
Eg: sea, oceans
o Estuaries
 Lake and pond ecosystem: These are stagnant fresh water bodies. They vary in size from a few
meters to thousands of meters. Their depth range from few centimeters to over a hundred meters. A
 pond is a small area of still water especially one that is artificial. The lake is large area of water bodies.
It is self sufficient and self regulating system.

 Structure of the Lake and pond ecosystem: The biotic and abiotic components of pond and lake
depends upon their location , size ,depth and type
 Abiotic component: Chief non living components are heat ,light, ph value of water
,CO2, O2 etc
 Biotic components
 Producers: It includes green plants and photosynthetic bacteria. Producers of pond
are three types:
 Phytoplankton: It is wondering plants floating upon the water.
 Algae: Microscopic algae that attach rocks and sticks
 Microphytes: Rooted large size plants
 Consumers: The primary consumers consist of zooplanktons. They are herbivores.
The secondary consumers consists of carnivores include fish, crab etc.
 Decomposers: They are aquatic bacteria, fungi etc

 Rivers and stream ecosystem

Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. They provide transportation, water
for drinking water, washing and farming etc.

 Marine and ocean ecosystem: Ocean covers the 70% of the earth surface. Of all the water found on earth
97% is marine. These ecosystems are different from fresh water because they are salty water.

o Structure of the Marine and ocean ecosystem

o Abiotic components: It includes sodium, calcium, salt, oxygen, light, temperature etc.
o Biotic components
 Producers: It includes plants, seaweeds, mangrove vegetation and algae
 Consumers
o Primary consumers: Herbivores fish that directly feed on producers,eg: crustaceans,
fish etc
o Secondary consumers: They are carnivores fishes
o Tertiary consumers: They are top carnivores fishes. Eg:shark,whale etc
 Decomposers: These are micro organisms like bacteria, fungi etc

 Estuaries: Estuary is the area where river joins the sea or ocean. Estuaries are the most naturally fertile in
the world
EVS-MODULE –III
 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment.
 The natural combination of air is nitrogen 78 % , oxygen 21% and others 1%.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

a) According to origin
1) Primary pollutants
The pollutants that are emitted directly from the sources and are found in the atmosphere in
the form in which they were emitted are called primary pollutant.
Eg: sulphur oxide , nitrogen oxide , hydrocarbon , ash , smoke , dust etc..
2) Secondary pollutants
The pollutant that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interaction between primary
pollutants and atmospheric constituents are called secondary pollutant .
Eg: ozone , sulphurtrioxide , aldehydes.
b) According to the state of matter
1) Gaseous pollutant
These are pollutants occurring in the gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure.
Eg: carbon dioxide (CO2) , nitrogen oxide (NO2) sulphur oxide (SO2) , hydrocarbons
2) Particulate air pollutants
Al atmospheric substances that are not gases but may be suspended droplets , solid particles
or mixtures of the two are generally reffered to as particulates .
Eg: dust smoke , mist , fog , smokg , fumes.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
a) Natral sources or causes
1) Anaerobic decomposition of organic matter produce methane or marsh gas
2) Carbon monoxide from the breakdown of methane.
3) Volcanic eruption release many gases which causes air pollution.
4) Salt spray from ocean
5) Dust storm
b) Man made sources
1) Rapid increase of population is one of the important factor of air pollution.
2) Deforestation by man for his own need has disturbed the balance of CO2 and O2 in nature
3) Burning of fossil fuels leads to the formation of pollutants
4) industries are responsible for about 20% of air pollutin.
5) Exhaust from automobile contain pollutants like carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , oxides
of nitrogen etc.
6) Agricultural activities like spray of pesticides , insecticides are carried away by the wind
and make the air polluted.
7) Air pollution caused by various explosives.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
a) Effect of air pollution on human health

b) Effect of air pollution on animals

c) Effect of air pollution on plants

 d) Effect of air pollution on materials

e) Effect of air pollution on climate

 Due to deforestation and fuel combustion in the industries and automobiles , the CO2 content of
the atmosphere is increased every year.
 This increase of CO2 will increase the atmospheric temperature of earth , resulting in the
melting of polar ice , which will cause the flooding of towns.

CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

 There is a central board for prevention and control of air pollution.

 The state government have the power to declare air pollution areas and to prohibit the burning
of fuels in that area.
Following methods are most effective for the control of air pollution
1) Proper planning of towns cities and industries.
 This method is adopted at the planning stage of the city.
 Separate areas are setting for industries and residential areas.
 Heavy industries should not be located too close to each other.
 New industries should be established away from larger cities,
2) Vegetation
 plants control air pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen in the
process of photosynthesis
 species of pinus and vitis depollute the air by metabolizing nitrogen oxides.
3) Pollution control equipments

a) Settling chambers.
 it consists of a chamber in which the carrier gas velocity is reduced so as to allow the
particulates to settle down under the action of gravity.
 The horizontal velocity of gas is kept less than 0.5 m/s in order to give sufficient time for the
particles to settle by gravity.

b) Cyclone separators

 It consists of vertically placed cylinder which has an inverted cone attached to the base.
 As the dirt gas enters tangentially in to the cylinder.
 The dust particles are collected the bottom.
 It remove 5 to 40 micron particles.

c) Electrostatic precipitator

 In this electrically charged particulates present in the polluted gas are separated from the gas
stream under the influence of the electric field.
 Water pollution
Definition

Water pollution is the deterioration in physical,chemical and biological properties of water brought
about mainly by human activities and natural resources.

Sources of water pollution

Following are the main sources of water pollution

1.Domestic Sewage

Usually the effluent received at the end of sewage treatment is discharged into water bodies. If the
effluent is not of adequate standard it will cause pollution. In some cases partly treated sewage is
directly discharged into surface water like rivers and such rivers get polluted.

2.Industrial Wastes

Industrial waste waters are discharged into water bodies without proper treatment. The industrial
waste may carry a number of harmful substances, which will cause pollution. The types of industries
causing pollution are chemical, oil, pulp paper, sugar, distilleries, textile, fertilizers etc.

3.Catchment Area

Depending upon the characteristics of catchment area, water passing through such area may have
fertilizers, pesticides etc.

4.Travel of water

The water has to travel to reach the source of water supply. Depending upon the properties of
ground it will have impurities.

5.Source of Water Supply

From the surface runoff the source of water receives organic, mineral and bacteria. Hence the
water available from the source itself may be highly contaminated.

6.Distribution System

The water is delivered to the consumer through distribution system pipes. These pipes are laid
below the ground. If the joints are leaky the flowing water gets contaminated by the surrounding
substances around the pipe.

Types of Water Pollution Effects

Types of pollution ; 1. Physical Pollution

2. Chemical Pollution

3. Biological Pollution
1. Physical Pollution and Effects

Physical pollution of water brings about changes in water with regard to its colour, foam,
turbidity, density and thermal properties.

Turbidity is due to the presence of salts of iron and manganese, finely

divided suspended matter etc .Turbidity due to iron and bacterial contamination are unpleasant. Color is
due to industrial organic dies. The pollution of water is due to color is aesthetic. Highly coloured is not
suitable for laundering, dyein, paper making and textile production.

Rise in temperature of water to a harmful level due to industrial waste water, waste water
from factories, mills, cooling towers, thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. Itwill raise the
temperature and reduce the dissolved oxygen content.

Foam is due to the use of synthetic detergents. It reduces the mixing of atmospheric oxygen
with water.

2. Chemical Pollution and its Effects

The chemical pollution of water causes changes in acidity, alkalinity, Ph and dissolved in
water. It may also be caused by organic pollutants.

Organic substances such as carbohydrates, fats, all other decomposable matters like
vegetables, part of plants and dead animals etc .causes chemical pollution .Decomposition of organic
matter such as municipal waste, industrial waste etc. Will reduce the dissolved oxygen .
Inorganic substances like chemical, acid, alkalies, heavy metals and toxic substances causes chemical
pollution. Acids will cause pipe corrosion and is harmful to aquatic life. Alkalies also harmful to
aquatic life. Toxic substance like chlorine, ammonia, mercury and heavy metals are harmful to human
beings and bacteria.

Non-Bio degradable substances like pesticides, fungicides, insecticides, plastic products,

toxic metals etc causes chemical pollution. Many of the pesticides are cumulative toxins and cause
severe problems at the higher and of the food chain.

3. Biological Pollution and its Effects

The biological of water occurs mainly due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria, certain
fungi, algae, virus etc. biological pollution due to the discharge of municipal and industries waste into
water bodies.

Spreading of water borne diseases are the harmful effects of biological pollution.

Control of Water Pollution.

1 Proper treatment of waste water and sewage before disposal into water bodies or land.
2 Minimizing the use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers.

3 Recycling and reuse of water stops the discharge of waste water into natural water
Source. Once used water is used for the some other purpose is called recycling and once used water is
used for same purpose is called reuse recycling and reuse of water stops the discharge of waste water
into natural water

. 4 For industrial and municipal effluents discharge into water sources, effluent standards
should be followed.

5 Suitable laws and standards should be formed to regulate the entry of waste water into
water bodies.

6 Pollution control remains in the hands of state and central governments.

7 Proper planning of towns such as agricultural farms and industrial plants should be
planned and located at suitable places.

8 Provide treatment plants to treat domestic industrials wastes.

Soil Pollution
The progress of civilization and industrialization results danger to soil pollution. The word soil is
derived from a Latin word solum, which means earthly material in which plants grow. Soil is one of the
most significant ecological factors plants depend for their nutrients, water and minerals. The chemical ,
industrial effluents disposed on soil cause land pollution or soil pollution. Disposal of solid waste on
land also cause land pollution.

Sources of soil pollution

1) Industrial wastes
 Disposal of industrial waste on land is the major cause for soil pollution.
 Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from paper mills , chemical industries , sugar factory
, textile industries etc ..
 Chemicals like iron , lead , mercury , copper , zinc , cadmium aluminium , acid , alkalis etc are
present in industrial wastes .
 Industrial sludge is more dangerous than industrial solid wastes.
2) Urban wastes
 Urban wastes include both commercial and domestic wastes
 All urban solid wastes are commonly referred to refuse , contains garbage , rubbish materials
like glasses paper , plastic etc. cause soil pollution.
3) Agricultural practices
 Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil .
 The use of fertilizers , pesticides , soil conditioners etc alter the basic composition of the soil
and make the soil toxic for plant growth.
4) Radioactive pollutants
 Radioactive wastes from mining and nuclear processes may reach the soil.
 From the soil they reach the plants and then in to the grazing animals from where reach man
through milk , meat etc resulting in retarded and abnormal growth of man
Effect of soil pollution
1) Long application of industrial and sewage wastes may cause the land completely infertile.
2) High concentration of salt prevent ready absorption of water and nutrient by plant roots.
 3) The change of ph of the soil may affect the growth of plants.
4) Solid waste result in offensive odour and cause clogging of ground water filter.
5) Excessive application of fertilizer cannot support microbial flora
6) The radioactive wastes dumped in to the soil are more complicated because they remain in soil
for thousand of years.

Prevention of soil pollution

1) Septic tanks are provided for treatment of domestic sewges

2) Proper treatment and disposal of industrial effluents
3) Modern disposal methods for the application of waste on land.
4) Separation of each waste for recycling.
5) Pesticides use should be regulated.
6) The use of synthetic insecticides should be avoided.
7) Replacing chemical fertilizers by bacterial fertilizers like compost.
8) Indusrial wastes can be follow the standards for disposal on land .
9) Industrial waste can be reduced and recycled.
10) Reduce the use of plastic products.

MARINE POLLUTION

 Sea water which covers about two third of the planet , plays a vital role in maintaining the
fundamental , biological and ecological balance.
 The most injurious use that mankind has put the oceans is for disposal of wastes such as
industrial wastes , human waste , atomic waste etc.
CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION
1) Oil

Oil in the marine environment come from a variety of sources such as

 submarine seepage
 natural decay of marine plant and animals
 shore based industries
 transport activities
 offshore drilling
 oil tankers , ships etc.
2) Wastes disposal
a) Domestic wastes
 Domestic sewage , waste from food processing , detergents , run off from
agricultural areas.
 The chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides including DDT , are known to be
important pollutants. These pesticides used for agricultural pest control enter
the marine environment through water from agricultural areas.
b) Industrial waste
Heavy metals , radioactive includes , inorganic chemicals , heated water .
 EFFECT OF MARINE POLLUTION

1) Destroy marine habitats which are fit for human consumption

2) Pollution of estuaries has already been found to affect ocean source of food.
3) DDT was found in fish and penguins
4) Radioactivity was detected in organisms far from the sites of radioactive waste disposal.

CONTROL OF MARINE POLLUTION

1) Emulsifying the oil and leaving its dispersal by the tides and waves.
2) The source of marine pollution due to waste disposal are to be found out and control measures
should be taken .
3) The water control and prevention of pollution act can be an effective instrument to control
pollution by waste disposal.
4) The cleaning of oil spill can be carried out by the placement of specially designed floating
booms.
NOISE POLLUTION

 Any unwanted sound that dump in to atmosphere is called noise pollution.

 A low sound is pleasant whereas loud sound is unpleasant and is referred to as noise.
 Noise pollution is the result of modern industrialized urban life and congestion due to over
population.
SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION
1) Industries such as textile mills , printing presses , engineering establishment and metal works.
2) Automobiles such as trucks , buses , trains , motor cycles, etc..
3) Domestic equipments like mixer grinders , pressure cookers , air conditioner , fans ,washing
machines are indoor sources of noise pollution.
4) Public addressing system such as loud speakers .
5) Agricultural machines
6) Defense equipments
EFFECT OF NOISE POLLUTION
o Impairment of hearing (Hearing loss) .
o Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain.
o Increase the rate of heart beat
o Pain in heart.
o Causing eye strain.
o Impairment of night vision.
o Lowering of concentration and affect on memory.
o Muscular strain and nervous breakdown.
CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION
it can be controlled by either reducing the noise at source or by preventing its transmission or by
protecting the receiver.
1) Install noise machines in sound proof champers.
2) Lubricating the machine.
3) Using silencers to control noise from automobiles.
4) Sound proof materials are used for construction of building.
5) Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers
6) Planting of trees.
7) Banning pressure horns in automobiles.

THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
temperature.
SOURCES OF THERMAL POLLUTION
1) Use of water as a coolant by power plants and industries.
2) Coal fired power plants constitute the major source of the thermal pollution.
3) Nuclear power plants emit a large amount of heat in to nearby water streams.
4) Industries like textile , paper , pulp and sugar industry also release heat in water.
5) The municipal water sewage normally has a higher temperature is also discharged in to rivers ,
lakes , canals , etc.
EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION
1) The elevated temperature decreases the level of DISSOLVED OXYGEN in water.
2) Higher water temperature increases plant growth rates.
3) Many aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated temperature.
4) It may leads to unplanned migration of aquatic animals.
5) The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all.
6) Many organisms are killed instantly by hot water.
CONTROL OF THERMAL POLLUTION
1) COOLING TOWER transfer waste heat to atmosphere through evaporation so as to eliminate
the problems of thermal pollution.
2) Artificial lakes – the heated effluents may be discharged in to the lake at one end and the water
for cooling purpose may be withdrawn from the other end.
3) Cooling ponds are manmade bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation , convection
and adiation.
NUCLEAR POLLUTION

 Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air , water and soil by radioactive materials .
 By disintegrating of the atomic nuclei of elements like , radium , uranium , thorium etc emit
proton , electron and gamma rays .this property is known as radioactivity.
SOURCES OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION
1) Natural sources
 Cosmic rays which are fast moving highly energetic radiation reaching the earth from
outer space .
 The terrestrial radiations from atomic nucleus of radioactive elements present in the
rocks , soil and water.
2) Manmade sources
 Testing of nuclear weapons
 Establishment of nuclear power plants
  Mining and refining of plutonium and thorium.
 In atomic reactors both fuel elements and coolants are sources of radiation pollution
 The disposal of radioactive wastes from atomic reactors make nuclear.

EFFECT OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION

1) High dose radiation can cause instant death , low dose radiation can impire the function of the
body organs
2) When nuclear radiation pass through genetic cells , they affect the chromosomes.
When the genetic cells are affected the genes are also affected , that is mutation occurs
3) Tumors , cancer and developmental changes are other effects of nuclear pollution.
CONTROL OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION
1) Radiation exposure protection

Three principles of radiation protection are

Distance -the exposure ecrease with the square of distance from soures.
Time to exposure -should be kept as low as possible.
Shielding-
2) Radiation contamination protection
 Radioactive particles are particularly hazardous if inhaled , this can be minimized by using
 Laboratory hoods
 Air filters
 Wearing protective clothing.
 Prohibiting smoking and eating where radioactive materials is used.
3) Controlled area
Areas which causes exposure to radiation are required to have controlled accessibility and
should marked RADIATION ZONE.
4) Collection storage and disposal
 Solid wastes of low activity are collected in paper or plastic lined containers and disposed in
approved manner.
 High level radioactive wastes may be collected in special glass container may be used to store
them.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
 The term solid waste encompasses the highly heterogeneous mass of discarded materials from
the urban community.
 These solid waste result in landscape pollution.

SOURCES OF SOLID WASTES

1) Garbage
These are meat , fruit , vegetable residues , spoiled food items etc ..which decompose rapidly in
warm weather.
2) Rubbish
these are paper , card board , textiles , rubber , aluminum etc which do not decompose rapidly
3) Agricultural wastes
These are jute , cotton , rubber , coffee , coconut , sugarcane waste etc..
4) Industrial wastes
these arefly ash , sewage , chemicals , sludge paint etc.
5) Hazardous wastes
These are radioactive wastes ,toxic chemicals , explosives etc . which affect human ,plant or
animal life
6) Demolition wastes
Stone , brick , concrete , dust , plaster , electrical , plumbing , sanitary parts etc are the
demolition wastes.
EFFECT OF SOLID WASTES
1) During handling and transfer of solid wastes from hospital disease transmission may take place
by infection through open sores.
2) Flies breed on solid waste may result in transmission of many diseases .
3) The improper disposal of solid waste results in contamination of crops , water supplies and thus
poses health hazard for humans and animals
4) Water logging due to solid waste disposal result in breeding of mosquitoes.
5) Burning of solid waste produce smoke and cause air pollution.
CONTROL OF SOLID WASTES
1) Collection of solid waste
Storage bins are provided in different places to collect the solid waste and the waste collection
agency collect it dially for disposal in avehicle.
2) Disposal of solid waste
Following methods are used
a) Manual component separation
Card board , news print , glass , metals , wood ,aluminum etc. are manually sorted out either
for recycling or for resale.
b) Compaction
Compacters are used to compress the waste materials directly into large containers or to
form bales that can be then placed in large containers .
c) Incineration .
Combustible wastes like plastics , card board paper , rubber , wood , food waste etc are
burning at very high temperatures.
d) Open dumping
Open dumping done in low lying areas and outskirts of the towns , and cities .
This method is used intensively in india.
Open dumping require large land areas.
e) Sanitary land filling
In this method the solid wastes are compacted and spread in thin layers , each layer being
uniformly covered by a layer of soil .
The final layer is covered by a final cover of about one meter of earth to prevent rodents
from burrowing into the refuse and scattering.
This method does not cause environmental damages.
f) Land farming
 in this method the organic wastes are either applied on the top of the land or injected below
the soil surface with suitable equipment where they undergo bacterial and chemical
decomposition.
g) Composting
In the process a compost pile is constructed by making alternate layers of organic matters
and soil.

WASTE UTILIZATION
Reuse or recycling of solid wastes are as follows
1) Refilling of used cold drink bottles
2) Scrap glass is used in production of new glass.
3) Jute wastes are utilized for making good quality paper.
4) Clean water resulting from treatment of sewage can be reused.
5) Cattle dung is used in gobar plants for making cooking gas.
6) Garbage is used for making compost
7) Waste paper is recycled to form paper , card board etc..
8) Used tyre casings are reused in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.
9) Fly ash is used as a cement substitute to make bricks etc.
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
 Installation of proper sewage disposal method
 Treatment of chimney smoke to remove solid carbon particles.
 Installation of gobar gas plants in areas of high availability of cow dung.
 Detergent of low level phosphate are used.
 Dumping of non biodegradable wastes in low lying areas.
 Judicious use of fertiluizers , pesticides and detergents.
 MODULE IV

DISASTER:
The occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune that disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning
ofa society.
It is an event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and or damage or loss of property,
infrastructure, essential services etc.

 A disaster can be either natural [rain, flood, cyclone, storm, land slides, earthquake volcanoes]
or manmade [war including biological, fire, riots, accident (train, air, ship), industrial accidents,
fires (forest fires), bomb explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters].
 Pre-Independence, droughts and famines were the biggest killers in India.
 The situation has changed due to a combination of factors like irrigation development, food
security measures.
 Floods, cyclones, droughts, landslides and earthquakes are some of the major natural disasters
that repeatedly and increasingly affect the country

DISASTER CLASSIFICATION
Disaster have been classified in various ways but the most convenient method used in
classification disaster is in two distinct categories according to their causes
1. Natural Disaster
2. Manmade Disaster

Natural disaster:
 These types of disaster naturally occur in proximity to, and pose a threat to, people, structures or
economic assets. They are caused by biological, geological, hydrologic, or meteorological
conditions or processes in the natural environment. Examples of natural disaster is as follows:
 Wind related - Storm, Cyclone, Tornado, Storm surge, Tidal waves,
 Water related - Flood, Cloudburst, Excessive rains,.Drought.
 Earth related - Earthquake, Tsunamis, Landslides,Volcilnic eruptions.
Manmade disaster:
 Accidents: Road, Rail, Air, Sea, Building collapse.
 Industrial Mishaps: Gas leak, Explosion, Safety.
 Fire: Building, Coal, Oil.
 Forest Fire (In tropical counters, forest fires are often manmade)
 Contamination /poisoning: Food, Water.
 Terrorist activities.
 Ecological: Pollution (Air, Water, Noise), Soil degrading, Loss of Biodiversity, Global
Warming, Sea level rise, Toxic Wastes, Nuclear accidents.
 Warfare: Conventional, Chemical, Nuclear.

HAZARDS
Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.
They could be either man made or naturally occurring in our environment.
There are two types of hazards:
 1. Natural hazard.
2. Manmade hazard.
Natural hazards
  Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena (hazards with
meteorological, geological or even biological origin).
 Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earth- quake and volcanic eruption which
are exclusively of natural origin.
 Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural hazards since their causes are both natural
and man made.
 For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or blocking of drains
with human waste.
Types of natural hazards:
 Natural hazards can be classified by the types of geophysical processes involved in their
occurrence. The four types of natural hazards are:
 Meteorological (hurricanes, tropical storms, typhoons, tornadoes, snow and ice storms,
thunderstorms, etc.).
 Geological (earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, landslides, subsidence, etc.).
 Hydrological (floods, droughts, wildfire, etc.)
 Extra terrestrial (meteorites impacting the earth’s surface
Manmade hazards:

 Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence.

 Manmade hazards are associated with industries or energy generation facilities and include
explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc.

 The list of hazards is very long. Many occur frequently while others take place occasionally.

Types of manmade hazards:-

 In general terms, there are two major classifications of man-made hazards: technological
hazards and terrorism.

 Technological hazards are usually caused by accident—either through incompetence, poor

planning, faulty equipment, bad weather, or some other mishap; no one intended the hazard to
occur.

 Terrorism, on the other hand, infers an intentional act; that is, some individual or group means
to cause harm in order to further a political agenda; a social, economic or religious mission; or
because they are delusional or misguided in some way.

 Intentional man-made hazards (such as a bombing) almost always have humans as their ultimate
targets.

 Unintentional or accidental hazards (such as an oil spill or a train derailment) are more like
natural hazards because they do not occur as a result of a malicious plot or an organized activity
that is designed to cause damage or injury.

Meaning of environmental stress:

 This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such as noise, crowding, heat, air
pollution and pressure from work or surroundings.
  Identifying these environmental stresses and learning to avoid them or deal with them will help
lower your stress level.

 For example noise more than 90dB ,unpredictable noise exposure elevates our blood pressure
and increases heart rate and so that the stress level is increased.

 Crowding is a physical measure of the number of persons per unit of space.

 Crowding is a psychological state that occurs when needs for space exceeds the available
supply.

 This also create a bad stress on human being.

Natural hazards:
1)Earthquake

 Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard.

 They may occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning.
 They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants.
 Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may de-stabilize the government,
economy and social structure of the country.
 An earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on earth surface with the sudden release of
tremendous energy stored in rocks under the earth’s crust.
 It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust.
 The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any warning, making it impossible to
predict.

Causes:

1. Disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust

2. Underground nuclear testing

3. Decrease of underground water level

Adverse effect or consequences :

 Damage the settlements and transport systems

 Collapses houses and their structures
 Deformation of ground surface
 Tsunami.

Mitigation
i) Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast
dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical
Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates.

(ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information
among the people and educating them about the ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
disasters.

(iii) Modifying the house types and building- designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging
construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas.

(iv) Finally, making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials in major
construction activities
2)Tsunami

 The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor' and nami
meaning 'waves'.
 Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides.
 A Tsunami is a large wave that is generated in a water body when the seafloor is deformed by
seismic activity.
 This activity displaces the overlying water in the ocean.
 These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement of water from
the lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid
impacts.
 What ever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a violent motion and swells up,
ultimately surging over land with great destructive power.

Causes:

 Seismic activities like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, can generate
tsunami
 Deformation of the sea floor due to the movement of plates.

Adverse effects:

 Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing devastating property, damage and loss of life.
 Tsunami can kill lot of human beings, livestock’s.
 Tsunami may also spread lot of water borne diseases.

3) cyclone

 It is a meteorological process, intense depressions forming over the open oceans and moving
towards the land...
 Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure
resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in
 anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
 Cyclones are called by various names in different parts of the world .Cyclone is measured by
Saffir-Simpson scale

Adverse effects

i)Physical damage – structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind force, flooding and storm
surge.

ii) Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements, contamination of water
supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.

iii)Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters.

iv)Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock lying in low
lying areas. Plantation type crops such as banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the
sea water may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may
lead to acute food shortage.

v)Communication – severe disruption in the communication links

4)Floods:

 Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to
submerging of surrounding land, which is not usually submerged.
 Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly without any
warning due to breach in the dams, spill over,or heavy rains etc.
 There are different types of floods namely: flash flood, riverine flood, urban flood, etc.
 Flash floods can be defined as floods which occur within six hours of the beginning of heavy
rainfall, and are usually associated with cloud bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid
localized warnings and immediate response to reduce damage.
 Wireless network and telephone connections are used to monitor flood conditions. In case of
flash floods, warnings for timely evacuation may not always be possible.

Causes:

 Heavy rainfall
 Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
 Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
 Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
 Construction of dams and reservoirs
 In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with storm
surge leads to flooding.
Adverse effects:

 The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property.
 Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landslides
triggered on account of water getting saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged.
 There is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning. Lack of proper drinking water
facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, piped water supply) leads to outbreak of ,
diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria and many other infectious diseases.
 Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting flood as a result there is a huge
crop loss.
 This results in shortage of food,for both humans and animals.
 Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion
of top layer or may turn saline if sea water floods the area.

5)Droughts:

It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to predict the time of its onset and the end.

Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful water.

Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is expected to show some variations and
drought is just a part of it.

Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and space, and not just by its amount.

 Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water use (through evaporation,
transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc) in a geographical region.
 The effects of drought accumulate slowly over a considerable period of time.

Causes:

1.Low rainfall

2.Deforestation.

Adverse effects:

1)Economic

Damage to crop quality, less food production

Increase in food prices

Increased importation of food (higher costs)

Loss from dairy and livestock production

Income loss for farmers and others affected

Unemployment from production declines

Loss to tourism industry

Loss of hydroelectric power

2)Environmental

Increased desertification - Damage to animal species

Reduction and degradation of fish and wildlife habitat

Lack of feed and drinking water

Disease

3)Social

Food shortages

Loss of human life from food shortages, heat, suicides, violence

Mental and physical stress

Water user conflicts

Political conflicts

Social unrest

Public dissatisfaction with government regarding drought response

Inequity in the distribution of drought relief

Loss of cultural sites

Reduced quality of life which leads to changes in lifestyle

increased poverty

Population migrations

6)Landslides
  The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be defined
as the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils,
artificial fills or combination of all these materials along surfaces of separation by falling,
sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly from one place to another.
 Although the landslides are primarily associated with mountainous terrains, these can also occur
in areas where an activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings and open pit
mines takes place.
 They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes.

Causes:

1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil may also cause
landslides.

2.Erosion: Erosion of slope due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads might increase the
vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.

3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as several hours or have a
more moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting of
snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.

4.Mining, deforestation, irrigation etc

5. Earthquake shaking resulted in Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep

6. Volcanic eruption can also cause landslides.

Adverse effects:-

 The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes, built at the toe

and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain valley.

 All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation for a given soil and in sloppy
areas are also at risk.
 Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.

7)Volcanic eruption

 A volcano is actually an opening or a crack, in the earth' crust , through which lava or molten
rocks, ash and toxic gases present below the surface of earth, are discharged by a sudden,
violent eruption.

 Sometimes, it can be a mountain like structure with a bowl shaped depression at the top,
through which these substances are expelled.
  The term volcano, is derived from the name of the Roman God of fire, Vulcan.

Causes:
1.Buoyancy and pressure of gas within earth crust cause a volcano to burst.
2.Magma is formed when the upper mantle of earth melts.
3.Volcano bursts when magma rises upwards by pressure of gas .
Adverse effects:

 Volcanoes effects, not only on human life but also on the global environment.
 It produces ash clouds that poison the environment.
 Results in death of plants ,animals and human beings.
 Destroys houses,buildings and roads make them covered with ash.
 Lava, emission of toxic gases, ash fall, and landslides are some of the most dangerous hazards
of volcanic eruptions.

8)Lightining

 A lightning strike is essentially a high amplitude direct-current pulse with a well-defined

waveform with thunder.
 Most lightning that reaches the ground (75% to 90%) is negatively charged.
 It can travel at a speed of 220,000 km/h and can reach temperature range of 30,000 C hot
enough to fuse silica in to glass.

Causes:

1.Caused by circulation of warm moisture

2.It may occur during snow storms,volcanic eruptions,dust storms,forest fires.
3.It also occurs when cloud particles collides.

Adverse effects:
1. Damage to houses,bulidings etc.
2.Loss of trees due to lightining.
3.Disruption of services like power,communication links etc.
4.Can cause injuries,loss of property .
5.Loss of human beings and living organisms.
Chemical hazards and disasters:
Hazard that cause due to presence of toxic substances.
Causes of release of toxic chemicals:
1. Use of poorly designed equipment.
2.poor installation of safety devices.
3.Ignoring of warnings in machines.
4.Insufficient safety warning system.
5.Installation of insufficient pollution control equipments.
Effects of toxic chemicals:
1.Toxic chemicals produce liver damage. And kidney damage.
2.Toxic chemicals cause cancers.
3.It also effect the lifes of all living organisms.
4.It resulted in allergies,slow growth and frequent illiness.
Nuclear explosion

 A nulear explosionoccurs as a result of rapid release of energy from an hgh speed nuclear
reaction..
 The reaction may be nuclear fission,nuclear fusion .
 It produces radiation.

Causes of nuclear explosions:

 An accident during the transportation of radioactive material.

 A nuclear explosion is caused by uncontrollled mass fission .
 Can also occur when a nuclear reactor is not properly maintained.
 A large-scale nuclear disaster, resulting from a nuclear weapon attack.

Effects of nuclear explosions:

 Nuclear explosions produce both immediate and delayed destructive effects.

 Immediate effects (blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiation) are produced and cause
significant destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear detonation.
 The delayed effects (radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects) inflict damage
over an extended period ranging from hours to centuries
 Radioactive contamination of food and water.

Case studies
1 . CHERNOBYL DISASTERS

 The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine, which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central
Moscow's authorities.
 An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the
atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe.
 It causes thyroid problems to many kids and effect plants around 20 miles area.
 It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two
classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale
 It stopped its operation in 2000.

2.BHOPAL DISASTER:

 The Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was one of the world's worst
industrial catastophes.
 It occurred on the night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL)pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
 A leak of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals from the plant resulted in the exposure of
hundreds of thousands of people. Estimates vary on the death toll.
 The official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the government of Madhya Pradesh has
confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release.
 Others estimate 3,000 died within weeks and another 8,000 have since died from gas-related
diseases.
 A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478
temporary partial and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.

3. MINAMITA TRAGEDY:

 In 1900, Minamata Bay was a sleepy fishing village, located on the west coast of the Japanese
island of Kyushu about 560 miles southwest of Tokyo.
 A newer community soon came to Minamata, an industrial community and employed by the
Chisso Corporation.
 From 1932 to 1968, Chiss chemical plant of chisso Corporation, dumped an estimated 27 tons
of mercury compounds into Minamata Bay.
 When Chisso Corporation dumped this massive amount of mercury into the bay, thousands of
people whose normal diet included fish from the bay, unexpectedly developed symptoms of
methyl mercury poisoning.
 The illness became known as the "Minamata Disease".
 The mercury poisoning resulted from years of environmental destruction and neglect from
Chisso Corporation.
 In short, over 3,000 victims have been recognized as having "Minamata Disease".
 It has taken some of these people over thirty years to receive compensation for this
inconceivable event.
  In 1993, nearly forty years later, the Japanese courts were still resolving suitable compensation
for the victims.
 Many people have lost their lives, suffered from physical deformities, or have had to live with
the physical and emotional pain of "Minamata Disease".
 This suffering is all a result of the very wrongful and negligent acts of the Chisso Corporation
who dumped mercury into the sea water and poisoned the people of Japan.

Emerging approaches to disaster management

Disaster management in a region basically comprises of three stages i.e.,
1.Pre-disaster stage(preparedness , mitigation )
2. Emergency stage and
3. Post-disaster stage.
1.PRE-DISASTER STAGE (PREPAREDNESS)
This stage includes preparedness and mitigation for the disaster. The preparedness for disaster in
general consists of :
 Preparing hazard zonation maps, predictability,forecasting and warning.
 Preparing disaster preparedness plan
 Land use zoning.
 Preparedness through IEC
1.Hazard Zonation maps
 Disaster mapping is a tool for assessing, storing and conveying information on the geographical
location of a disaster occurrence and spread of the effects or probable effects of disasters..
 Every year in a country like India, natural disasters like floods and cyclones are fairly frequent.
 Earthquake also occur time and again.
 The occurrence of such disasters, their intensity, the area /region of their occurrences and their
impacts has to be assessed, so as to have information /data about the damages caused by them to
the area /population specific or probable damages or impact likely to be caused.
 Proper mapping will be helpful not only for pre-disaster preparedness but also in rescue and
relief operations with greater accuracy and speed.
 With the data / information collection, storage, retrieval becoming highly technological and
scientific, new specialized techniques like Geographical Information System (GIS) are
increasingly used for disaster mapping and these are proving to be very useful.
Predictability, forecasting and warning
 For natural disasters that have a fair amount of inherent predictability, forecasting is the next
step in disaster management.
  Forecasting has to be based on sound scientific principles and operationally proven techniques.
 It has to be done by authorized agency or individual who, besides being competent, responsible
and accountable, is conscious of the end-use of the forecast and the dependence of the success
of disaster management on the forecast.
 In order to be effective, the forecast has to be clearly worded and it should be transmitted
quickly to the user.
 Once a forecast is available regarding an anticipated disaster event it has to be converted
quickly into an area-specific and time-specific warning,
 Furthermore, the warnings also need to be user-specific because the capacity of different users
to withstand the impacts of a disaster are different.
2. Disaster preparedness plan
 A disaster preparedness plan essentially contains measures to be taken before, during and after
disaster strikes.
 It contains an inventory of what materials are available where and with whom, and the
delegation of responsibilities and coordination mechanisms among various government officials
and departments,
 It gives location of temporary shelters and guidelines about partnerships with other bodies like
NGOs, social workers and international agencies. Thus in an emergency situation, authorities
have a ready guide at hand and are fully aware of the steps to be taken.
 Creating awareness among the people and preparing the communities to deal with anticipated
situations are the most important objective of a disaster preparedness plan.
 Disaster Preparedness Plans also contain certain long term wide ranging measures to be carried
out.
 It includes measures like construction of embankments along rivers, retrofitting of houses,
periodic inspection of critical river stretches, establishing a system of communication,
construction of relief centers, and land use measures.
3. Land use zoning
 It is defined as the creation by law of sections or zones such as residential
,commercial,industrial,institutional and recreational in which the regulation prevent misuse of
lands and buildings and regulates density of population.

The major elements of land-use planning may be summarized as follows::

 i) Land-use policies and plans setting out the social, economic and environmental goals of
comprehensive land development and their stages of development;
 ii)Land ownership and land tenure patterns identifying the legal, social and economic basis of
ownership and tenure;
 iii)Land values and prices, reflecting the forces of supply and demand for land; and
 iv) Land-use controls which may be subdivided into three broad categories, i.e., legal, fiscal and
directive.
4.Preparedness through IEC(information,education and communication)
 Each of the three components of IEC, i.e. information, education and communication, has its
own distinct significance, origin, perspective and focus area.
 These aspects are discussed below:

Information:
 Preparing the community for disaster management through information means the transfer of
basic knowledge by means of facts, figures and processes to the community so as to increase
their awareness.
 The key issue here is the availability of data to the people, based on which they may form more
realistic perspectives, and be better prepared to anticipate and face the disaster.
 It is useful for the administration and other agencies for planning purposes, and useful to the
community .
 It also addresses the issue of probability of the occurrence of the disaster more easily
Education
 Education aims at an awakening of the people rather than just awareness.
 It sensitizes the people in the community and besides making them aware of the risks, it
enlightens them about their individual and collective stake, the actions needed to be taken and
their roles, and it also motivates them to act.
 Education conveys to the people an idea of the mechanism of the occurrence of disasters.
 It tells them what to do and what not to do for preventing or mitigating disasters.
 It tells them how to manage situations, and provides them with the possibility of alternatives.
 Education helps in informing communities of best available alternatives and means of achieving
them, makes them more motivated to take measures to overcome disaster.
Communication
 Communication is the process of information exchange between two or more groups or
individuals.
 communication is a process of knowledge transfer to the community regarding disaster risks
and mitigation measures to be taken.
 In this process, the system is of flow of information from a knowledgeable source to the mass
group, i.e. the community.
 This is a very critical and final stage of pre-disaster communication that gives the community a
chance to takecorrect action, or move away from the scene to a safer place in order to avoid or
reduce the disaster impact.
Pre-disaster stage (mitigation)
 Disaster mitigation include actions taken in advance of a disaster to reduce its effects on a
community.
 Mitigation refers to long-term risk reduction measures, which are intended to minimize the
effects of a hazard.
 Two measures of mitigation
1) Structural mitigation
2)Non structural mitigation
It includes:
 Disaster resistant house construction
 Population reduction in vulnerable areas
 Awareness
1. Disaster resistant house construction
 Be sure that proper structural design and engineering practices are followed while constructing
a house/ building.
 The mitigation strategy for disaster resistant house/ building construction can be listed as
follws:

Mitigation strategy for Earthquake disaster

Building configuration
 The building should have a simple rectangular plan.
 Long walls should be supported by Reinforced Concrete columns.
 Large buildings having plans with shapes like T, L, U and X should preferably be separated
into rectangular blocks by providing gaps in between.
Foundation
 Buildings which are structurally strong to withstand earthquakes sometimes fail due to
inadequate foundation design.
Control on openings in walls
 Door and window openings in walls should preferably be small and more centrally located. Too
many or large openings will make the wall vulnerable to collapse during earthquakes

Mitigation strategy for cyclonic disaster

 Engineering structures to withstand cyclonic wind forces.
 Suitable building codes for the area having wind load requirement,
 Better architectural design of buildings, taking winds speed and wind direction into account,
 Planting wind breaker trees in upwind of towns and on coasts,
 Community participation in construction of wind-resistant or easily rebuilt houses. Proper fixing
of elements (like metal sheets, rods, angle iron, etc.) that could blow away and cause damage
elsewhere.
 Construction of strong wind resistant shelters for the community.

Mitigation strategy for flood disaster

1. Avoid residing on river banks and slopes on river sides and the sides of gorges.
2.Build at least 250 meters away from the sea coast/river banks
3 Build proper drainage system in all flood prone areas, so that the water can be drained off
quickly to prevent accumulation.
4. Construct the building with a plinth level higher than the known high flood level.
5. Construct the whole village or settlement on a raised platform higher than the high flood
level.
 6. Construct buildings on stilts or columns with wall-free space at ground level permitting free
flow of water (inundation or flowing), provided that columns are circular and strong. In dry
weather condition the ground area could be fenced and used for cattle, sheep poultry farming, or
storage etc.

2. Population reduction in vulnerable areas

 In order to have an effective mitigation strategy, we have to identify the vulnerable areas as
discussed earlier.
 Then try to reduce urban densities in high seismic zones, coastal areas, volcanic eruption zones,
flood areas by giving other residential plots to the community living there.

3. Awareness

 Specific aims of disaster mitigation are to create awareness of risk at community level, and to
promote local actions through community participation to reduce such risks.
 Training of the public officials at different levels in an essential part of disaster management.
 Separate training for technical people, and NGOs is also required for specific disaster
mitigation.
 The general public should be made aware and kept informed about the nature of hazards to
which they are exposed, their vulnerability and protection measures available.
 Awareness campaigns should be provided to the vulnerable communities and schools and
colleges.

2. EMERGENCY STAGE

 This stage of disaster management comprises of rescue and evacuations, shelter for victims,
relief for livestock, disposal of dead and finally damage assessment survey.
 The stage requires a "Rapid Action Task Force" .
 The team should have the concern and technical knowledge and skills to conduct such
operations.
 During emergency stage the major role is played by administration alone.
 With the limited resources, the administration can hardly perform these operations effectively.
 To deal with this, it is required that local people are trained to handle the emergency situation.
 The formulation of disaster management committees at local level may be another alternative.
 If various NGOs, local bodies (Panchayaths), National Social Service Core, and other voluntary
organizations are given adequate responsibility and resources to tackle emergency situation, the
result will be better and satisfactory.
 For assessment of damages, there is no scientific method used for this process.

It includes:
 Rescue training for search and operation at national and regional level.
 Immediate relief
 Assessment surveys
1.Training for search and rescue operation
 At the time of disaster, there is an urgent need to provide professional training in Search and
Rescue.
 It is proposed that a centre for training in search and rescue operation be immediately created .
  Organization like Army, Para Military Forces, BSF, CISF, Scouts, NCC cadets, Teachers
,Postmen, Village, panchayath, NGOs, Community leaders need to be trained for this purpose.
 The centre may be developed at centrally located areas so that trained people can move quickly
to the affected areas.
2. Immediate relief operations
 Emergency relief is the material aid and emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve
human lives.
 It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health care, shelter, clothing,
water, and food (including the means to prepare food).
 Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the days and weeks
immediately following a sudden disaster.
 Emergency relief may need to be provided for extended periods in the case of neglected or
deteriorated slow-on set emergency situations and population displacements (refugees,
internally and externally displaced people).
3. Assessment surveys
 Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society.
 The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and
sustain the lives of survivors.
 The second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and
development.
 Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases
 These surveys concern both direct and indirect losses as well as the short- and long-term effects.
 Assessment involves determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be
needed, but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the
victims.
3.POST DISASTER STAGE
It includes:
 Rehabilitation and reconstruction
 Political administrative aspect
 Economic aspect
 Environmental aspect

1.Rehabilitation and reconstruction

 Rehabilitation is the actions taken after a disaster to enable basic services to resume
functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and
facilitate the revival of economic activities (including agriculture).
 Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local communities) to
resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life.
  It may be considered as a transitional phase between
(i) immediate relief and
(ii) more major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.
 Reconstruction refers to the full restoration of all services, and local infrastructure, replacement
of damaged physical structures, the revitalization of economy and the restoration of social and
cultural life.
2.Political administrative aspect:
 Advance preparation on the part of administration and local communities are made to face the
consequences of sudden calamities.
 Recovery from major disaster events necessitate large quantities of material and human
resources and good organizational or institutional capacity.
 Although there may be various national and international organizations to support the local
population in recovering from the impact of the event much of the responsibility for
rehabilitation and reconstruction will fall on the government of the country concerned.
 Besides, effective recovery response very much depends on the authorities capacity to plan and
coordinate the efforts of the various groups involved in this process.
 Facilitating all these actions requires political commitment of the government for the benefit of
the disaster stricken areas.
3. Economic Aspect
 Governments face a dilemma following any disaster that causes extensive damage to both the
local economy and to the physical environment.
 Both demands require immediate attention and the deployment of extensive resources.
 In a rich country the two sectors are likely to be fully addressed in parallel, but in a poor country
the overwhelming financial and administrative burden may be such that choices have to be
made about which should have priority attention and at what stage in the reconstruction process.
4. Environmental impacts
 Disasters almost always have negative environmental impacts, ranging from damage to
ecosystems to the production of vast quantities of waste.
 Some environmental impact due to disaster are loss of vegetation cover and wildlife habitat,
Saltwater intrusion to underground freshwater reservoirs, Groundwater pollution through
sewage overflow, Soil contamination, Waste accumulation—additional waste disposal sites
required, Loss of productive systems (e.g., agriculture), etc.,
 Post-disaster reconstruction can either be an opportunity to address these impacts and long-
standing environmental problems in the disaster location or it can cause a second wave of
damage.
 The choice is up to decision makers responsible for assessment, planning, and implementation
of reconstruction programs.
 Assessment allows the disaster’s environmental impacts to be identified and priority areas for
corrective action to be determined.
 Physical and environmental planning present opportunities to analyze and rebalance the
relationship between the built environment and the natural environment.
 And in implementation, actions can be taken that aid environmental recovery, mitigate the
impacts of the reconstruction itself, and promote long-term sustainable development goals.