Masayuki Teranishi, Yoshifumi Saito, Katie Wales (Eds.) - Literature and Language Learning in The EFL Classroom-Palgrave Macmillan UK (2015) PDF

Literature and Language Learning in the EFL Classroom
Also by Masayuki Teranishi
BRITAIN TODAY
Old Certainties, New Contradictions (co-authored)
d
LITERATURE AS INSPIRATION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
(co-edited)
d
POLYPHONY IN FICTION
A Stylistic Analysis of Middlemarch, Nostromo, and Herzog
ROCK UK
A Cultural History of Popular Music in Britain (co-authored)
d
Also by Katie Wales
A DICTIONARY OF STYLISTICS
FEMINIST LINGUISTICS IN LITERARY CRITICISM (edited)
d
THE LANGUAGE OF JAMES JOYCE
NORTHERN ENGLISH
A Social and Cultural History
PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH
SHAKESPEARE’S DRAMATIC LANGUAGE (co-edited)
d
Literature and Language
Learning in the EFL
Classroom
Edited by
Masayuki Teranishi
University of Hyogo, Japan
Yoshifumi Saito
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Katie Wales
University of Nottingham, UK
Selection and editorial content © Masayuki Teranishi, Yoshifumi Saito and
Katie Wales 2015
Individual chapters © their respective authors 2015
Epilogue © Ronald Carter 2015
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2015 978-1-137-44365-6
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First published 2015 by
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ISBN 978-1-349-56520-7 ISBN 978-1-137-44366-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781137443663
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Teranishi, Masayuki, author.
Literature and language learning in the EFL classroom / Masayuki Teranishi,
University of Hyogo, Japan ; Yoshifumi Saito, The University of Tokyo, Japan ;
Katie Wales, University of Nottingham, UK.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. English language – Study and teaching – Japanese speakers. 2. English
language – Study and teaching – Japanese students. 3. Literature – Study and
teaching. 4. Interdisciplinary approach in education. 5. Reading – Language
experience approach. I. Saito, Yoshifumi, 1958- author. II. Wales, Katie, author.
III. Title.
PE1130.J3T38 2015
428.0079052– dc23 2015005434
In Memoriam Geoffrey Leech 1936–2014
Contents
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Notes on Contributors xvi
Introduction 1
Masayuki Teranishi, Yoshifumi Saito and Katie Wales
Part I Current Issues and Suggestions for

New Approaches
1 Recent Developments in Uses of Literature in
Language Teaching 13
Geoff Hall
2 Literary Texts as Authentic Materials for

Language Learning: The Current Situation in Japan 26
Kazuko Takahashi
3 Bridging the Gap between L1 Education and L2 Education 41

Aiko Saito
4 From Reading to Writing: Creative Stylistics as a

Methodology for Bridging the Gap between Literary
Appreciation and Creative Writing in ELT 61
Yoshifumi Saito
5 Unpacking and Evaluating Properties in Conceptual

Metaphor Domain Mapping: Cognitive Stylistics as a
Language Learning Tool 75
Michael Burke
6 Playing with Words and Pictures: Using Post-modernist

Picture Books as a Resource with Teenage and Adult
Language Learners 94
Gillian Lazar
vii
viii Contents
Part II Empirical and Case Studies

7 Achievement Tests for Literary Reading in General
EFL Reading Courses 115
Takayuki Nishihara
8 A Stylistic Approach to Digital Texts: Teaching Literary

Texts through New Media 131
Soichiro Oku
9 The Effects of Literary Texts on Students’ Sentence

Recognition: Translation Tasks and Comprehension Tasks 140
Tomohide Ishihara and Akira Ono
10 Benefits of Teaching Speech/Thought Presentation:

Developing Language Awareness through Reading
Austen and Eliot 151
Tetsuko Nakamura
11 Teaching English Novels in the EFL Classroom 167

Masayuki Teranishi
12 Using Short Stories in University Composition Classrooms 182

Kyoko Kuze
13 Translation of Japanese Poems into English:

Literature in the First Language as a Motive to
Communicate in a Second Language 197
Kiyo Sakamoto
14 Literary Reading Circles and Short Essay Activities for

English Learning among Medical Students 212
Yuka Kusanagi
15 The Role of Literature in Foreign Language Learning 229

Masako Nasu
16 The First Step towards a Critical Perspective: The Practice of

Evidence-Based Explanation of a Literary Text in Book Clubs 248
Hiroko Sugimura
17 The Use of a Literary Text in an Extensive Reading

Programme: Reading Murakami’s ‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’
in the World Café 260
Motoko Fukaya
Contents ix
18 Increasing Motivation and Building Bridges to

Content with Graded Readers 280
Mark D. Sheehan
19 Pedagogical Stylistics in an ELT Teacher Training Setting:

A Case Study
y 298
Marina Lambrou
Epilogue: Literature and Language Learning in the

EFL Classroom 316
Ronald Carter
Index 321
List of Figures
2.1 General interpretation of ‘communication abilities’ and

‘authentic’ materials in Japan 36
3.1 The proverb ‘seeing is believing’ written in Classical
Chinese with decoding guide marks 44
3.2 Outline of transdisciplinary lessons for the fifth graders at
Shijo Elementary School, Japan 51
6.1 Third Voice (Charles) from Anthony Browne’s
‘Voices in the Park’ 103
6.2 Fourth Voice (Smudge) from Anthony Browne’s
‘Voices in the Park’ 104
8.1 Average of scores (Task 1) 137
8.2 Average of scores (Task 2) 137
11.1 Knowledge and skills to be improved through reading
English literature 171
13.1 Heuristic model of variables influencing WTC 199
16.1 Do you think you read much? <1> (n = 158) 251
16.2 Are you interested in reading novels? <2> (n = 158) 251
16.3 Are you interested in reading novels?<3> (n = 54) 251
17.1 Reading activities and questionnaires implemented 270
17.2 Questionnaire items used in QN1, 2, and 3 271
17.3 Mean scores for Questions 1 to 5 272
19.1 The intersection of literature and language learning
showing focus of study y 303
x
List of Tables
2.1 Objectives of foreign language study established in the

Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools
from the 1980s to the present 28
2.2 Chief incidents responsible for the marginalization of
literature within English education in Japan 30
2.3 Total number of university-level English textbooks for
academic years 2009–2014 33
7.1 Test results 123
7.2 Correlation coefficients between test item types 123
9.1 Examples of the three types of sentence in the sentence
recognition taskk 146
9.2 Descriptive statistics for the sentence recognition task
k 147
11.1 Results of the quiz (2010, n = 29) 177
12.1 Evaluation of prediction: average scores on a scale from
1 (worst) to 5 (best) 188
12.2 Evaluation of rewriting: average scores on a scale from
1 (worst) to 5 (best) 189
12.3 What do you think about the use of literary materials in
English classes? (n = 75) 190
12.4 What do you think about the use of short stories in
composition classes? (n = 75) 191
12.5 What do you think about the effects of literature-based
writing on English ability? (n = 75) 192
14.1 Students’ perceptions of Never Let Me Go 219
14.2 Themes and responses identified by students in
Never Let Me Go 220
14.3 Reading and discussion experiences 222
14.4 Perceptions of the lessons and self-perceived English
abilities 223
15.1 Background of interviewees 237
16.1 Examples of literary texts 252
16.2 Survey results (n = 10 except (b) n = 9) 256
17.1 Participants’ responses to the post-activity questionnaires 271
17.2 I found the following texts unforgettable 275
17.3 The most impressive text read in the whole programme 275
xi
xii List of Tables
17.4 Correlations of post-course questionnaire scores with

participants’ reading amount and results of EPER tests 275
18.1 Courses, research questions and student English levels 283
18.2 Assignments, materials, aims and methodologies 286
18.3 Reading books in this course has helped to build my
confidence to use English (n = 26) 287
18.4 Reading books in this course has helped to increase my
motivation to use English (n = 26) 287
18.5 Reading books in this course has helped to develop my
speaking skills (n = 26) 287
18.6 I have become more interested in reading literature as a
result of this course (n = 56) 290
18.7 After the course ends, I will continue to read literature
(n = 56) 290
18.8 I have discovered that literature is an important
subject to study (n = 56) 290
18.9 Additional student comments on the literature
course experience (translated and edited for
clarity by the author) 290
18.10 Reading English books in my English class helped me to
enjoy reading more (n = 18) 293
18.11 I enjoyed reading the books in this course (n = 18) 293
18.12 Reading books in this course has helped to build my
confidence to use English (n = 18) 293
18.13 Reading books in this course has helped to increase my
motivation to use English (n = 18) 294
18.14 Reading books in this course has helped to develop my
speaking skills (n = 18) 294
18.15 I think reading is important for academic success
(n = 100) 295
18.16 I think reading is important for personal growth
(n = 100) 295
18.17 Since reading English books in university courses,
my attitude to reading has become ... (n = 100) 295
19.1 Levels of language for stylistic analysis 298
Preface
In April 2011, just after the disastrous earthquake and tsunami in eastern
Japan, seven Japanese scholars started a research project subsidized by
the Japanese government which aimed to provide insights into some
of the issues connected with the use of literature in English language
teaching contexts – as well as solutions to those issues – through discus-
sions with practitioners of literature and language teaching in Japan. As
a result of their attendance at both domestic and international confer-
ences, at which they met, talked to and learned from practitioners in a
variety of fields with a variety of educational and teaching backgrounds,
it became apparent that many of the subjects covered by the project
would be of relevance to a much broader audience, outside Japan, while
also benefiting the Japanese audience by introducing teaching/learning
theories and practices developed globally. I first contacted Marina
Lambou, who had chaired my presentation on pedagogical stylistics at
the PALA (Poetics and Linguistics Association) conference. Because of
her considerable teaching range, including experience with Japanese
students, I hoped that she would be interested in the project. I also
contacted two internationally renowned scholars: Professor Katie Wales,
who had supervised my PhD dissertation, and Professor Yoshifumi Saito,
a pioneer in literature and English education in Japan. Their replies were
positive and encouraging and I was very lucky to be able to include
them as core members of the project. With this as a start, the publica-
tion project became globalized, with more prominent figures and prom-
ising young scholars joining us to make their contributions. The result
is Literature and Language Learning in the EFL Classroom, which benefits
from an international and interdisciplinary range of contributors.
The contributors from Japan, the UK, the USA, China and the
Netherlands were specifically chosen for their expertise as well as for
their knowledge and research skills gained through extensive profes-
sional practice in literature, language education, stylistics and EFL. The
experience they bring to this volume provides invaluable insights into
issues that can be caused by social, cultural and native language differ-
ences in English language teaching contexts. Moreover, the volume
presents readers with different approaches as well as teaching methods
and materials that can be used in their own classrooms.
xiii
xiv Preface
In recent years, both native and non-native English language teachers

and scholars have been concerned with (re)introducing valuable literary
works into EFL/ESL classrooms, and language and literature teaching has
become a highly topical subject. This collection of articles is an attempt
to meet those local and global needs.
Acknowledgements
The motivation for this project originated from exchanges at a variety

of domestic and international academic conferences that this book’s
contributors participated in or hosted. Among those conferences are
those of the Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA), the English
Literary Society of Japan (ELSJ), the Japan Association of College English
Teachers (JACET), Liberlit, the Japan Association for Language Education
and Technology (LET) and the Japan Association of International Liberal
Arts (JAILA). We are grateful to the organizers and participants for giving
us constructive suggestions and comments on our papers and presenta-
tions. We would also like to thank two anonymous reviewers for their
encouraging and insightful comments on our proposal. We are grateful
to all the students, teachers and other people who kindly answered ques-
tionnaires and provided narrative and interview data, as well as creative
ideas for this volume. Furthermore, we are indebted to the colleagues,
friends and family members who have given us the advice, encourage-
ment and time necessary to complete this project.
The authors and publishers wish to thank the following for permis-
sion to use copyrighted material: ‘Punishment’ 9mm Parabellum
Bullet (Author: Takuro Sugawara/Composer: 9mm Parabellum Bullet)
© 2007 by NIPPON TELEVISION MUSIC CORPORATION & EMI Music
Publishing Japan Ltd & Nonet Inc.; artwork from Voices in the Park
by Anthony Browne (© Anthony Browne, published by arrangement
with Doubleday, an imprint of Random House Children’s Publishers.
Random House Children’s Publishers is a part of the Penguin Random
House group of companies).
Our research is partly supported by four Grants-in-Aid for Scientific
Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science: ‘The Role
of Communicative Stylistics as Scientific Research: Pedagogical, Social,
and Global Perspectives’ (#26580087); ‘Research on Teaching Methods
and Materials in English Education through Literature’ (#23520314);
‘Multiple Approaches to Extensive Reading: Development of Activities
Based on Instructional Methodology Used in Finland’ (#24520607)
(for Chapters 14 and 17); and ‘The Oral History of Successful EFL
Learners: Qualitative Research on Lifelong Foreign Language Learning’
(#25580131) (for Chapter 15).
xv
Notes on Contributors
Michael Burke is Professor of Rhetoric at University College Roosevelt,

Utrecht University, Netherlands. He is a series editor for the Routledge
Studies in Rhetoric and Stylistics and a former chair of the Poetics and
Linguistics Association (PALA). His recent works include Literary Reading,
Cognition and Emotion (2011) and Pedagogical Stylistics (co-edited) (2012).
He is also the editor of The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics (2014).
Ronald Carterr is Research Professor of Modern English Language in

the School of English, University of Nottingham, England. Carter has
published extensively in the fields of applied linguistics and literature and
language in education and is the author or editor of more than 40 books
and 100 articles in these fields. At Nottingham University he has been
head of the Department of English and director of the Centre for English
Language Education. He has given consultancies to government agencies
and ministries in over 30 countries worldwide. His recent works include
Language and Creativity: The Art of Common Talk (2004), The Cambridge
Grammar of English (2006), Language, Literature and Creativity: The State of
the Artt (2011) and English Grammar Todayy (2011). He received an MBE for
services to higher education in the UK’s 2009 New Year’s Honours List.
Motoko Fukaya is Associate Professor of American Literature at Tsurumi
University, Yokohama, Japan. She received her MA in English Literature
from Waseda University. Her academic interests include American
literature/culture and the effective use of literary texts in an extensive
reading programme. Her recent works include ‘Frederick Law Olmsted’s
Cotton Kingdom: A Yeoman’s Observations on the South and Slavery’ in
American Travel Literature: Journeying in the Land of Wonderr (Showado,
2009, published in Japanese) and ‘The Effect of Reading Guidance
in an Extensive Reading Program’ (The Bulletin of Tsurumi University,
52, 2015). She has also co-authored The Potential of Extensive Reading:
Promoting English Learning and Much More (Seibido, 2010, published in
Japanese).
Geofff Hall is a professor and Head of the School of English of the

University of Nottingham, Ningbo, China. His research and teaching
interests include literary stylistics, literature in language education and
English language and literature in ESL contexts. Geoff Hall is Chief
xvi
Notes on Contributors xvii
Editor of the journal Language and Literature and author of Literature in

Language Education, now in its second edition.
Tomohide Ishihara is an associate professor at Aichi University. He

received his doctorate in Education from Hiroshima University in
2010. His recent works include ‘Developing an Analytic Evaluation
Scale for English–Japanese Translation: Considering Its Reliability Using
Generalizability Theory’ ((Annual Review of English Language Education
in Japan, 2009) and ‘Differences in Translation Process According to
Text Genres: Quantitative Analysis of Translators’ Retrospective Verbal
Reports’ (Interpreting and Translation Studies, 2010, published in Japanese).
His research interests include Translation in Language Teaching (TILT)
in the Japanese context.
Yuka Kusanagi is Associate Professor in English Language and

Communication at Gunma University in Japan. She has had exten-
sive experience teaching learners of different ages and backgrounds at
various institutions in Japan. Her research interests include narrative,
extensive reading, multimodality focusing on gesture in second/foreign
language education, and enhancing learners’ autonomy through the
arts in English education. She has published various papers and books
and has facilitated workshops in these fields.
Kyoko Kuze is Associate Professor of English at Ueno Gakuen University

in Tokyo. She received her MA from the University of Tokyo and Master
of Professional Studies in ESL from Manhattanville College, USA. Her
interests include the use of literary texts in ESL/EFL classrooms, and she
is the author of ‘Some Possibilities of the Use of Literary Texts in EFL
Classrooms in Japan’ (Language and Information Sciences, 6, 2008) and
‘Pop Song Lyrics in the University EFL Class’ (Liberlit Conference
Online, 2011).
Marina Lambrou is an associate professor and Head of Department

for Linguistics and Languages at Kingston University, London. She was
the evening director at International House Language School, London
and also taught ELT. She is co-author of Language and Media (2009)
and joint-editor of Contemporary Stylistics (2007). She also edited the
‘Narrative’ Special Edition of Language and Literature (23 (1), February
2014). Her other works include the chapters: ‘Narratives of Trauma
Re-lived: The Ethnographer’s Paradox and Other Tales’ (2014); and
‘Stylistics, Conversation Analysis and the Cooperative Principle’ (2014).
She is currently working on a monograph entitled Disnarration (Palgrave
Macmillan: forthcoming, 2015).
xviii Notes on Contributors
Gillian Lazar is a senior lecturer and teaching fellow at Middlesex

University, where she teaches academic writing and language; and a
visiting lecturer at the University of Westminster, where she teaches
on the MA course in TESOL and Creative Writing. Previously, Gillian
Lazar worked as a teacher of ESP at the British Council in Athens;
as a teacher/teacher trainer at International House, London; and as
a freelance teacher trainer, lexicographer and materials writer. She is
the author of Literature and Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers
and Trainers (1993), A Window on Literature (1999) and Meanings and
Metaphors (2003).
Tetsuko Nakamura is Associate Professor of English at Komazawa

University, Tokyo. She holds MA degrees from Keio University and the
University of Nottingham and has been lecturing part-time in English
literature at Keio University for about a decade. She has co-authored
two English textbooks: Big Dipper Writing Coursee (2007) and English
through Literaturee (2009). Her research interests include Irish prose and
fiction, and her most recent English work in this field is ‘Interactions
between Travel Narrative and Short Fiction: Stories Revolving around
St Patrick’s Purgatory, 1827–1843’ (Studies in English Literature, 56, 2015).
Masako Nasu is an associate professor at the Language Education

Centre, Okayama University, Japan. Her recent works include ‘Groping
for Internal Realism: Woolf’s Early Experiments in Short Fictions’
(Virginia Woolf Review, 27, 2010), ‘Buds of Internal Realism in Virginia
Woolf’s The Voyage Out’ (Studies in English Literature: Regional Branches
Combined Issue, Vol. III, 2011) and ‘The Role of Stylistics in Japan: A
Pedagogical Perspective’ (Language and Literature, 21 (2), 2012, co-au-
thored with Masayuki Teranishi, Aiko Saito and Kiyo Sakamoto). She is
one of the founding members of the Japan Association of International
Liberal Arts (JAILA).
Takayuki Nishihara is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at the

Prefectural University of Hiroshima, Japan, having previously worked
at Kure National College of Technology, Hiroshima, Japan, where he
was Lecturer of General English and Technical Writing. Nishihara is the
author of ‘Taking Critical Attitude towards Critical Approach to Applied
Linguistics: Semantic Comparison of the Term Critical between CDA
and Applied Linguistics’ (JABAET
( Journal, 13, 2010) and ‘Poetry Reading
and Noticing the Hole in Interlanguage: A Proposal for Investigating
the Relation between Poetry Reading and Interlanguage Development’
((JACET Journal, 54, 2012).
Notes on Contributors xix
Soichiro Oku is a professor at the College of Architecture and

Environmental Design at Kanto Gakuin University, Yokohama,
having previously worked at Meikei High School, Tsukuba, where
he was head of English Department and where he taught English for
nine years. He is the co-translator of the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessmentt (2001). His
recent works include ‘Possibilities on Calculating Literary Language’ in
Yoshifumi Saito (ed.) Language and Literature (Asakura-Shoten, 2009) and
‘Discourse in Classroom’ in Norimitsu Tosu (ed.) Invitation toward Open-
Class Linguistics (2008).
Akira Ono is an associate professor at Hiroshima University, Japan. He

received his PhD in English Language and Literature from Hiroshima
University in 2006. His recent works include ‘The Effects of the
Introduction of the Goal-Oriented Educational Program: In the Case
of the Classes Related to English literature’ (Journal of Japan Association
of Universities of Education, 2012) and ‘English Reading Skills to Be
Developed through Literary Texts: From the Viewpoint of the New
Course of Study and Theories of Communication Skills’ (Hiroshima
Studies in Language and Language Education, 2013). His research interests
include the use of literature in teaching English as a second/foreign
language.
Aiko Saito is Professor of English at Setsunan University, Osaka, Japan.

She has previously taught Japanese as a foreign language at the Business
language centre, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK. She has
been involved in initial teacher training for university students, and
on-the-job training for experienced school teachers. She has also prac-
ticed TEFL with arts such as painting, drama and literature. She is one of
the authors of the Genius Japanese–English Dictionary, Third Edition (2011)
and ‘The Role of Stylistics in Japan: A Pedagogical Perspective’ (Language
(
and Literature, May, 2012).
Yoshifumi Saito is Professor of Education at the University of Tokyo.

He holds MAs from the University of Tokyo and Indiana University
and a PhD from the University of Nottingham. Primarily a stylistician,
he has worked extensively in a wide range of fields including literary
theory, translation, and language education. His works include Eigo
no Saho [The Art of English] (2000), Eigo Tatsujin Retsuden [Stories of
the Japanese Masters of English] (2000), Nihonjin to Eigo [The Japanese
and the English Language] (2007) and ‘Translation in English Language
Teaching in Japan’ (Komaba Journal of English Education, 3, 2012).
xx Notes on Contributors
Kiyo Sakamoto holds an MA in Comparative Literature from the

University of Tokyo. She has been teaching English and literature at
Doshisha University and Ryukoku University in Kyoto while pursuing
graduate-level study at Kyoto University, majoring in Foreign Language
Acquisition and Education. Her recent works include ‘The Role of
Stylistics in Japan: A Pedagogical Perspective’ (Language and Literature,
21 (2), 2012, co-authored with Masayuki Teranishi, Aiko Saito and Masako
Nasu) and Bungaku-kyozai Jissen Handbook: Eigo-kyoiku wo Kasseika-suru
[Literature as Inspiration in the English Language Classroom] (Eihosha,
2013, co-edited with Toshiko Yoshimura et al.).
Mark D. Sheehan is an associate professor at Hannan University, Japan.

He has more than 12 years of tertiary-level teaching experience in Japan.
Sheehan received his MA in English Literature from the University of
Massachusetts Boston, and holds a Certificate in English Teaching to
Adults (CELTA). His teaching interests include academic reading, exten-
sive reading and exploring ways to engage students with language
through content-based English courses. Sheehan has published and
presented on teaching English literature to Japanese university students,
extensive reading, academic reading, English for specific purposes, and
curriculum development.
Hiroko Sugimura is a professor at Osaka Electro-Communication

University, Japan. She has a particular interest in the relationship
between Charlotte Brontë’s juvenilia and her four novels in terms of
the use of metaphor and has published several research papers on the
Brontës, for one of which she was awarded the Encouragement Prize by
the Brontë Society of Japan. Recently stylistics has aroused her interest
in the analysis of short stories, and she has begun research into the effec-
tive use of stylistics for pedagogical purposes.
Kazuko Takahashi is Professor of English at the School of Education,

Meisei University, Japan. She received her PhD from the University of
Tokyo in 2013. Her research interests include effective ways to utilize
literary materials in Japanese English classrooms. Her recent works
include ‘Is the English of Literary Works Really “Unique”? Doubts about
Its Exclusion from Second Language Learning’ (Language and Information
Sciences, 5, 2007), ‘Literature and English Education in Japan’ in Language
and Literature (ed. Yoshifumi Saito, 2009) and ‘Japanese English Teaching
and Literary Materials from the Early 1980s to the Early 2000s’ (Diss.
Tokyo U, 2013, in Japanese).
Notes on Contributors xxi
Masayuki Teranishi is Professor of English Studies at the School of

Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Japan. His recent
works include ‘A Stylistic Analysis of Herzog: A Mode of “Postmodern
Polyphony”’ ((Language and Literature, 16 (1), 2007), Polyphony in Fiction:
A Stylistic Analysis off Middlemarch, Nostromo, andd Herzog (2008), and
‘The Role of Stylistics in Japan: A Pedagogical Perspective’ (Language
and Literature, 21 (2), 2012, co-authored with Aiko Saito, Kiyo Sakamoto
and Masako Nasu). He is the vice-chair of the Japan Association of
International Liberal Arts (JAILA) and the Japanese Ambassador for the
Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA).
Katie Wales has held professorships in English at the Universities of

London, Leeds, Sheffield and Nottingham. In Leeds she was also the
Dean of Learning and Teaching in the Faculty of Arts. With broad inter-
ests in the history of the English language and of English literature, she
has given many conference papers and lectured under the aegis of the
British Council all round the world. She is a founding member of the
international Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA); and a founding
editor of the international stylistics journal Language and Literature. She
is on the editorial board of the journal English Today. Her book-length
publications include work on the language of James Joyce, Northern
English dialects, personal pronouns and stylistics. A Dictionary of Stylistics
came out in a third edition in 2011.
Introduction
Masayuki Teranishi, Yoshifumi Saito and Katie Wales
Literature and Language Learning in the EFL Classroom is a collection of

chapters examining how literary texts can be incorporated into teaching
practices in an EFL classroom. The book takes multiple approaches to
literature and language education, including the use of extensive and
close reading, narrative inquiry, translation and pedagogical stylistics,
and the evaluation of successful foreign language learners, and in doing
so exemplifies how English language teaching and learning can best be
developed through the presentation and exploration of literary texts.
The use of literary texts in English language teaching is a fast-growing
area within English language education, EFL/ESL and stylistics, and
is likely to continue to grow, along with courses where language and
literature teaching are combined into a single subject. Literature plays a
central or significant role in literary, cultural and sociological studies as
well, and this book will be of interest to and will benefit researchers and
students in these related areas.
1 The aim of the book
Seminal works on the topic of the English language and literature have
been published in a variety of fields, such as literature and language
teaching (e.g. Carter, 2007; Carter and Long, 1987; Carter and McRae,
1996; Carter and Walker, 1989; Hall, 2005; Lazar, 1993; Picken, 2007),
EFL/ESL (e.g. Carroli, 2011; Grabe, 2009; Hanauer, 2010; Paran, 2006;
Paran and Sercu, 2010, Yoshimura et al., 2013) and stylistics (e.g. Burke
et al., 2012; Short, 1989; Simpson, 1996; 2004; Toolan, 1997; Watson
and Zyngier, 2006). This book aims to address some of the questions that
were asked by them but remain unresolved (see also Epilogue by Ronald
Carter). First of all, the justification for the inclusion of literature in the
1
2 Masayuki Teranishi, Yoshifumi Saito and Katie Wales
EFL curriculum is a theme pursued, directly or indirectly, throughout

the volume. The influence of multi-media is also an important issue in
this book. The increasing role of non-canonical English literary texts,
such as post-modernist texts, simplified texts and pop song lyrics, is
the focus of several chapters. This theme is also closely related to the
broader question of what literature is.
Moreover, new issues have arisen as this topic has been extended into
different research fields and a variety of worldwide teaching contexts,
and the current volume attempts to address some of these as well.
Recent advances in technology, for instance, have changed teaching
and learning styles dramatically, and ICT (information and communica-
tion technology) has enabled various new forms of interaction between
teachers, students and friends, which produce a new variety of opportu-
nities for learning.
2 Local and global perspectives
This collection of chapters may be unique in the sense that many chap-
ters, either directly or indirectly, target the Japanese EFL classroom and
will necessarily benefit those who are currently teaching or will be
teaching in Japan. In fact, 14 chapters out of 19 are written by Japanese
authors (in addition, Sheehan’s chapter is concerned with a Japanese
university classroom) and some of them deal with issues peculiar to
Japanese teaching settings that have not been fully covered by the above-
mentioned seminal works. On the other hand, this book also targets
an international readership, and the contributors have been chosen
from the UK, the USA, China and the Netherlands as well as Japan,
with consideration to their expertise and extensive teaching experience.
Literature and language learning in EFL contexts involves such a wide
range of aspects that no single perspective or theory can address all the
problems it raises. In this volume, therefore, native as well as non-native
and Japanese as well as non-Japanese English teachers with a variety of
backgrounds attempt to address the same problem: how to (re)intro-
duce valuable literary works into EFL/ESL classrooms from a local and/
or global perspective.
3 Contents of the chapters
The chapters of the book have been arranged into two parts, Part I:
Current Issues and Suggestions for New Approaches (Chapters 1–6)
and Part II: Empirical and Case Studies (Chapters 7–19), to reflect the
Introduction 3
different focus of the chapters and to also provide an overall coherence

to the book. The book first examines the EFL/ESL contexts in which the
use of literature has become a significant issue and presents the theo-
retical frameworks and the current approaches for using literature for
specific pedagogical purposes. The empirical and case studies that follow
exemplify how the theories have been applied in actual teaching and
learning settings. Moreover, native English and non-native/Japanese
authors’ perspectives are integrated to encourage readers with different
teaching and learning backgrounds to widen their vision. The following
is a chapter-by-chapter summary.
In Chapter 1, Geoff Hall previews some of the changes to be explored
in more depth in Literature in Language Education (LLE) 2 (2015), for
example the growing use and popularity of creative writing in many ESL
and EFL sites, the growth of ESL and EFL reading circles, the increasingly
established centrality of literatures in English by writers based in or
connected to an ever wider range of locations and cultures, multimodal
texts and developments in technologies for interacting with literary
texts. There are also many more and better online sites and resources for
teachers interested in these areas than there were in 2005 (when LLE was
first published). From a research perspective, newer studies in corpus
stylistics and affective factors in reading, empathy or literature readers’
interactions would all be of interest to practitioners and educationists
more widely.
In Chapter 2, Kazuko Takahashi explores why L2/EFL classrooms have
reduced the utilization of literary materials in the light of the current
situation in English teaching in Japan. Takahashi argues that the overall
objectives of English teaching in Japan are to develop students’ commu-
nication abilities in English. The chapter describes how English materials
that are closely related to daily life are frequently used, whereas literary
materials are mostly marginalized from Japanese English teaching. She
then analyses the word authenticity, which is usually used superficially, so
that only non-literary materials are considered ‘authentic’. This chapter
also examines English textbooks for junior and senior high schools and
universities. Takahashi argues that literary works are authentic materials
and are beneficial to improving L2/EFL learners’ communicative compe-
tence in English.
In Chapter 3, Aiko Saito proposes that EFL and L2 teachers should learn
from the L1 education that their target students have experienced. All
L2 learners go through L1 education, which is a source of good practices
and ideas for L2 education, as the two shares the common ground of
language acquisition. The chapter examines L1 education and the roles
of literature in Japan, and suggests what teachers can apply in EFL educa-
tion. L1 education in Japan has treated literature as a key teaching mate-
rial, and generations of teachers have introduced various approaches
to meet the changing needs of learners. The main body of the chapter
examines how Japanese as L1 learners encounter literature before and
after elementary school, the contents of government-approved text-
books, and pedagogical practices using literature within and outside L1
classes. The last section of this study examines how EFL teaching can
apply those practices.
In Chapter 4, Yoshifumi Saito proposes to construct a comprehen-
sive methodology of pedagogical stylistics that is capable of providing
students with both input- and output-based learning opportunities in
the classroom. Two of the most significant disciplines in the method-
ology are traditional analysis- and description-oriented pedagogical
stylistics, which has acted mostly on the students’ reading process, and
creative stylistics, which he theorized in Saito (forthcoming) in order to
apply the insights gained in stylistic analyses to creative writing. This
chapter argues that these two disciplines can be theoretically connected
in producing a course in which language students will be guided from
literary reading to creative writing and demonstrates the connecting
procedure by describing the stylistic features of the literary effect called
‘dramatic irony’ and then showing how it can be reproduced in the
process of creative writing.
In Chapter 5, Michael Burke provides a framework for developing
and deepening English L2/EFL language acquisition through a blend of
cognitive stylistic analysis and conceptual metaphor theory. The focus
of teaching lies in motivating students to unpack, evaluate and criti-
cally debate the kinds of properties and characteristics that are mapped
from source to target domains in conceptual metaphors. The core of
this chapter on critical thinking consists of a cognitive stylistic analysis
of a poem punctuated by numerous interactive conceptual metaphor
learning activities. The chapter concludes with a number of sugges-
tions for further work in unpacking and appraising creative conceptual
metaphors. A central goal of the chapter is to propose cognitive stylistic
analysis as a useful English L2/EFL pedagogical methodology.
In Chapter 6, Gillian Lazar explores the ways in which post-modernist
picture books can be employed in L2 English education. Post-modernist
picture books in English have been characterized as children’s books with
pictures that subvert literary conventions, manifest complex intertextu-
ality and communicate multiple meanings leading to open-ended inter-
pretations. Such picture books, including those by Anthony Browne,
Introduction 5
Shaun Tan and Mimi Grey, while apparently targeted at children,

provide a rich resource for developing language and cultural awareness,
interpretive strategies and creativity in both teenage and adult learners
of English at high school and at university. This chapter begins with a
discussion of the key features of post-modernist picture books that are
relevant to language learning, with examples from specific texts. A range
of practical activities exploiting these books in the classroom, as well as
with trainee teachers of English, is then presented.
In Chapter 7, Takayuki Nishihara presents a guide to producing
achievement tests for general EFL reading courses using literary texts.
Five tips for test construction are presented: test items should be based
on literary reading exercises by ordinary L1 readers; most items should
target comprehension of the literal meaning of the text; the test should
also include items on textual interpretation, recognition of the crea-
tivity of language, and learners’ personal responses to the text. Then a
sample test is presented: an intermediate-level general EFL reading test
for university students in Japan using Charlotte Gilman’s ‘The Yellow
Wallpaper’. Finally, issues noted during and after the marking of such a
test are presented, followed by the applicability of the tips to different
teaching contexts.
In Chapter 8, Soichiro Oku presents the reading strategies used for
digital texts. In the language classroom, digital texts can contribute to
another way of reading, and it is possible to examine reading strategies
by using digital texts in educational settings. Two research questions
are tackled in this chapter: What is it that reading digital texts can do
that reading printed texts cannot? How do students read digital texts?
The data for stylistic analysis consists of excerpts from picture books
and English novels, and the results of reading activities by Japanese EFL
learners after reading digital texts and printed texts are presented. The
methodology used is mainly comparative observations in practice, and
evaluations of the digital texts and printed texts by learners. Analyses of
the results of the activities illustrates the differences in reading strategies
for each type of text. The results of this study will help educators effec-
tively use digital texts in the EFL classroom.
In Chapter 9, Tomohide Ishihara and Akira Ono describe how students’
sentence recognition is affected by text types (short story vs. newspaper
article) and task types (translation task vs. comprehension task), with a
focus on literary reading in the EFL context, especially among students
whose English proficiency is from novice to pre-intermediate. A total
of 141 university students were assigned both translation and compre-
hension questions while reading either R. Brautigan’s short story The
Old Bus or a newspaper article from The Nikkei Weekly, followed by a

sentence recognition task. Results showed that (1) students who read
the literary text were less likely to misrecognize paraphrased sentences
and (2) sentences in the translation tasks were recognized better than
the ones in the comprehension questions. These findings imply that
a literary text and/or translation task draws students’ attention to the
surface structure of the sentences. Finally, further issues and applica-
bility to classroom activities are noted.
In Chapter 10, Tetsuko Nakamura discusses the benefits of teaching
speech/thought presentation in the EFL classroom. Understanding
speech and thought presentation in English novels is a key to devel-
oping a full appreciation of characterization; free indirect discourse,
in particular, plays a vital role in allowing the narrator to control the
impact of the characters’ thoughts and speech on the reader. This
chapter explores the value of focusing on speech and thought presenta-
tion when teaching the reading of English novels. It describes a literature
course taught to Japanese and Japanese-speaking Korean undergraduates
in which the students developed their understanding of presentation by
focusing on excerpts from novels by Jane Austen and George Eliot that
include sophisticated examples of free indirect discourse. However, the
students concurrently faced various difficulties stemming largely from
differences between English and their own languages. To help students
overcome such difficulties, teachers are at a great advantage if they have
a good understanding of the learners’ native languages.
In Chapter 11, Masayuki Teranishi explores what EFL students can
and should learn from authentic English literary fiction by considering
specifically the way in which English literature and language teachers
can collaborate. He also examines whether the teaching of literature
should be incorporated into foreign language education. To answer
these questions, data has been collected from EFL students enrolled in
an English literature course at a Japanese university. By presenting the
methodology behind the course and analysing student data, Teranishi
concludes that (1) EFL/ESL learners should read authentic literary texts
to gain the maximum benefits provided by literature, and (2) a combi-
nation of EFL teaching practices and learners’ native language education
should produce good multilingual communicators.
In Chapter 12, Kyoko Kuze explores the potential of the use of litera-
ture in English teaching by focusing on the use of short stories in univer-
sity composition classes. Inspired by a growing interest in empirical
studies on the role of literature in natural classroom settings, this study
implements a qualitative analysis of teaching procedures used with
Introduction 7
Japanese EFL students, their writings, and their perceptions and atti-
tudes regarding literature-based writing. Kuze gives a practical report on
how those literature-based activities provide learners with opportuni-
ties to write creatively in a foreign language, to read texts actively as an
impetus to that writing, and to enjoy interpreting texts on their own,
rather than simply accepting someone else’s interpretation.
In Chapter 13, Kiyo Sakamoto explores the role of literature in the learn-
er’s first language as a way to encourage them to communicate in a second
language. In this case study, Japanese university students were asked to
translate traditional Japanese short poems into English. The students’
comments and answers to questionnaires show that this activity could
induce the students to produce creative expressions in English, offers
them a chance for meaningful communication with English speakers,
and raises their language awareness in both L1 and L2. The study thus
suggests the potential of using the L1 heritage in the L2 classroom.
In Chapter 14, Yuka Kusanagi presents a study of the implementation
of literary reading circles and essay-writing activities in a general EFL
course for medical students at a Japanese university. The chapter reviews
the liberal arts education needs of medical students, the use of literature
and the role of narrative in learning an additional language. Kusanagi
discusses the mixed results of the analyses of students’ written narra-
tives. Students appreciated reading Never Let Me Go, an English-language
novel on the theme of bioethics, and the experience possibly broad-
ened their understanding of medical science, human beings and society.
Nevertheless, the questionnaire results suggest that students lacked the
confidence, particularly in speaking, to express their views on the book.
The chapter concludes with some of the educational implications of this
type of instruction.
In Chapter 15, Masako Nasu examines the role of literature in foreign
language acquisition by engaging in a qualitative analysis of the oral
histories of successful foreign language learners. First, by reviewing
recent studies that examine early recorded documents of past masters
of the English language, such as Inazo Nitobe (1862–1933), Tenshin
Okakura (1862–1913) and Hidesaburo Saito (1866–1929), she summa-
rizes how Japanese formerly acquired advanced levels of English profi-
ciency, and how literature helped their language learning. Second, she
analyses her own interviews with successful learners of English, Chinese
and Japanese as a foreign language to identify the role of literature in
their language learning. The oral histories of advanced-level foreign
language learners can be seen to have implications for the use of litera-
ture as an aid to EFL learning.
In Chapter 16, Hiroko Sugimura explores the use of literary texts as a

means to the gradual development of critical thinking skills. Furthermore,
she shows the benefits of book clubs in providing readers with oppor-
tunities for reflection on their opinions based on the viewpoints of
others. In this pilot study, 19th- and 20th-century British and American
short stories are mainly used, and novice readers in her university are
instructed in how to read a text based on some analysis points derived
from narratology or stylistics and in how to form opinions based on
textual evidence. She analyses survey results and describes one of the
book club reading sessions to show students’ growth as readers.
In Chapter 17, Motoko Fukaya explores the effects of a reading activity
focused on the evaluative process of reading within the context of an
ER (extensive reading) programme. In order to encourage participants
to experience the evaluative process of reading as well as the process
of comprehension in EFL, an intensive reading of ‘Super-Frog Saves
Tokyo’, a story by Haruki Murakami (translated into English by Jay
Rubin), followed by discussion of the text among peers, was introduced
as an intervention into the SSR (Sustained Silent Reading) process using
graded readers. Questionnaire results show the pedagogical effectiveness
of using a literary text in an ER programme in the EFL context.
In Chapter 18, Mark Sheehan shows ways in which English graded
reader assignments can be used to build confidence and motivate EFL
learners. Sheehan presents information on Oral Communication, British
Literature and Diploma courses to show how graded readers can be used
to improve understanding of specialized content and to develop high-
level discussion skills. The chapter describes the methodology behind
his course design, and presents survey data related to motivation and
confidence that shows how graded readers can improve those essen-
tial elements of EFL pedagogy. Sheehan also explores how simplified
versions of novels may encourage students to read more literature, and
concludes by making connections between graded reader assignments
and student perceptions of reading as a worthwhile pursuit that can
enhance academic achievement and stimulate personal growth.
In Chapter 19, Marina Lambrou presents a case study involving
students on a postgraduate English language teaching (ELT) programme
in which they develop a critical understanding of how language can
be taught through literature. Students previously unfamiliar with litera-
ture as a medium for English language learning explore through peda-
gogical stylistics how literary texts can provide a useful medium for
teaching English in an ELT context. Students are presented with a range
of linguistic terms for the description and analysis of literary language
Introduction 9
and are required to present a mini-lesson based on a literary text. As

well as requiring students to develop teaching materials, the aim of the
mini-lesson is to encourage students to engage critically with pedagog-
ical stylistics and teaching language through literature and, in so doing,
develop their own linguistic competence and confidence in their transi-
tion from learners to teachers.
Overall, it is hoped that the book will provide useful pedagogical
insights into the implications of English literature and language educa-
tion for teachers, teacher trainers and students of English literature and
language education including EFL.
References
Burke, M., Csábi, S., Week, L. and Zerkowitz, J. (eds) (2012) Pedagogical Stylistics:
Current Trends in Language, Literature, and ELT. London: Continuum.
Carroli, P. (2011) Literature in Second Language Education: Enhancing the Role of
Texts in Learning. London: Continuum.
Carter R. A. (2007) ‘Literature and Language Teaching 1986–2006: A Review.’
International Journal of Applied Linguistics 17 (1): 3–13.
Carter, R. A. and Long, M. N. (1987) The Web of Words: Exploring Literature Through
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carter, R. A. and McRae, J. (1996) Language, Literature and the Learner. London;
New York: Longman.
Carter, R. A. and Walker, R. (1989) ‘Literature and the Learner: Introduction’ in
R. A. Carter, R. Walker and C. J. Brumfit (eds) Literature and Learner:
Methodological Approaches, 1–9. ELT Documents 13. Hong Kong, MEP and The
British Council.
Grabe, W. (2009) Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hall, G. (2005/2015) Literature in Language Education. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Hanauer, D. I. (2010) Poetry as Research: Exploring Second Language Poetry Writing.
Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Jeffries, L. and McIntyre, D. (eds) (2011) Teaching Stylistics. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Lazar, G. (1993) Literature and Language Teaching: A Guide for Teachers and Trainers.
Paran, A. (2006) Literature in Teaching and Learning: Case Studies in TESOL Practice.
Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Paran, A. and Sercu, L. (eds) (2010) Testing the Untestable in Language Education.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Picken, J. D. (2007) Literature, Metaphor, and the Foreign Language Learner.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Saito, Y. (forthcoming) Style and Creativity: Towards a Theory of Creative Stylistics.
Tokyo: Hitsuji-shobo.
Short, M. (1989) Reading, Analysing and Teaching Literature. London: Longman.
Simpson, P. (1996) Language through Literature: An Introduction. London:

Routledge.
Simpson, P. (2004) Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge.
Toolan, M. (1997) Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics. London:
Hodder.
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Learners: Theory and Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
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and Yukishige, M. (eds) (2013) Literature as Inspiration in the English Language
Classroom (published in Japanese). Tokyo: Eihosha.
Part I
Current Issues and Suggestions
for New Approaches
1
Recent Developments in Uses of
Literature in Language Teaching
Geofff Hall
1 Introduction
The preparation of a second edition of a book that has been noticed

and used globally gave me a valuable prompt not just to correct earlier
mistakes or poorly formulated sentences and sections, but also, more
positively, to review activity in an undoubtedly very active field over the
last ten years, 2004–2014. My survey in this chapter is necessarily selec-
tive and partial, but attempts to identify, with salient examples, some
major ongoing developments, with references for readers to follow up
for themselves.
One general underlying trend identified at the outset was a continuing
and healthy thriving of literatures in English around the world, and
the ongoing vernacularization of the language of literary texts. Another
trend that is now clear is the increasing diversification of creative uses
of language into new modes and forms, with the internet and the multi-
modal possibilities for imaginative writings offered ever more democrati-
cally to users of expanding new technologies (see, e.g., Unsworth, 2008).
‘Cross-over’ literature – above all the Harry Potterr series, but including,
for example, both adult- and child-focused marketing of The Curious
Incident of the Dog in the Night-time (Haddon, 2004; see also Bland, 2013) –
has shown the ongoing appeal of literature, with adaptations into film,
comic books, internet games and more, along with a general interest in
issues of creativity across education and arts and humanities faculties
and beyond (e.g. Swann et al., 2011), all of which are of relevance to
those interested in uses of literature in language education.
Those of us who advocate the use of literature in foreign or second
language classrooms point to its potential to engage the feelings
and minds of readers in meaningful communication, as well as the
13
14 Geoff Hall
importance of carefully selected uses of language, patterned and played

upon, to learners who need to focus on form as well as meaning.
Literature, broadly understood, ideally meets both needs of language
learning. Beyond this, as discussed below, research on creativity and on
motivation is flourishing – and lending further weight to the case for
using literature in language teaching both in and out of classrooms. ‘We
must recover the seriousness of a child at play’, as Nietzsche wrote more
than a hundred years ago. Nothing is more serious or more valuable than
enjoying a good story or poem, although we need constantly to remind
politicians and other stakeholders in education of this. Much cutting-
edge research work in second language learning and classroom research
today focuses on the importance of play and creativity in language
learning as in learning and human progress more broadly. (Cook, 2000,
was an important moment in the evolution of this research.) Dörnyei
(2010), Lamb (2004) and others have revised old ideas of ‘instrumental’
and ‘integrative’ motivation in favour of more dynamic and contextual-
ized understandings of identities of learners, now connecting through
the internet, comics and other channels for popular culture. These imag-
ined and aspirational selves, particularly of adolescents and younger
users, again point to important roles for imaginative and pleasurable
uses of language, particularly for learners of English, widely perceived as
the key global language at present.
In terms of published research, I added more than 100 references to
my revised edition, referring to relevant publications in LLE – about
one a month for every month in the last ten years! Quantity of course
is not quality (see, for example, critical views of Fogal, 2015), but the
plethora or new publications suggests that the level of interest in this
field is growing rather than declining. Professional interest groups such
as the IATEFL Literature, Media and Cultural Studies Group and Global
Issues Group, The C Group and the British Council’s literature resources
website for students and teachers are thriving and expanding, while
new journals, such as The Journal of Literature in Language Teachingg in
Japan, have recently appeared. An international research journal such as
Language and Literature, which I have been privileged to edit since 2010,
regularly receives submissions (of varying quality, admittedly) related
to literature and language teaching. Elsewhere, articles of interest to
our community have appeared in ELT Journal, Modern Language Journal
(MLJJ), Foreign Language Annals and others at national as well as inter-
national level. Important, wide-ranging critical overviews of research
appeared in Carter (2007) and Paran (2008). High-level curriculum state-
ments emphasizing the importance of literature and culture in language
Recent Developments in Uses of Literature 15
teaching have been issued by the Council of Europe in its Common

European Framework (2001), while similar calls and directives were
made more recently in the USA with the ACTFL (American Council
on Teaching of Foreign Languages) Standards and ADFL (Association
of Departments of Foreign Languages) Guidelines of the MLA (Modern
Language Association) (some discussion in Kramsch, 2009).
All in all, then, as I suggested, a lot of activity is going on and much
of it is available as published research, which can only be good for the
progress of our field.
2 Reading literature in a foreign language
In 2005 I noted the promising growth in research into second language

reading as well as into the reading of literature, but also noted that the
more specific questions raised by the reading of literature in a second
language were under-researched. The assumption, generally, was that
conclusions and findings for reading of literature or for second language
reading could unproblematically be generalised and extended into
second reading of literature in a second language. To some extent, this
idea seems justified. Reading studies show that reading in a second
language, at a broad level, raises issues familiar from studies of first
language reading – the importance of vocabulary knowledge, strategies
for reading, the tendency of weaker readers to rely on ‘top down’ strate-
gies and so on. Beglar et al. (2012) suggest that readers need to read at
a rate of about 200 words a minute if they are not to get lost or become
disengaged. Bernhardt (2011) and others suggest that second language
readers usually read at rates about 30% below their L1 reading rates –
a finding that needs to be taken into account by teachers assigning
reading materials. More a lack of reading skill than a language weak-
ness, less successful readers of literature seem for a variety of reasons
to often understand the words or the sentences but not the ‘point’ of
a literary text. They fail to detect irony, or the significance of point of
view, reading for story rather than plot, inferring weakly or problemati-
cally and so, again, missing much of the significance more fluent readers
would find. Language command and reading skill can clearly be worked
on together by students and their teachers.
Pedagogical stylistics is another area of research that has flourished in
recent years; it can also support language and reading development (see
a recent survey in Hall, 2014). More broadly, it is well-established that
there is no absolute dichotomy between first and second language (we
might prefer ‘more and less fluent’) processing of literary text. Hudson
16 Geoff Hall
(2007) offers a state-of-the-art account of teaching second language

reading in general, including a useful chapter (8) on genre and discourse,
with a valuable discussion on the incidental acquisition of vocabulary.
Zhang et al. (2008) show a clear correlation among Singapore primary
school readers between language proficiency and effective reading. The
two can advance together.
Nevertheless, Bernhardt (2011), for example, shows the relevance of
the particular language of the text to be central to reading research – not
all languages can be processed in the same way by all learners. Others
continue to underline the role of culture. Thus Stott (2004), in a short
but stimulating paper, reports that his Japanese readers paid attention
and learned a good deal when they thought a passage they were reading
about Japan had been written by a foreigner. Those who were told the
truth – that it was a passage translated from classic Japanese literature –
found it boring and learned less. Bernhardt (2005) argues that the effects
of interest and the role of feelings in second language reading remain
generally under-researched. Beglar et al.’s (2012) paper is relevant here
again in showing that extensive reading for pleasure in a Japanese
university context promoted faster reading and better comprehension.
The paper also argues for the value of simplified reading materials. Bland
(2013), on the other hand, argues against the need for simplified readers
and emphasizes their shortcomings with some telling examples. Uden
et al.’s (2014) article is interesting but something of a missed oppor-
tunity to investigate a frequently reported experience in more depth.
The study is mostly concerned with vocabulary gains (or not) and sees
reading almost exclusively as a linguistic issue. The researchers could
have taken reader perspectives and perceptions more seriously (although
reading group discussions were apparently held, they are not reported).
The issue of graded and simplified readers versus ‘authentic’ literature
remains a hot one and could stand more investigation.
A lot of often stimulating research on the use of extensive reading and
graded readers has been published since 2005. This is relevant to the
reading of literature both more broadly and more strictly understood,
generally what might be called ‘advocacy’ research literature, by which I
mean more use of extensive reading is being urged in such publications.
Day et al.’s (2011) book contains several chapters of interest to those
already using or thinking of using graded readers in an extensive reading
programme. The collection also includes a chapter on a phenomenon
seemingly growing ever more popular, the ‘reading circles’ movement
(Furr, ch. 6 in Day et al., 2011). Shelton-Strong (2012) builds on earlier
work by Furr, but with particular reference to attention and engagement
by learners in a Vietnam British Council class. Lima (2014) has shown

how reading circles can work for English teachers and more advanced
learners online.
Elsewhere, Mantero (2002) shows the dangers of a teacher-centred,
knowledge-based approach to literature teaching at university level,
while by contrast Kim (2004) and more recently Scott and Huntington
(2007) point to more valuable approaches, involving reading and discus-
sion of literary texts, in US foreign and second language classrooms.
Scott and Huntington’s (2007) paper is particularly valuable for iden-
tifying worthwhile roles and activities for the teacher in a literature in
a second language classroom. This is exactly the kind of research I was
calling for in my 2005 review.
This section on second language reading of literature must neverthe-
less again conclude that ten years on we still know too little about the
reading of classic literature in a second language in any more delimited
sense (rather than reading of graded reader stories, etc.). Studies like
those of Mantero (2002), Donato and Brooks (2008) and Zyzik and Polio
(2008) raise the fear that we are not learning much about literature use
in second language contexts because not much actually goes on globally
except incidentally and/or that what uses of literature there are tend
to be unhelpful because the teachers are not trained to use literature
in language learning contexts. This is the possible downside (I infer) of
the increased and increasingly varied activity I report elsewhere in this
chapter.
3 Creative writing in a foreign language
Creative writing is booming in English teaching classes and beyond

worldwide (examples in Disney, 2014). It goes along with a wider
interest in education in creativity more generally, as mentioned in
my Introduction above. Literature, it is argued, can be a key resource
for imaginative and personal uses of a new language being learned.
Humanistic views of the learnerr here replace laboratory-inherited ideas
of ‘learning’ (person vs. process). The emphasis moves from language as
structures, lexis and phonology to language and meaning, language as
discourse, which can support new ways of thinking, acting and being for
the new language user. Hanauer is the most influential and persuasive
researcher in this tradition (Hanauer, 2010; 2012; 2014) but Spiro’s work
in the UK should also be singled out (Spiro, 2010; 2014), and newer
voices such as Iida (2012) are producing evidence to support the idea
that creative writing activities can benefit second language development
18 Geoff Hall
as well as wider educational aims (see Chapter 4). The idea of encour-
aging and supporting creative writing in second language learning is
argued by such researchers to correspond to developing arguments in
the theoretical literature of second language acquisition of ‘appropria-
tion’, and performance of new identities in a new language, ‘emergence’
of language and generally the development of bilingual and bicultural
expertise rather than ‘native speaker’ ‘target language’ achievement as
second language acquisition research traditionally argued for (Kramsch,
2009). Benchmark statements of ‘translingual and transcultural compe-
tence’ (MLA) or references to intercultural competence in the Common
European Framework argue for exactly this kind of development in new
users of a language. Spiro (2014) reports that her creative writers iden-
tified poems they liked and wanted to work with, giving a variety of
reasons, which arguably points to the exploration of developing identi-
ties, including personal feelings, through the language of literature:
● identification with something specific mentioned or described in the

poem
● sharing a feeling expressed in the poem
● identifying with a linguistic aspect of the poem, such as dialect,
cognates or loan words
● enjoying a poetic aspect of the poem, such as images and the use of
metaphor
● enjoying the form of the poem
● identifying with the writer’s style. (Based on Spiro, 2014: 31)
Creative writing need not be as grand or forbidding as perhaps that label

sounds (see, e.g., Tin, 2011, for examples of useful activities and a gradu-
ated progression of activities, as suggested in Spiro, 2004; 2007).
The importance of play and creativity in language learning more
generally is of relevance here (Belz, 2002; Cook, 2000; Kramsch and
Sullivan, 1996; Sullivan, 2000). For such writers, playing with language
is a natural and valuable activity for new users, and can range from an
everyday pun or a deliberate mispronunciation or calque in the class-
room, to the study of the extended and pervasive playing with language
to be found in the works of James Joyce or Shakespeare as well as of
Edwin Morgan, Edward Lear or Lewis Carroll.
Probably the main reservation many of us feel on reading the work
published so far is that there is a danger of writers coming to believe that
what seems to be mostly poor self-indulgent writing chopped into lines
is poetry and is unlikely to be of interest to anyone much beyond the
writer and perhaps one or two friends and a teacher. The challenge for
such activities and modules is to develop the writing skills and criticality
of apprentice writers without losing the very valuable gains they are
clearly already making by struggling into voice in this new strange and
challenging language. A range of activities is needed, such as stylistic
transformation exercises (just as Gerard Manley Hopkins began by delib-
erately imitating Keats) to develop awareness of the resources a language
offers. The practice of reading and discussing literature, of course, pre-
eminently develops such critical awareness, and so it can be argued that
the reading and writing of literature should be linked in any curriculum
or syllabus.
4 Culture, identity and emotions
Culture has, of course, been an issue in the use of literary texts in

language education, for both its promise as a pedagogical resource and
its challenges. Traditionally, the reading of literature was seen as the best
way to access the most ‘worthwhile’ culture of another speech commu-
nity. At the same time, literary texts were reserved for learners at the
highest levels of achievement, the presumed apex of aspiration for a
second language learner. With the various ‘communicative’ revolutions
in language teaching, the central role or end point status of literature
reading and culture learning was rightly questioned and then, in the
work of theorists and language teacher educators following on from
Widdowson (1992) and Carter (e.g. Carter and Long, 1991; see recent
account in Hall, 2014), re-positioned. Similarly, culture and litera-
ture are now thought of in less elitist ways. The culture of the English
language (or, some would say, languages, the plural emphasizing variety
and change) is particularly problematic in the modern globalized world
where the idea (rather, ideology) of the coincidence of the borders of a
nation state and a particular language clearly no longer holds. As already
mentioned, Dörnyei (2010) and others have suggested that the ‘moti-
vation’ of learners of English is not in any way to give up their own
language and culture in favour of English or any other language and
culture, but rather to develop bicultural identities with English as the
language of aspirational modernity and participation in a wider global
community of young people, of style and change and progress, not to
mention wealth, travel, achievement and cultural values far from any
offered conventionally by classic literature. Nevertheless, Kramsch (2009)
in particular, but also Pavlenko (e.g. Pavlenko and Lantolf, 2000) and
others, in line with some findings from creative writing research (as
20 Geoff Hall
outlined in the previous section), give case studies of learners finding

themselves through the exploration of the literary texts of a language
and community other than the one they have grown up with. Issues of
identity and of emotions and feelings are to the fore in such perspectives
on language learning. Kramsch thus uses metaphors of ‘transgression’
and the ‘third place’ rather than a desire to assimilate unproblematically
to any imagined (or feared) ‘English culture’, for example. English, as
Dörnyei (2010) says, may represent not only what we aspire to but also
what we are afraid of nott being. Through literature we can explore who
we are, who we are not and who we might want to be. The work of writers
such as Kramsch and Dörnyei are very much in line with the move in
education towards literature study through reader response, putting the
student reader’s own experience at the centre of the interaction, though
I would argue, with Bland (2013), as in my reservations about SL crea-
tive writing above, that the responsibility of the educator is to move
students beyond first responses to more critical reading practices.
5 Young learners and teenage learners. Multimodality, the

internet and new technologies
A worldwide phenomenon in the teaching of English is that the age of

learners is decreasing year by year in country after country. Moreover,
these younger learners live in a digital world, which is changing the
uses and users of language and the ways we relate to language and to
each other. An urgent question for such ‘young learners’ then becomes
not only how to engage their attention and promote learning, but
also how to integrate language learning into more general cognitive
and social development through school learning. In Europe, the CLIL
(Content and Language Integrated Learning) movement is one response
to this demand from parents and politicians; elsewhere, immersion and
‘content-based’ learning (CBL) are preferred (Lyster, 2007). My own 2005
book referred in its title to ‘language education’ because wider views of
‘education’ rather than simply ‘language learning’ was already the way
things were moving; and I, along with many others, welcome the trend
as offering a renewed place for literature in language education, albeit
an ever-expanding notion of ‘literature’. Where previously a course in
English communication skills might be paid for by a businessman impa-
tient with anything not obviously immediately relevant and useful to
his ‘specific purpose’, today, ever more commonly, English is learned
obligatorily to some level in school. The situation has changed radically.
The challenge for teachers and researchers today is that until recently
language teaching and second language learning research had mainly
confined itself to upper secondary, and most typically university-level,
education, and indeed tended to concentrate on narrower linguistic and
‘skills’ issues. The present opportunity and challenge is that issues raised
by larger numbers of second language readers of a wider range of litera-
tures need to be better understood and researched in fuller educational
contexts. The most engaging and stimulating work I have seen in this
respect is led by Bland’s Children’s Literature and Learner Empowerment
(2013) and related work as reported, for example, in Bland and Lütge
(2013) and Cameron and McKay (2010). As Paran points out (2008
and elsewhere), much of the best empirical work is itself probably not
written up or is disseminated through unofficial channels, whether on
the internet, within action research projects or as part of Masters and
PhD theses, but it is worth seeking out and ever easier to do so. Thus
Lima (2013; 2014; Lima and Lamy, 2013), for example, reports and
reflects usefully on her own work and that of others on uses of literature
through social networking sites.
I should stress here too that it is rather approximate and slightly
misleading to stuff together affordances of new technologies with
young learner headings in this section of this chapter. Lima does not
specifically talk about young learners and indeed many young learners –
despite the hype – are not fluent users of the internet, but actually rather
conservative and restricted (something else their teachers may be able
to help them with). Similarly, Bland (2013) and Bland and Lütge (2013)
emphasize the value of using children’s literature for all learners, not
just for children, as our understanding of ‘creativity’ becomes ever more
sophisticated and more difficult to pin down to a precise age bracket
or audience. Lütge, for example, writing on issues of ‘otherness’ and
intercultural or ‘transcultural’ learning using such literature, reminds
us not only that ‘otherness’ is a function of language learning (after
Kramsch and others) but also that ‘a feeling of ‘not-belonging’ is a
common feature, perhaps the most remarkable [‘salient’?] denominator
of much children’s and young adult literature’ (103). These stories can
be exploited visually, as graphic narratives, or through adaptations to
and appropriations by other media often, for their postmodern narra-
tological qualities (metalepsis and others) and rampant intertextuality.
All in all, such studies show us that there is much more than language
(what I called earlier ‘discourse’) to be learned from such materials, and
that it can be taught in engaging and meaningful ways by enterprising
22 Geoff Hall
teachers. Furthermore, as is well known, graphic novels, comics and

online games may be just the hook needed to get boys, in particular,
into lifelong pleasurable and critical reading habits, where more conven-
tional literary texts have traditionally failed. Bland suggests, with a
good range of example texts and activities, that wider and not narrow
linguistic literacy learning, visual literacy and literary literacy can all be
developed through such materials (hence ‘empowerment’ rather than
‘language learning’ in her book’s title).
6 Other issues: the return of translation to

second language education
In this chapter I hope to have suggested some of the more worthwhile

research reported in recent years that readers may wish to explore further
for themselves. One final important development is the rethink on trans-
lation in language teaching, which has been urged by Guy Cook ((2010)
complemented by Graham Hall and Guy Cook (2012) into a valuable
survey article), and the gradual appearance of enlightened translation-
based language teaching materials (e.g. Witte et al., 2009; Butzkamm
and Caldwell, 2009). Clearly, the return to translation, like the whole
(re)turn to literature itself, will not be the same on a second visit as it
was at first, but Hall and Cook (2012) are surely right also to remind
us of how much is lost if use of a second or third language is dogmati-
cally forbidden or needlessly restricted in second language contexts. The
Council of Europe urges us to train ‘mediators’ between languages not
L1 clones who feel bad because they can only operate (or only try to
operate) in one language or feel ‘deficient’ in the foreign language. This
is to lose the additive and full educational value of second (or third
or fourth) language learning (see also Vivian Cook, 2002). In my own
current work in China I very much enjoy exploring with students reso-
nances, similarities and differences in languages, cultures and literatures
and can vouch at least anecdotally for the value of such an approach
for all participants in the classroom. Let me then end this survey with a
much repeated saying from the teacher the Europeans called Confucius:
๔‫ڦ‬ᄬ༐ [wēn gù zhī xīn] (something like – if I understand from my
own teacher – we think we know a text but in looking at it again we
come to realise we did not know it at all). For many, literature is defined
as just the kind of text that can stand such repeated revisits and amply
repays such renewed attention. It is cause for celebration that we are in
a time of renewed attention to literature.
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2
Literary Texts as Authentic
Materials for Language Learning:
The Current Situation in Japan
Kazuko Takahashi
1 Introduction: have literary texts returned to L2

classrooms?
Since the 1990s, researchers have noted that literary texts can be used
positively in L2 classrooms1 (see Gilroy and Parkinson, 1997; Hall, 2005;
Kramsch and Kramsch, 2000; Maley, 1990; Schultz, 2002; Simpson,
1997). Maley (1990: 3), for example, says that ‘[during] the period of
structural dominance, literature found itself side-lined’ and that ‘[for]
a time the new functional-notional communicative movement also
ignored literature’. He goes on to explain that ‘in the last ten years or so
there has been a remarkable revival of interest in literature as one of the
resources available for language learning’.
Undeniably, however, even now in some L2 classrooms, ‘so-called
“authentic”’ language materials are more popular than literary mate-
rials’ (Cook, 2000: 189). This minimized use of literary materials can be
understood through Guy Cook’s explanation:
Invented examples were replaced by so-called ‘authentic’ examples

(bits of language lifted from their original context) or by student
language generated by the communicative activity itself. The use of
literature both as a means and an end of language teaching declined.
(Cook, 2000: 189)
From Cook’s viewpoint, newspaper and magazine articles, TV commer-

cials, advertisements, and web pages are typical examples of ‘so-called
“authentic”’ materials. Through the rather ironical reference to
26
Literary Texts as Authentic Materials 27
‘so-called “authentic” examples’, he implies that the usage of the word

authentic in current language teaching is not always appropriate.
He adds that ‘the term “authentic” is often used superficially as a
synonym for “real”’ and that if some examples have ‘once occurred in
some conventionally “real” environment’ they are called ‘in pedagogic
terms, authentic’ (Cook, 2000: 172). The definition of authenticity will
be analysed in more detail later. For now, suffice it to say that we need
to reconsider the meaning of authenticity in L2 learning when we try
to ascertain reasons for the marginalized state of literary texts in L2
classrooms.
Cook points out, as noted above, that ‘[the] use of literature both as
a means and [as] an end of language teaching declined’ (Cook, 2000:
189). Here are some examples of this marginalized position in Asia.
Qiping and Shubo (2002), for example, criticize ‘the deliberate blocking
of access to’ English literature in China:
[The] fact that the so-called ‘departments of pragmatic English’ have

actually mushroomed in many regions of our country reveals a more
disconcerting cause: the deliberate blocking of access to creative liter-
ature in English. Behind all this current tendency lurks a prevalent
assumption: that English education is a matter of ingesting infor-
mation, of mastering techniques, of acquiring facts and know-how,
whereas literature is a soft option, an indulgence or a mere trim-
ming to decorate the hard center of the market-oriented syllabus.
‘Pragmatic’, in a nutshell, has become a buzz word. (Qiping and
Shubo, 2002: 318)
Moreover, in Korea, Lee (2005: 4) indicates that ‘now, with the tide
of practicality rapidly encroaching upon the academia of liberal arts,
and of English literature in particular’, scholars of English literature in
Korea are forced to look at themselves and their research ‘from a non-
English major’s point of view’. With regard to English education in
Japan in recent years, the overall objectives of English teaching have
been to develop learners’ practical communicative competence. Against
this background, especially since the 1980s, literary works have been
marginalized.
Therefore, this article examines why L2 classrooms have reduced the
utilization of literary materials in the light of the current situation in
English teaching in Japan. It also aims to reconfirm that literary works
are authentic materials and are beneficial to improving L2 learners’
communicative competence in English.
28 Kazuko Takahashi
2 Present situation of English education in Japan
2.1 Characteristics of the curricula for

English education from the 1980s
First, this section examines the content of the set of standards called
the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools, implemented
between the early 1980s and the early 2000s. The Courses of Study
are determined by The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology (MEXT) ‘as broad standards for all [Japanese] schools,
from kindergarten through upper secondary [senior high] schools, to
organize their programs in order to ensure a fixed standard of education
throughout the country’ (MEXT, 2014a). Generally, the Courses of Study
are revised every ten years.
Since the 1980s, the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High
Schools have mandated that the overall objective of foreign language
study is to develop learners’ communication abilities:
Table 2.1 Objectives of foreign language study established in the Courses of

Study for Junior and Senior High Schools from the 1980s to the present
1989: Revision of the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools

Implementation: junior high schools in 1993, senior high schools in 1994
Overall objective in studying foreign languages: to develop students’
communication abilities
Other features: the word communication appeared for the first time
1998: Revision of the Course of Study for Junior High Schools

Implementation: 2002
The overall objective in studying foreign languages: to develop students’
basic practical communication abilities
Other features: ‘Examples of Language-use Situations’ and ‘Examples of
Functions of Language’ are clarified.
1999: Revision of the Course of Study for Senior High Schools


practical communication abilities



basic communication abilities
Continued
Table 2.1 Continued

communication abilities
Source: Table created by author based on the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High
Schools from the 1980s.
As the table shows, the word communication was first used in 1989 to
define the objectives of foreign language study in junior and senior high
schools. In 1998, the word practical was added to these objectives. The
1998 version of the Course of Study for Junior High Schools clarified
the Examples of Language-use Situations and Examples of Functions
of Language for the first time. Since then, English teachers have been
expected to teach English through these examples in their classrooms.
What are the Examples of Language-use Situations and Examples of
Functions of Language? The latest version of the Course of Study for
Junior High Schools states the following:
[Examples of Language-use Situations]
a. Situations where fixed expressions are often used:

Greetings Self-introductions Talking on the phone Shopping
Asking and giving directions Travel[l]ing Having meals, etc.
b. Situations that are likely to occur in students’ lives:
Home life Learning and activities at school Local events, etc.
[Examples of Functions of Language]
a. Facilitating communication:
Addressing Giving nods [Assenting] Asking for repetition
Repeating, etc.
b. Expressing emotions:
Expressing gratitude Complaining Praising Apologizing, etc.
c. Transmitting information:
Explaining Reporting Presenting Describing, etc.
d. Expressing opinions and intentions:
Offering Promising Giving opinions Agreeing Disagreeing
Accepting Refusing, etc.
e. Stimulating a communication partner into action:
Asking questions Requesting Inviting, etc. (MEXT, 2014b;
formats modified by author for brevity’s sake)
30 Kazuko Takahashi
These examples show the kinds of language-use situations and func-

tions of language regarded as relevant for developing students’ practical
communicative competence in English. As is evident, these examples
are closely related to daily life situations.
2.2 Marginalization of literature from

English education in Japan
As discussed in the previous section, on the one hand, English materials
that are closely related to daily life have come to be frequently used in
current English teaching in Japan. On the other hand, literary texts have
been marginalized. This marginalization accelerated around the 1980s.
The following table summarizes the chief incidents directly or indirectly
responsible for this marginalization.
The Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools are not the
only source of literary marginalization. In 1991, amendments to the
Standards for the Establishment of Universities were announced by
the University Council, an official MEXT council. Since then, there have
Table 2.2 Chief incidents responsible for the marginalization of literature within
English education in Japan

Main characteristics: References to literary materials decreased.
1991: Amendments to the Standards for the Establishment of Universities
announced by the University Council
Main characteristics: Curriculum reforms in universities led to gradual
increase in communication-related faculties.
1998, 1999: Revision of the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools

Main characteristics: Remarks on literary materials decreased while those on
communication increased.
2003: Action Plan to Cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’ announced by MEXT

Main characteristics: Acquisition of ‘English as a means for communication’
was emphasized; No remarks on literary materials were included.
Main characteristics: The word literature was not mentioned while
communication was used nine times.
Main characteristics: The words literature, novel and poem were omitted
while communication was used 56 times.
Source: Table created by author based on the following data: the Courses of Study for
Junior and Senior High Schools from the 1970s; MEXT, 2003; Higher Education Bureau,
MEXT, 2012.
been successive curriculum reforms in universities (Higher Education

Bureau, MEXT, 2012). For example, communication-related faculties
have gradually increased, especially in private universities. In 1995, only
one (private) university in Japan, among all national, public and private
universities, had a Communication Faculty. By 2009, the number of
communication-related faculties had increased to 19, with various
names such as ‘Communication’, ‘International Communication’,
‘Modern Communication’, ‘Intercultural Communication’, ‘Language
Communication’, ‘Information Communication’ and ‘Digital
Communication’. Conversely, while there were 134 literature-related
faculties in 1995, this number had decreased to 101 by 2009.2 Indeed,
the increase in communication-related faculties may not be directly
connected with the decrease of literature-related faculties. However, it
is clear that literature-related faculties have gradually, but steadily, faded
from Japanese universities.
In 2003, ‘An Action Plan to Cultivate “Japanese with English Abilities”’
was established by MEXT. Erikawa (2004) analysed this plan and pointed
out that the word literature was not used at all, whereas communication was
used as often as 39 times and speaking/conversation 30 times. According to
Erikawa (2004), these numbers mean that literature is being swept out of
English education. As these incidents show, literary materials have been
gradually excluded from current English education in Japan against a
background of communication-centred English teaching.
3 Recent Japanese English textbooks
To confirm the present situation of literary materials in English education

in Japan, some examples of English textbooks for junior and senior high
schools have been analysed. Japanese School Education Law dictates that
‘the use of textbooks is compulsory’ and ‘as a rule, textbooks must be
authorized’ by MEXT. In accordance with the Courses of Study, English
textbooks ‘are examined to decide whether they are appropriate for use
as textbooks’ by the Textbook Authorization Council, also an official
MEXT council (MEXT, 2011a). Therefore, an examination of these text-
books will clarify the marginalization of literary materials from current
English classrooms to some degree.
3.1 Textbooks for junior and senior high school

English teaching
Most of the English textbooks for Japanese junior high schools have
changed considerably since the latter half of the 1990s. The size of
32 Kazuko Takahashi
the English textbooks was mostly 148 mm × 210 mm before the latter
half of the 1990s. After that, however, a larger format of 182 mm ×
257 mm came to be adopted for most English textbooks. In addition,
many colourful photographs and illustrations began to be used, instead
of black-and-white illustrations. As for the textbooks’ content, literary
materials decreased, whereas conversational text increased after the
latter half of the 1990s (see Erikawa, 2008).
Here are some examples indicating the extent to which literary works
have been marginalized from junior high school textbooks. From the
1978 to the 1990 editions, The New Crown English Series 3 textbooks for
third-year junior high school students had included retold versions of
O. Henry’s short story ‘The Gift of the Magi’ (Nakamura et al., 1978;
1981; 1984; 1987; 1990). However, ‘The Gift of the Magi’ was excluded
from the 1993 edition and conversational text was included instead
(Nakamura et al., 1993). In the current edition of New Crown English Series 3
(Takahashi et al., 2012), many materials are written in a conversational
style. In other words, these materials are considered to contain language
more likely to appear in everyday situations than O. Henry’s short story.
The second example is the New Total English series published by
Shubun Shuppan. This series once used various literary materials. In
1993, for example, New Total English 3 textbooks for third-year students
used many literary works such as retold versions of The Arabian Nights
and Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. In 1999, however, as a result of the
economic downturn, Shubun Shuppan went bankrupt and a different
publishing company picked up the ‘Total English’ series, beginning
publication from 2002. The new series was completely different from
previous ones; many conversational materials were adopted, and their
contents were related to everyday expressions. For example, the latest
edition of Total English 3 (Yada et al., 2012) contains topics on school
trips, shopping and emails as its main materials.
As these examples demonstrate, literary materials have recently been
removed from junior high school English textbooks, whereas conver-
sational materials dealing with everyday topics have become widely
adopted.
English textbooks for senior high schools have also marginalized literary
materials. For instance, in 28 textbooks for ‘English Reading’, an English-
related course in senior high schools, only 61 of 496 units (about 12.3
per cent) use literary materials.3 However, most of the literary works in
these textbooks are for ‘rapid reading’, ‘further reading’, ‘supplementary
reading’, ‘extra reading’ or ‘optional reading’. In other words, these works
are not to be read closely, but to be read very quickly. As headings such
as ‘supplementary reading’, ‘extra reading’ and ‘optional reading’ suggest,

literary works are read only when classroom time permits. In other words,
most current textbooks for ‘English Reading’ do not contain literary works
as their main material. Materials more often used in ‘English Reading’
textbooks are conversational styles of writing; their major topics are, for
example, food, clothing, houses, hobbies and students’ school life.
To sum up, recent senior high school English textbooks show a
tendency similar to that of junior high school textbooks: the marginali-
zation of literary materials, even in reading courses.
3.2 Textbooks for university English teaching

Similarly, the use of literary materials has declined in current univer-
sity English textbooks. The following table shows some relevant data on
Japanese university English textbooks for the school years 2009–2014:
As this table shows, literary materials such as British and American
novels, stories, poems and plays have seldom been published in Japan
since 2009. On the other hand, many new textbooks for conversation,
LL/listening, communication and TOEIC/TOEFL have been published.
This situation started around 1990, coupled with an increase in the use
of practical materials (see Me de Miru Eigokyôiku, 1994).
To summarize, literary textbooks in English teaching in Japanese
universities began decreasing at the beginning of the 1990s and prag-
matic types of textbooks began to increase precisely at a time when, as
Table 2.3 Total number of university-level English textbooks for academic years
2009–2014
Numbers of newly published books
Categories 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
1) British novels and stories 0 2 1 1 0 1

2) American novels and stories 0 2 2 0 0 0
3) Anthologies of British novels 0 0 0 0 0 1
4) Anthologies of American novels 0 1 0 0 0 0
5) British poems and plays 0 2 0 1 1 1
6) American poems and plays 0 1 0 0 0 1
7) Conversation 9 6 10 4 6 6
8) LL*/Listening 27 28 26 18 21 14
9) Communication 6 16 9 6 12 8
10) TOEIC/TOEFL 21 17 19 17 20 18
Source: Table created by author based on data from the Association of English Textbook
Publishers, 2009–2014.
* ‘LL’, an English abbreviation coined in Japan that stands for ‘language laboratory’.
34 Kazuko Takahashi
stated in my Introduction, there was a ‘revival of interest’ in Maley’s

terms (1990: 3) outside Japan. Materials that meet immediate utilitarian
needs or materials concerning facts and know-how have come to be
favoured in universities.
4 Reasons for the marginalization of literary materials in

English teaching: suggestions from the Japanese context
4.1 General interpretation of ‘communication abilities’ in Japan

As discussed in Section 1, the word communication was first used in 1989
in the Courses of Study for Junior and Senior High Schools to define
the objectives of foreign language teaching. Since then, the overall
objectives of English teaching in Japan have been to develop students’
communication abilities in English. Furthermore, in 1998 and 1999, the
word practical was added to the aim of teaching foreign languages. In
the same versions of the Courses of Study, Examples of Language-use
Situations and Examples of Functions of Language were added to clarify
what should be taught in English classrooms.
This begs the question: how has the meaning of ‘communication abil-
ities’ been interpreted? According to MEXT (2011b), these are abilities
‘such as accurately understanding and appropriately conveying informa-
tion, ideas, etc., deepening their [students’] understanding of language
and culture, and fostering a positive attitude toward communication
through foreign languages’.
In reality, though, as shown in the examples of current English text-
books, the term ‘communication abilities’ has often been connected with
everyday expressions. As a result, English materials closely related to
daily life are used frequently, whereas literary works are mostly omitted.
But why has the meaning of ‘communication abilities’ been considered
in such a distorted manner? To answer this question, it is firstly neces-
sary to consider the relationship between communicative competence
and authentic materials in L2 learning.
Authentic materials are often regarded as those that are effective for
developing students’ communicative competence in English. Therefore,
it has been said that one of the characteristics of communicative language
teaching (CLT) is to use authentic materials in L2 classrooms (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001; Savignon, 2001). In English teaching in China, for
example, Feng and Byram (2002) observed that ‘[the] enthusiasm for using
authentic materials in foreign language textbooks has become intensi-
fied with the increasing popularity of the communicative orientation to
language teaching in the last few decades’ (Feng and Byram, 2002: 58–59).
Similarly, in Japan, the value of authentic materials came to be empha-

sized when CLT was introduced into English education (Asano, 1996).
Then, what kinds of materials are now regarded as those that are
authentic by the Japanese? The next section will focus on two interpre-
tations of what constitutes authentic materials in L2 classrooms.
4.2 General interpretation of ‘authentic’ materials in Japan

First, authentic materials may be regarded as those not written for
teaching purposes, but for real-life communication. Originally,
authentic materials were not developed ‘for pedagogical purposes’, but
those ‘materials are often thought to contain more realistic and natural
examples of language use than those found in textbooks and other
specially developed teaching materials’ (‘authentic materials’, Longman
Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 4th edn, 2010).
Furthermore, from Lee’s (1995) viewpoint, ‘[a] text is usually regarded
as textually authentic if it is not written for teaching purposes, but
for a real-life communicative purpose, where the writer has a certain
message to pass on to the reader’ (Lee, 1995: 324). Textual authenticity
is originally defined not in terms of the fact of usage but ‘in terms of
the origin of the materials’ (Lee, 1995: 323). Based on these analyses, it
can be concluded that literary texts not originally written for language
teaching can certainly be called authentic materials. Significant here is
the use of the problematic expressions ‘realistic and natural’ and ‘real-
life’ to define the meaning of authenticc materials.
The second interpretation of authentic materials pertains to those
that are closely related to English expressions used in daily life – Cook’s
‘so-called “authentic”’ materials (Cook, 2000: 189). According to this
interpretation, newspaper and magazine articles, TV commercials,
advertisements and web pages are ‘authentic’ materials. In English
teaching in Japan, the second interpretation is often applied in deter-
mining authentic materials, with the result that literary works are then
considered ‘inauthentic’ materials. Magazine articles published in 1996,
for example, show that the following kinds of materials are considered
‘authentic’ in English education in Japan: newspapers, magazines, radio
and television programmes, films and information on the internet. In
the same magazine articles, menu cards at restaurants, receipts received
from shops and recipes are considered ‘authentic’ materials in English
teaching (Ikita Eigo wo Oshieru Tameni, 1996).
We can summarize by presenting a graphical illustration of the general
interpretation of ‘communication abilities’ and ‘authentic’ materials in
Japan (see Figure 2.1).
36 Kazuko Takahashi
Communication abilities
Authentic materials =
‘so-called “authentic”’
Language abilities that materials*
meet utilitarian needs suitable materials e.g., daily conversation,
newspaper and magazine
articles, TV commercials,
advertisements, web pages
Conversational abilities
Figure 2.1 General interpretation of ‘communication abilities’ and ‘authentic’

materials in Japan
Source: Diagram created by author.
*The expression ‘so-called “authentic”’ is from Cook (2000: 189).
In Japan, the word authenticityy is usually used in its more superfi-

cial sense, and only non-literary materials are considered ‘authentic’.
Moreover, people tend to insist that these ‘so-called “authentic”’ (Cook,
2000: 189) materials are effective for developing students’ communica-
tive competence in English and that these materials should mainly be
used in L2 learning.
As previously stated, literary materials have gradually been excluded
from current English education in Japan, while many English textbooks
use ‘so-called “authentic”’ (Cook, 2000: 189) materials. However, upon
recalling the original meaning of authentic materials, it can be said that
literature should not be excluded from this classification. Most literary
works are not written ‘for teaching purposes’, but are written to pass on ‘a
certain message’ to readers (Lee, 1995: 324). Therefore, including literary
materials as authentic texts is entirely appropriate (see Chapters 6, 11,
14, 15 and 18 in this volume).
To put this another way, the concept of authenticity has been too
narrowly defined in English teaching in Japan. The time has come for us
to redefine the meaning of authenticity and to reconsider our attitudes
in order to make the best use of literary works. Long (1986) insisted that
literature is authentic text:
[Literature] is by definition authentic text, and both verbal response

and activity response are genuine language activities, not ones
contrived around a fabricated text. Moreover, current methodology –

for ‘communicative’ language teaching – favours group activities and
learner-learner interaction. Prediction, creating a scenario, debating
topics on or around a text ... all seem to develop naturally out of
literary text, while they are either difficult or impossible with the type
of text favoured by ‘English for Specific Purposes’. (Long, 1986: 58)
The best thing we can do now is free ourselves from blind faith in
so-called authenticity and understand that literary works are authentic
materials for L2 learning.
5 Conclusion: why are literary texts necessary in

L2 classrooms?
Why are literary texts necessary in L2 classrooms? This question has many
answers. MEXT (2011b) states that the materials to be used should be
useful ‘in understanding various viewpoints and ways of thinking, ... and
cultivating a rich sensibility’ and ‘in deepening the understanding of the
ways of life and cultures of Japan and foreign countries, raising interest
in language and culture, and developing respectful attitudes toward these
elements’ (MEXT, 2011b). This explanation aptly describes the nature of
literary texts. Besides that, as Aebersold and Field (1997) suggest, literary
texts enable learners to promote ‘cultural understanding’ and ‘language
proficiency’. Literary materials allow learners ‘to personalize the class-
room by focusing on human experiences and needs’ (Aebersold and Field,
1997: 157–158). In addition, most literary works give a clear context to
students, and these works are effective in teaching not only language
‘usage’ but also language ‘use’ (see Widdowson, 1978: 1–21).4 Literary
texts can themselves include almost every kind of textual material, such
as articles in newspapers and magazines, TV commercials, advertisements
and web pages. If students learn English through literature, they can
experience a great variety of texts (see ‘re-registration’ in Carter and Nash,
1990: 38–39). But, more importantly, learning English through literary
works provides L2 learners with the enjoyment of learning English.
Notes
1. In this study, the term ‘second language (L2)’ is used in a sense, encompassing:
a language that is taught as a school subject but is not used as a medium of
instruction in schools nor as a primary language of communication within that
country (see Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics,
4th edn, (2010)).
38 Kazuko Takahashi
2. My analysis of the transition to communication-related faculties in Japanese

universities is based on the following data: Zenkoku Daigaku Ichiran [A List of
Japanese Universities] (1990–2009, Tokyo: Bunkyo Kyokai).
3. I analysed 28 textbooks for ‘English Reading,’ and compiled this data. Details
are given in the following thesis: Takahashi, K. ‘Japanese English Teaching and
Literary Materials from the Early 1980s to the Early 2000s’ (2013, Diss. Tokyo
U), written in Japanese.
4. According to Widdowson (1978: 1–21), ‘usage’ means to know linguistic rules,
and ‘use’ means to know how to use these rules effectively with due consid-
eration of context. Moreover, Widdowson (1978: 19) shows that there have
been optimistic tendencies to ‘concentrate on usage on the assumption that
learners will eventually pick up the necessary knowledge of use on their own’.
He then points out that ‘[the] teaching of usage does not appear to guarantee
a knowledge of use’, and that ‘it would seem to be sensible to design language
teaching courses with reference to use’ (Widdowson, 1978: 19).
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3
Bridging the Gap between
L1 Education and L2 Education
Aiko Saito
1 Introduction
This chapter examines how L1 education in Japan has dealt with litera-
ture, and how English as a foreign language education can learn from
it. Despite sharing the common ground of language education, teachers
of L1 and L2 in Japan spend little time studying each other’s fields
either during or after their training periods. Furthermore, they belong to
different professional and academic groups, and rarely have opportuni-
ties for learning from each other’s practices. This study aims to bridge
this gap.
The main body of the chapter examines how Japanese as L1 (hereafter
JL1) learners encounter literature before and after elementary school,
the contents of government-approved textbooks and pedagogical prac-
tices using literature within and outside JL1 classes. The last section of
this study examines how EFL teaching can apply those practices.
2 Learners and literature before and after entering

elementary school
Before entering elementary school, learners all over the world most likely
become familiar with orally told stories. Since Bookstart was introduced
from the UK to Japan in 2000, babies and their carers have been invited
to share enjoyable quality times over picture books through gift book
packages and storytelling corners at medical institutions where they visit
for infants’ periodical check-ups (NPO Bookstart, 2010). Since the 1960s,
preschool and elementary school children in Japan have enjoyed book
reading and storytelling theatres not only at public libraries but also at
more than 3,000 private libraries run by volunteer staff (‘Senri Nyutaun
41
42 Aiko Saito
ni Ikite’, 2012). For pre-school children, literature is not primarily a set

of words to be read as printed, but rather a collection of cues to respond
with intimate people in a safe setting.
At kindergarten and nursery school in Japan, children are given lines
and action directions orally by teachers, and learn them by heart, to
present to parents at annual events or class visits. Those are often the
first opportunities for young people to engage in the artistic presenta-
tion of language with others. Songs and plays continue to be major parts
of the JL1 learning process in elementary schools.
Children in Japan, and other parts of the world, officially start
learning how to read and write in elementary school. In public schools
for learners aged 6–12, Japanese is the language of instruction in all
subjects, except for Foreign Language Activity classes. Along with JL1
classes, there is a Library class in which students literally enjoy them-
selves in the environment with books without comprehension tests to
follow, and a Calligraphy class, in which students practise to appreciate
artistic presentations of letters used in Japanese language with tradi-
tional writing tools. Each class in an average public elementary school
has 35 mixed-level students taught by one main teacher with occasional
assistance from support teachers.
The latest government guideline states that JL1 education in elemen-
tary schools should foster students’ accurate comprehension, appropriate
output, mutual communication, logical thinking and imagination, with
respect to the Japanese language (MEXT, 2009). Learners aim to master
two types of Kana syllabaries; one is for general use, the other for marked
use such as for foreign-origin words. They also aim to master about 1,000
basic Kanji (Chinese characters) in the first six years, in order to acquire
2,000 Kanji in total by the end of the ninth year of formal education.1
That is the level of linguistic knowledge which enables us to comprehend
standard newspapers in Japanese. Learners enter school with a bigger oral
vocabulary than their Kana literacy, and increase their spoken vocab-
ulary more quickly than they learn how to write them with the Kanji
they formally study in the upper grade. Pupils constantly practice Kanji
writing and reading. The government has prescribed six groups of Kanji
to master in each grade, and the other subject textbooks correspond to
the Kanji learning plan of the respective grade. L1 competence is essential
to succeed in all subjects. Teachers make Kanji worksheets using expres-
sions taken from stories and essays in the JL1 textbook. Pupils acquire
Kanji literacy by chunk memory of the text.
The power of oral literature does not weaken when children learn
letters at school. Live Kamishibai performance (Japanese dramatic
Bridging the Gap 43
storytelling with pictures) attracts children with high literacy. A

Kamishibai storyteller talks with hand-drawn pictures measuring up to
12 × 16 inches, making the sound effects orally or with limited instru-
ments. According to Ohtsuka (2010), the professional performer’s reper-
toire covers the genres of adventure, fantasy, thriller, comedy, science
fiction and others, and many stories comprise multiple genres. Each
picture board set has rough story lines, but there is no precise script
to follow. Ad lib performers-audience interaction determines how the
stories are presented each time.
Ohtsuka, who is a researcher and performer, belongs to a performers’
group called San’yukai, whose members use the picture board sets inher-
ited from the performers’ guild formed in the 1950s (Ohtsuka, 2010).2
Artists who once drew the dynamic Kamishibai pictures later created the
new Manga culture in Japan. The combination of lively pictures and
talented storyteller is a powerful attraction even for an audience in
the age of advanced technology. Nowadays, less edgy Kamishibai sets
with precise scripts are widely used for educational purposes for young
children.
Before entering school, children are exposed to spoken stories in
informal settings. Spontaneous communication between children and
storyteller is essential for the pleasure of story time. After entering
elementary school, formal JL1 education starts aiming to produce
students who can use language accurately and appropriately. However,
the value of the oral culture does not lessen even after children have
acquired literacy.
3 Literature and the JL1 class
3.1 Literature in government-approved textbooks

Compulsory level schools in Japan use government-approved textbooks
published in the private sector, and the government bears the cost
for all students (MOFA, 2014). The government revises its guidelines
almost every decade, and the publishers revise the textbooks accord-
ingly. Textbook publishers must obtain permission to include published
literary texts unless they are in the public domain. Some authors refuse
to have their work used as teaching and testing material, and copy-
right holders who are emotionally attached to deceased authors can
be more restrictive than authors alive at negotiations with publishers
(Kawashima, 2013). Thus, government policy, textbook publishers and
the copyright holders of the literary works all influence the choice of
literature that appears in school textbooks.
44 Aiko Saito
Figure 3.1 The proverb ‘seeing is believing’ written in Classical Chinese with
decoding guide marks. Small marks to the left of the Chinese characters show the
order of reading; the marks on the right indicate parts of speech.
JL1 textbooks for elementary schools and high schools include literary
texts, essays and descriptive texts. The literary texts cover literature in
four types of Japanese: Modern Japanese, which was established after
the 19th century; Classical Japanese, which has co-existed with Modern
Japanese in phrases and expressions in daily language as well as in litera-
ture; Classical Chinese, with guiding marks to be decoded into Classical
Japanese as shown in Figure 3.1; and translated texts from other
languages into either Modern or Classical Japanese.3 Poems and short
novels appear complete, while longer ones are represented by selected
chapters and abstracts. Essays and descriptive texts deal with topics such
as natural science, domestic social issues, and children’s life in foreign
countries. Most JL1 textbooks provide supplementary reading texts and
lists of recommended books.
Different publishers often use the same literary works in JL1 text-
books. Gongitsune [Gon, the Fox], a story of a fox and a hunter, first
appeared in a JL1 textbook in 1956, and every government-approved
textbook for (aged 10–11) Year 5 pupils since 1989 has included this
story (Tajika et al., 2014). The story presents dramatic character devel-
opment, absurdity in life, an unforgettable tragic ending, visual descrip-
tions that hold cultural information, and various types of mimesis and
onomatopoeia in six scenes. Teachers have repeatedly studied this mate-
rial in research groups and shared ideas after open classes, and countless
lesson plans are available (Abe and Kobayashi, 2008; Aoki, 2012; ‘Gon
no Kimochi’, 2013; Zenkoku et al., 2009).
Good translations are considered as valuable as authentic texts in
JL1 education. Foreign literary works with universal human themes are
Bridging the Gap 45
often selected to cultivate students’ artistic sentiment: Bierce’s (1889)

story of a young soldier who realized that he had shot his father in
the Civil War; Tolstoy’s (n.d.) story of a captain who had to be cruel to
save his 12-year-old son at risk in the ocean; Lu’s (1921) novel about
a man’s return to his homeland after a long absence (Gakken, 2013a;
Kyokasho Toreningu, 2013). Many established Japanese writers trans-
late foreign literature throughout their careers (Inoue, 2011). They
turn quality foreign literature into quality JL1 texts which support
linguistic analysis. For example, poetry by Verlaine (1866), a French
symbolist, in a translation by Ueda, a scholar and poet, is included in
a textbook of Modern Japanese for high school students (Taishukan,
2014). Other translations, including ‘The Letter’ from Lobel’s popular
Frog and Toadd series (1970), translated by Miki, a noted novelist, poet,
non-fiction writer and translator of English and Russian literature,
and Lionni’s Swimmyy (1963) and other picture books, translated by
Tanikawa, a multiple award winner for his original poetry, children’s
books, novels, scripts for TV and films, lyrics and translations, have
appeared in several publishers’ JL1 textbooks (National Diet Library,
2014; Shimada, 2006).
3.2 Teaching methods and approaches

Previously, the Japanese government, through its education policy,
included among the goals of JL1 the appreciation of language arts without
specific instructions on how to achieve this in class. JL1 classes have
tended to treat literary texts as significant models of Japanese language in
use and have encouraged readers to share their impressions of the texts.
According to Oba (2012), the most popular JL1 teaching method since the
Meiji era (1868–1912, when the modern Japanese school system started),
has been for the lesson to begin with a teacher’s model reading of the
text so that pupils grasp the plot, followed by closer reading to explain
the details, and finally an appreciation of the theme of the literary piece.
Another popular method values learners’ first encounter with the text;
so teachers do not read the whole text in the first class. Students read the
text section by section and discuss it. Teachers ask students to picture in
their minds what has happened to the characters, imagine what the char-
acters are feeling and what they themselves would do if they were the
characters, and think about the ‘intentions’ of the author; however, they
do not necessarily point to specific clues in the text. Students thus learn
to read between the lines, and to express their interpretation through
well-planned oral reading or through writing essays on the text (Gakken,
2013b). Until around 2006, logical reasoning had long been an activity
saved for reading descriptive texts.
46 Aiko Saito
It was the second PISA (Programme for International Student

Assessment) results that shocked JL1 teachers and the government.
Japan had scored 522 points and was ranked eighth out of 32 nations in
the first reading literacy survey in 2000 but fell to 14th out of 41 nations
(with 498 points) in 2003, and 15th out of 56 (with 498 points again)
in 2006. The decline in reading literacy in L1 – which had fallen to the
average score among OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development) member nations, though others had a much higher
ratio of foreign immigrants, for whom the language of instruction at
school was not their L1 – was an issue (Arimoto, 2006; NIER, 2014;
OECD, 2014). Teachers were also concerned to find that Japanese low
scorers had submitted blank answers when asked to give logical reasons
for their ideas. The Japanese government retracted the Yutori education
policy, and expanded the core content and regained class hours for each
subject.4
Compulsory level school education primarily aims to equip learners
with the knowledge and practical skills they need for everyday life.
Teachers have long known these needs, yet the PISA shock made them
more conscious of student needs to master practical language skills
without fail through each lesson at school (Endo, 2006; Sanmori, 2006).
JL1 educators started to incorporate text analysis to improve logical inter-
pretation and critical thinking. The move changed approaches rather
than teaching materials in JL1. The same literary texts are now taught
in new frameworks, and learners are invited to present their ideas with
evidence from the text. The much loved story from long ago, Gongitsune,
was no exception. Teachers began to instruct students to find phrases
in the text to support their opinions. Highlighting how the same char-
acter is referred to in different terms through the story, students realize
that the changes reflect the assessments made by the other characters
and the narrator. Comparing the author’s choice of marked verbs and
adverbs with unmarked versions, students can verify their interpretation
of the story. (For the whyy and how w questions used in critical reading of
literary texts, see Chapter 16 in this volume.) Learners are now encour-
aged to make comments on their peers’ opinions, sort them in charts
and diagrams, and build up short pieces of ideas into a larger logical
structure. Literature in the JL1 class now allows students to explore the
artistic world with analytical tools (Abe and Kobayashi, 2008; Kansai
University Primary School, 2014).5
The use of analytical tools on literary texts in the JL1 class is not,
however, a recent discovery. Kamijo (1999) introduced graphs and visual
tools for the JL1 class with literature in the 90s. The tools help students
Bridging the Gap 47
to grasp the structure of the plot, reconstruct the story from different
viewpoints, and change the styles and modes of language. As Kamijo
notes, business people have widely used such tools for brainstorming
and presentations.
The PISA shock also brought attention to the practices of celebrated
JL1 teachers in the past. As early as the 1940s, Hama Ohmura (1906–
2005) and Takeshi Hashimoto (1912–2013) had raised students’ reading
literacy and promoted independent learning while appreciating litera-
ture. Both teachers used real life materials like newspapers and adver-
tisements as well as classic literature. Their practices included extensive
reading, portfolios, group research projects, dramatization of a narrative
story, translation of classic poetry into Modern Japanese, cross-subject
studies, use of visual tools and many other ideas that Japanese researchers
in later times often considered to be so ‘new’ or ‘advanced’ when they
first heard about similar practices in other countries and misconsidered
that they had to go abroad to ‘discover’ the ideas (Ito, 2010; Kariya,
2010; Kuroiwa, 2011; Ohmura, 1968; 1981).6
Even though many of Ohmura’s and Hashimoto’s students went on to
make significant academic achievements in higher education, their prac-
tices were considered exceptional for decades. One reason Ohmura and
Hashimoto were not so influential despite their educational successes
is that neither of them used government-approved textbooks. Ohmura
was part of the committee responsible for producing the first national
educational guidelines after WWII. And she provided three different
sample lesson plans for each article in a new government-approved
textbook to invite teachers, who have to teach under the brand new
national policy after the war, to be bold to try out new approaches and
create the fourth lesson plan as their own. Nevertheless, she preferred
to select original materials for her classes at a public high school rather
than using a ready-made textbook (Kondo, 2005). Hashimoto, too,
developed various stimulating lessons out of Gin no Saji, a short autobio-
graphical novel published in 1935 by Naka. Hashimoto taught the same
group of students for three years in a private high school, and he used
the novel as a source of the JL1 class for those three years, introducing
cultural studies and multidisciplinary learning on words and scenes
from it. His students acquired the research skills and competence to
read other literary works (Ito, 2010; Kuroiwa, 2011). Not many teachers
are able to follow all these examples, yet Ohmura and Hashimoto have
attracted educators’ attention beyond JL1 teachers’ circles. Taking the
successful teaching methodologies of Ohmura and Hashimoto into
consideration, further research on, and an examination of, outstanding
48 Aiko Saito
past teaching practices can benefit current language education in any

country.
3.3 Literature, tests and beyond

Tests in JL1 use literary texts to evaluate both linguistic and literary
elements (for more on the use of literary texts as evaluation tools, see
Chapter 7 in this volume). The 2014 national academic achievement
tests for 12-year-olds and 15-year-olds in Japan employ modern and
classical literature as well as descriptive texts. One of the sections has
two related texts of different types: a piece of poetry and the transcript
of a group discussion about the poem. Examinees must answer compre-
hension questions on the poetry as well as questions on the transcript,
sorting the opinions of members of the discussion group (‘Gakuryoku’,
2014). Such test questions reflect changes from teaching literature to
teaching with literature in JL1.
JL1 entrance exams for high schools and universities all use a variety
of literary texts as the norm. Some private high schools have adopted
recent juvenile literature as well as established or classic works (Miki,
2014). As the selections of literature have become wider, an online data-
base has been created for students to find the sources of the texts used
in entrance exams all over Japan (‘Koko Nyushi’, 2014). The JL1 section
of the National Center Test for University Admissions, the standardized
entrance exam used by all public and some private universities in Japan,
consists of four parts: an essay in Modern Japanese; a passage from a
novel in Modern Japanese; an extract from a literary text in Classical
Japanese; and a brief extract from a literary text in Classical Chinese.
All the four materials have multiple-choice questions to test vocabu-
lary, comprehension, and understanding of cause and effect, character
emotions and styles of speech. For the Classical Japanese and Classical
Chinese, translation questions into and from Modern Japanese are
given as well (Kawaijuku, 2014). At all levels of education, examiners
consider the comprehension of literature as a measure of JL1 academic
achievement.7
While exams determine class focus to some extent, JL1 education
allows considerable class time to teach verbal presentation skills for effi-
cient communication. The JL1 class offers opportunities to develop such
untestable skills using literature:
(1) various types of oral dramatic presentation exercises: ‘Gundoku’

(choral reading with or without actions. Text is often re-com-
posed for symphonic effect to be performed by multiple readers)
Bridging the Gap 49
(Kusanagi, 2011), ‘Readers Theatre’ (performers use dramatic vocal

expressions only, like radio drama. Not only the characters’ lines
but also the descriptive parts of the text is read out) and others.
(2) turning parts of a literary text into micro-performance in class
(3) learning to perform Rakugo (traditional oral comic theatre, in which
the performer plays all the roles including that of the narrator,
switching styles of speech)
(4) Hyakunin Isshu (see below)
(5) Senryu and Haiku poetry writing (see below).
The first three items in this list bring literary texts back into oral culture.
Choral reading exercises in class provide the basis of not only daily oral
communication but also artistic poetry recitation at school events. In
many cases, at elementary school graduation ceremonies, students in
grade five perform group recitations of poetry and music for the gradu-
ating sixth graders. Items (4) and (5) above turn writing and memorizing
exercises in class into real life culturally sophisticated communication
with others.
Hyakunin Isshu is a card game in which players listen to the first part
of a classical Japanese poem, or Waka, and then try to be the first to
pick cards with the second half of the poem written on them while
the ‘caller’ finishes reading the whole poem. Most elementary school
pupils learn the 100 standard classical Japanese poems inherited from
the 13th century as elements of games. In Shijo Elementary School in
Osaka, which the author visits regularly, students first learn ten poems
by heart so that they can start enjoying the game. The caller reads all the
poems used in the game, so pupils can review poems they are learning
every time they play the game. Week by week, they stretch their compe-
tence with more poems. By the time students have learned the full set of
poems, they have become familiar with the formal patterns and rhetor-
ical phrases of Classical Japanese.
The game has been popular for centuries, and playing it is still a tradi-
tion in some homes during winter holidays. Advanced players learn
phonetic conditioning, the subtle sound difference influenced by adja-
cent segments. Many sets of poems start with the same sound or sounds,
so players who can respond at the quicker stage have the advantage. The
caller at the competitive match read out each poem slowly like songs,
making it easier for the players to tell the vowels getting slightly longer
or shorter, or darker depending on the next consonant of the poem.
The Japanese public TV network broadcasts exciting matches during
the national Hyakunin Isshu tournament. Nowadays you can find local
50 Aiko Saito
matches among school children and exercise videos online, as well as

Manga episodes on young Hyakunin Isshu players. The game is an enjoy-
able way for children to acquire the classical literary heritage shared
by their community. For advanced learners, it is a serious activity that
requires physical ability to snatch the right cards, phonological study,
strategic minds, and concentration.
Imamiya (2010) reports on creative poetry writing in Senryu style in
elementary school. Senryu shares the same syllable number pattern 5/7/5
as Haiku but does not need a season word, and is often more humorous
and topical.8 A vast number of amateur poets contribute their work to
Senryu columns in newspapers and magazines. In the JL1 class, students
first collect short vocabularies in five or seven syllables. Then they try
out numerous combinations of the expressions in an attempt to compose
witty poetry. Students share their work in class and select the poem of
the day, as in the case of grown-up Senryu poets who read each other’s
work and exchange reviews in group. The selection process requires logi-
cally structured discussion. The creative writing activity leads to a coop-
erative critical thinking process, without spoiling the entertainment
value of the Senryu art.
JL1 education has used a wide selection of literary works in textbooks
and classroom activities. Literature is an essential material in various JL1
exams and textbooks, though copyright issues limit the choices for both
publishers and institutions. Class activities with language arts develop
the skills and knowledge necessary for communication, though they are
not always measurable by conventional exams.
4 JL1 education outside the JL1 class
Language learning continues outside the language class. Transdisciplinary

activities allow learners to try out various modes of language. Works
in class committees require discussions of daily problems, and students
perform the roles of chair and record keeper in turn to solve them. As
Takagi (2008) says, language knowledge becomes performable ability by
using it for pupils’ familiar daily life purposes.
Cross-subject learning is normal in Japanese elementary school, where
one teacher teaches most of the subjects to the same group of students
for a year. The following is an example of effective practice carried out at
a public elementary school (see Figure 3.2). First, students read descrip-
tive texts on car production in a Social Studies class. They then learn how
to interview people politely in the JL1 class. They visit a local factory the
following week to interview workers there. After returning to school,
Bridging the Gap 51
Social A field trip Arts & Crafts JL1

JL1
subject Studies to a car factory
Language Reading Speaking Listening Speaking Writing
skills Speaking Listening
Materials Descriptive Craft paper, Big paper

A production
text on scissors, with grid
line and workers
industry glue
Activity Role play Observation Discussion Publication

Note taking Presentation of a class
Interview PDCA newspaper
Figure 3.2 Outline of transdisciplinary lessons for the fifth graders at Shijo
Elementary School, Japan
they review their notes. In the Arts and Crafts class, they reproduce a
micro-assembly line with paper model cars. Students first ‘operate’
their factory without verbal communication for ten minutes, count the
number of ‘products’, discuss how to cooperate more efficiently, and
then try for another ten minutes. Each group reports their Kaizen proce-
dure (the continuous improvement system of Plan-Do-Check-Act) and
their results to the rest of the class.9 Then they write a class newspaper
featuring the field trip, using the vocabulary they have accumulated
through the lessons, with announcements from the class committees
they belong to, and a Senryu corner to entertain the readers who share
their recent experiences. These steps require different elements of JL1
knowledge, skills and awareness of literary culture, which function
better when practiced holistically.
A more straightforward input of model JL1 outside the JL1 class hour is
extensive reading (hereafter ER) (see Chapters 17 and 18 in this volume).
According to a 2010 survey by the Ministry of Education (MEXT, 2011),
the great majority of compulsory level public schools (96 per cent of
elementary, 87 per cent of junior high) allow time for ER outside the
JL1 class.10 Over 80 per cent of elementary schools conduct ‘the whole
school 10 min. reading time’ before the first class (Hayashi, 1997). Typical
practice involves no comprehension check, obligatory compositions or
credits as rewards. It may not sound as educational as intensive reading
in class, yet it is successful in securing time for all students to focus on
reading whatever they like, and opportunities to encounter favourite
books. Teachers also find that students cannot help telling each other
when they find exciting books (Hayashi, 1997).
52 Aiko Saito
What supports L1 ER is the wide choice of reasonable materials.

Publishers provide levelled fiction and non-fiction collections for young
learners. Collections of short texts are handy for beginners. To aid
readers with limited Kanji literacy, many books for children have Kana
syllabaries called Furigana printed alongside advanced Kanji, so that
they know how to pronounce the letters. There are abridged version of
canonical JL1 literature and abridged translations of canonical foreign
literature. Juvenile literature, novelized films, novelized popular Manga
stories and novelized hit animation series are also available in Japan.
Easy access to a wide variety of texts guarantees successful independent
reading outside subject classes.
ER is also part of cross-subject learning. A public school in Osaka has
been adopting a school-wide ER project for years. Teachers have found
that more students come to the library to do research than they did
before the project. Students in their final year are more confident in
finding interesting books, so they are happy to choose books and prac-
tise reading them aloud to the first year students (Igarashi, 2014). Various
oral dramatic reading practices in the JL1 class and the experience of ER
help their communication over books.
What seems counter to the assignment-free extensive reading is essay
writing and art creation based on books they read. A major newspaper
company has been sponsoring an essay-on-book contest since 1971 and
an art-on-book contest since 1955. For the latter, applicants visualize
what they have imagined while reading, and write short compositions
to explain the reason they chose the material and how they planned
their work of art. To show the popularity of this type of activity, more
than 600,000 students aged 6 to 18 submitted work in 2013. The contest
judges claim in the review that those who rank high in drawing also
write the most logical compositions. The prizewinners’ works and inter-
views to them are published in the newspaper, which is distributed
nationwide (‘Kanjita Sekai’, 2014).
ER develops students’ writing. Morikawa (2011) reports that ER-journal
writing crossover activities inspire students. Teachers treat students as
trainee writers, and encourage them to hunt for attractive openings
in books written by professionals. Thus, students pay attention to the
opening sentences of every chapter of the book they read, and take
notes. They share their research results in class, select the openings
they particularly like and state the reasons in the next journal. Students
may openly ‘borrow’ lines from books in their compositions. It is a
way to examine the effects of good writing models during their writing
Bridging the Gap 53
training, which helps students move out of their usual comfort zone
and challenge new strategies.
L1 education outside the L1 class is as valuable as it is in the L1 class.
Students acquire both skill and knowledge through intensive reading in
the subject lesson. Then they practise choosing appropriate styles and
modes of writing and speaking in cross-subject activities. In the informal
community outside subject lessons, learners treat literature as a source of
delight to share, and as a model to compete with.
5 What L2 education can learn from L1 education
Looking at language education with literature in a wider perspective,

EFL education in Japan can learn many successful lessons from JL1
education. Some practices in JL1 can be easily transferred to EFL. Quality
English translations of non-English literature, and abridged or modern-
ized versions of classic literature, or a combination of the two, play a
significant role in FL learning. The recent publication trend of graded
readers for EFL learners and levelled readers for young English native
speakers assists ER in EFL from the beginner level. While some EFL
material publishers have begun to sponsor ‘read and write’ or ‘read and
draw’ contests with books they print, schools are free to hold in-school
contests with multiple publishers’ products.
Literature-based games like Hyakunin Isshu are adaptable to EFL settings
as well. Each class or school can select memorable phrases taken from
English literary texts to make card games of their own, as their project
work. Learning the target language with literature allows more flexible
classes than studying foreign literature as the supreme focus. Redefining
existing teaching materials and methods for EFL is the first option for
English language teachers (see Chapter 17 in this volume).
The second option is connecting the close reading of literature to
other elements of language use, such as voice and genres, and analytical
skills. Dramatic choral readings with detailed comprehension of the
text are classic yet effective activities with literature. Turning texts into
performance is a way of finding multiple standpoints to represent the
different characters in a story. Planning a production for an audience
develops theatrical points of view in EFL readers (Saito, 2013). Reading a
literary text only to answer comprehension questions in class, leaves the
student outside of the story world. It is through reading and thinking in
the character’s shoes that events and lines in the fiction become mean-
ingful. When you read the story with a mind to performing it for an
54 Aiko Saito
audience, you will consider how to present the scenes or to control the
information release. Planning a production requires multiple points of
view and an effective combination of talents. With reference to Rakugo
theatre techniques (see Section 3.3), students in my EFL class were asked
to produce a short opening talk called Makura in order to ‘warm up’
their audience of the day which help them extend their imagination
with ease and enjoy the following comic performance. Amazingly,
each student came up with a totally different opening talk for the same
main Rakugo script, as they chose different elements associated with
the key factors in the plot. Through this creative process, the activity
became partly the memorization of a traditional Japanese literary work
in English translation and partly oral presentation practice and, more
essentially, a means of entertaining an audience with literature through
communication in EFL.
Basic conversation analysis on literary texts gives students objective
tools to appreciate the texts in depth, and to mediate between the L2 text
and L1-speaking audience. Learners can integrate their analytical reading
ability with writing for the target audience through activities such as
making a film trailer based on a novel. Translation exercises become
interpersonal activities when given certain conditions: for example the
maximum number of letters per scene when writing viewer-friendly-
length subtitles for a film or a TV drama; and the listener-friendly word
choice for dubbing the same material. The difference in media of informa-
tion determines the priorities when translating the linguistic material.
Completely creative writing is hard to achieve in the FL setting. In
most cases, learners need to learn to compose accurate comprehen-
sible L2 before entertaining others. Teachers find it hard to distinguish
students’ experimental use of L2 from their mistakes. It is debatable
how much class time should be allocated to artistic creative writing in
school L2 education. To substitute for this, however, students can edit
L2 literature to produce original versions of the text. It helps them with
accuracy, while dealing with literature as a model of writing in L2 (see
Chapter 13 in this volume). Cross-subject learning at high school EFL
become possible by cooperating with other subject teachers. Every time
I facilitate a local high school teacher’s workshop, participants who
teach various subjects successfully brainstorm joint lesson plans with
no difficulty.
Another challenge is how to construct an informal community
outside the teacher-oriented EFL class (for more information on reading
circles and reading communities, see Chapters 14, 16, 17 and 18 in this
volume). ER in L2 functions as in L1. Providing a wide range of books,
Bridging the Gap 55
teachers can invite students to enjoy L2 reading without follow-up

evaluations. Advanced students will be willing to choose exciting L2
books for beginners, just as in the case reported by Igarashi (2014) in
JL1 education (see Section 3.4). As Ohmura (1981) says, relaxed reading
alone is worth doing, and teachers can simply be a member of a reading
community with students rather than being an instructor all the time.
An even more liberal readers’ community is emerging in Japan as
a result of the social book review game called ‘Bibliobattle’. It started
among L1 readers, and EFL teachers are beginning to introduce it. The
‘battlers’ talk for five minutes each about their favourite books without
a script or presentation tools, and Q&A time with the audience follows.
The battlers and audience vote anonymously to decide on the champion
book of the day. No financial reward is given to the champion book
reviewer. The game was originally designed to find good resource books
to share in a study group of graduate school students. These students
tried several things to make themselves read more, yet discovered that
members would read the most when there were no formal assignments
but, instead, interesting reviews.11 The game became more and more
relaxed as time went by, and now it is widely played at libraries, book-
shops, city halls and schools (‘Bibliobattle’, 2014; Taniguchi et al., 2009).
Participants enjoy Bibliobattle as a place to exchange information about
fascinating books. Selecting books and planning what they will say
require speakers to integrate various language skills. As the aim of the
game is to make the audience want to read the book, speakers must not
be spoilers by revealing plot elements that may take away from other
readers’ enjoyment; furthermore, speakers should not be too critical of
the books. It is a democratic reader-oriented activity, which facilitates
cooperative learning without a dominant participant or leader. This
social game is another model of an independent readers’ community.
Literature plays a valuable role in motivating learners’ interpersonal
communications. Document-based literature study gains dynamic power
when connected to communication beyond the controlled classroom.
6 Conclusion
This chapter has examined the practices of JL1 education and the roles
of literature there, to find out what teachers can apply to EFL educa-
tion. Government policy, textbook publishers and copyright issues
inevitably influence choices of literary works in school textbooks and
exams. Meanwhile, there are ways to guarantee a good supply of litera-
ture to learners after subject class. Both input and output opportunities
56 Aiko Saito
will increase by connecting close analytical reading with other elements

of language through interpersonal activities. Constructing an informal
community of learners outside the teachers’ control can enhance enjoy-
able communication and independent learning.
EFL teachers tend to search for lesson ideas and pedagogical theories
exclusively in the EFL field. Nevertheless, L1 education, the background
that any L2 learner has been through, is a source of excellent practices
and ideas for L2 teachers. Taking into account your target learners’
background helps your teaching. This chapter is a case study by an EFL
teacher in Japan who looked into L1 education in the country, where
literature has been a key teaching and testing material and teachers
have applied various approaches to meet the changing needs of learners.
Some of the successful L1 teaching practices, such as using good transla-
tions into the target language just as you use established original text,
step-by-step development of memorization of poetries with fun games,
or transdisciplinary lessons that benefit each subject learning, were
beyond the author’s initial presuppositions and beliefs as an EFL teacher.
Surveys of your students’ first language education and the L1 teaching
history in your country may well provide you with new perspectives on
L2 education.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and respect to the teachers

and young learners in Shijo Elementary School in Daito city, Osaka, for
sharing their inspiring ideas and everyday practices.
Notes
1. Written Modern Japanese consists of Kana phonograms and Kanji logograms.
Each Kanji character usually has more than two pronunciations depending on
its environment, though it keeps its core meaning.
2. Tamayo Ohtsuka and other San’yukai members work with the Shiozaki Otogi
Kamishibai Museum in Osaka, Japan:
http://www.gaitoukamishibai.com/museum/aisatu1.html.
3. Classical Chinese has been the major foreign language for the Japanese since
the eighth century. It was a language of scholars, who studied to read and
write formal Classical Chinese with documents written in the target language.
Those elite learners added guiding marks on the Chinese text for their own
reference, which helped later students to decode the script quickly and convert
it into Classical Japanese without mastering the grammar or pronunciation of
Classical Chinese.
Bridging the Gap 57
4. It is not clear, however, whether the declining PISA result was due to the
traditional JL1 teaching and/or the national curriculum at the time, ‘Yutori
Kyoiku’, which had downsized core contents of each subject and aimed
at mastery of the minimum basic knowledge. Yutori Kyoiku (2002–2006)
was a backlash to the previous education trend that stressed rote learning
massive amounts. Yet the beneficiaries of the demanding curriculum
before Yutori, who were also taught to appreciate rather than analyse
literary texts, scored the best in literacy at PIAAC, the International Survey
of Adult Skills (OECD, 2014).
5. The shift in the Japanese government’s education policy and JL1 teachers’
practice seems to have succeeded in regaining the reading literacy scores in
PISA. Those who had been educated in the new policy for at least three years
scored 520 points, eighth out of 65 nations, which was almost as high as the
score in 2000. In the 2012 exam, Japanese students scored 538 points on
average and were fourth out of 65 nations.
6. Both Hashimoto and Ohmura experienced an inevitable paradigm shift
during and after WWII. Japanese schools faced first the government’s and
then the occupation force’s control over education, a shortage of textbooks
and trained teachers, and students who had little learning time during the
war. Teachers of Ohmura’s and Hashimoto’s generation created teaching
materials and school education for the new era.
7. As is the case with textbook editors, educational institutions must comply
with copyright regulations. Using part or all of a published text for an exam
is possible without agreement in advance, but this does not apply to the
publication (in print or online) of exam papers containing extracts from
literary texts. After lawsuits around 2005 over the secondary use of literary
property in entrance exams and textbooks, the unauthorized use of literature
and other texts by certain authors can incur considerable expenses for insti-
tutions (Benesse, 2005; JVCA, 2014).
8. Japanese authentic Haiku requires a word which reflects one of the 24 parts
of the year. These ‘season words’ are often taken from the social events
and natural elements. Some season words are considered fit to refer to
the particular time of the year even though the event may occur in other
seasons as well: ‘a cat in love’ is for early spring, while ‘mirage’ is for late
spring.
9. Kaizen literally means ‘improvement’ in Japanese, but the term refers to the
continuous improvement system. Toyota, the car-maker of Japanese origin,
became internationally famous for its culture of bottom-up Kaizen and its
efficient production in the 1980s. It involves all employees in the PDCA
process.
10. The proportion of senior high schools that carry out school-wide ER projects
is 41 per cent according to the 2010 survey. Senior high schools tend to focus
on fostering individual reading rather than setting collective ER time (MEXT,
2011).
11. From an early stage, Taniguchi and his study group members have been
using the internet to show the book review talks for a wide audience who
missed the chance to see the event live. Video-sharing on the net is a part of
Bibliobattle culture.
58 Aiko Saito
References
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[Teaching JL1 Reading]. Nihongogaku 25 (June): 48–57.
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in Textbook that Worth Reading Again in your Adulthood]. Tokyo: Gakken
Kyoiku Shuppan.
Gakken (2013b) Shougo Kokugo wo Hitotsu Hitotsu Wakariyasuku [Workbook:
Japanese for Fifth Graders]. Tokyo: Gakken Kyoiku Shuppan.
‘Gakuryoku Tesuto ni 2,240,000 nin Sanka’ [National Academic Achievement
Test 2014]. Nikkei Shinbun, 23 April, 2014. http://www.nikkei.com/article/
DGXNASDG2200L_S4A420C1CC0000/
‘Gon no Kimochi Tsutawatta’ [A New Textbook Based on the Original Manuscript
of Gongitsune] (2013) Asahi Shibun, 19 June: 21.
Hayashi, H. (1997) Asa no Dokusho Jissen Gaidobukku [Schoolwide Extensive
Reading in L1]. Tokyo: Mediapal.
Igarashi, K. (2014) ‘Manabiya no Takara’ [The Reading Project at School]. Mainichi
Newspaper. 5 April, 2014: 19.
Imamiya, S. (2010) Kotobano Chikara wo Tsukeru Shi no Jugyo [Poetry in L1 Class].
Osaka: Forum A.
Inoue, K. (2011) Bungou no Hon’yakuryoku [Translations by Distinguished Writers].
Tokyo: Randomhouse.
Ito, U. (2010) Kiseki no Kyoushitsu [T. Hashimoto’s JL1 Class]. Tokyo:
Shogakukan.
JVCA (Japan Visual Copyright Association) (2014) http://jvca.gr.jp/tokushu/
enex/enex.php
Kamijo, H. (1999) Jugyo de Tsukaeru Bungaku Asobi Besuto 50 [50 Activities with
Literature]. Tokyo: Minshusha.
‘Kanjita Sekai Iroazayaka ni’ [The 25th Nationwide Contest of Pictures Based on
Book Reading] (2014) Mainichi Newspaper, r 28 February: 15–17, 27.
Kansai University Primary School (2014) Shikou Tsuuru wo Tsukau Jugyo [Thinking
Tools in Class]. Tokyo: Sakurasha.
Kariya, N. (2010) Hyoden Ohmura Hama [Biography: H. Ohmura]. Tokyo:
Shogakukan.
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Tests 1994–2014 with Reviews]. Tokyo: Kawai Shuppan.
Kawashima, K. (2013) Kokugo Kyoukasho no Yami [The Unknown Side of L1
Textbook Publication in Japan]. Tokyo: Shinchosha.
Bridging the Gap 59
‘Koko Nyushi Kokugo Shutten Database’ [Sources of Texts in Public High School
Entrance Exams 2007–2012]. (2014) http://www.kokugo.jp/
Kondo, M. (2005) ‘“Kibou to Sanka” wo Kiiwado nishita Kokugo Kyoshitsu no
Sozo’ [JL1 Lesson Ideas], Nihongogaku 24 (June): 34–46.
Kuroiwa, Y. (2011) Nadachu Kiseki no Kokugo Kyoshitsu [T. Hashimoto’s Super Slow
Reading in his JL1 Class]. Tokyo: Chuo Koron Shinsha.
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Conference Proceedings: 202–204.
Kyokasho Toreningu Kokugo 3 nen Kyoiku Shuppan ban [Exercises for Third Graders:
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(2009) ‘Gakushu Shido Yoryo’ [Guidelines for School Education]. http://www.
mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/youryou/main4_a2.htm
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(2011) ‘Gakko toshokan no genjo ni kansuru chosa’ [Surveys on School
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2011/06/02/1306743_01.pdf
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in L1]. Tokyo: Meiji Tosho.
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[Children’s Literature in Textbooks]. http://www.kodomo.go.jp/jel/textbooks/
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a JL1 Education Conference], in (2004) Hito to Gakuryoku wo Sodaterutameni
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(published in Japanese), 152–161. Tokyo: Eihosha.
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Thinking in the JL1 Class]. Tokyo: Hakusuisha.
60 Aiko Saito
‘Senri Nyutaun ni Ikite’ [A Private Library for Young Readers in Japan Since 1973],
Shihou Suita, September 2012: 4–6.
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kokugo/kyokasho/genbun_a304.html (accessed 30 April 2014).
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Kyouiku no Kai (2014) Bungaku no Kyouzai Kenkyu [Literature in the JL1 Class].
Tokyo: Kyoiku Shuppan.
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Activities in School Subjects]. Tokyo: Kyoiku Kaihatsu Kenkyusho.
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List of literary works mentioned in this chapter

Bierce, A. (1889) ‘A Horseman in the Sky’ from Tales of Soldiers and Civils.
[Translated as ‘Sorani ukabu Kishi’ by K. Yoshida in 1956].
Lionni, L. (1963) Swimmy. [Translated as Suimii by S. Tanikawa in 1969].
Lobel, A. (1970) ‘The Letter’ from Frog and Toad are Friends. [Translated as ‘Otegami’
by T. Miki in 1972].
Lu, X. (1921) ᬙ䛩. [Translated as Kokyou by Y. Takeuchi in 1955. Lu’s original
work was translated into English as My Old Home by H. Yang and G. Yang in
1960].
Naka, K. (1935) Gin no Saji. [The Silver Spoon].
Niimi, N. (1932) Gongitsune. [Gon, the Fox].
Tolstoy, R. [year and original title unknown] [Translated as Tobikome by T. Saigo
in 1963. Several Japanese translators published this story under the different
titles].
Verlaine, P. (1866) ‘Chanson d’automne’ and other poetry from Poèmes saturniens.
[Translated as ‘Aki no Uta’ and others by B. Ueda in 1905].
4
From Reading to Writing:
Creative Stylistics as a
Methodology for Bridging the
Gap between Literary Appreciation
and Creative Writing in ELT
Yoshifumi Saito
1 Introduction
The ELT ‘reform’ in Japan from the 1970s to the turn of the millen-
nium was conducted on the assumption, theoretically questionable but
untested for a long time, that ELT in Japan had languished because of its
excessive emphasis on rote-learning-based grammatical understanding,
reading comprehension, translation and, above all, literary apprecia-
tion. This assumption has been challenged and partially invalidated by
some of the latest studies by Japanese ELT scholars and practitioners
in language teaching methodologies (Hiraga, 2007; Saito, 2003; 2012;
2014; Takahashi, 2009; 2013; Yoshimura et al., 2013), with the result
that literature is now widely regarded in Japan as a rich source of ELT
materials. One explanation for this large-scale revaluation of literature
in the ELT context is that many of these scholars and practitioners are
also students of English linguistics and literature and are therefore well
attuned to the ideas of British pedagogical stylistics, which have played
a central role in bringing literature (back) into the language classroom.
This also explains why they have explored the potential of literature
as an educational resource largely along the lines suggested by British
pedagogical stylistics; that is to say, they have pursued ways of using
literature, on the basis that it is a huge mass of created texts, as an
activator of reading-based classroom activities with varying emphasis
61
62 Yoshifumi Saito
on language awareness (Carter and McRae, 1996: 10–12), intercultural

understanding (Hall, 2005: 154–158) or motivated learning (Duff and
Maley, 2007). This seems quite natural, considering that one of the oldest
definitions of literature is: ‘[t]he result or product of literary activity;
written works considered collectively’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd
ed.). However, another important definition the OED gives to litera-
ture – ‘[t]he action or process of writing a book or literary work’ – neatly
highlights the large area in literature that has hardly been explored by
pedagogical stylistics and literature-minded Japanese ELT experts. If we
are to fully exploit literature in the ELT context, we should expand the
framework of our understanding of literature and regard it not only as
a mass of texts but also as a creative process.
This chapter first provides a brief overview of the past attempts by
pedagogical stylisticians and like-minded ELT experts to utilize literary
texts in language teaching and then proposes a way of connecting litera-
ture and ELT in a new perspective of creative stylistics. Finally, it demon-
strates how this new approach can work in real classroom situations.
2 Pedagogical stylistics and its text-based and

reading-oriented approach to the teaching of
language and literature
Carter (1984) summed up the trend in stylistics up to the early 1980s

and suggested some promising or at least possible areas for future devel-
opment at that point. In so doing he used the term ‘pedagogical stylis-
tics’ to refer to the type of stylistics pursued for literary and language
education, which thereafter became one of the propelling forces of
the whole discipline. Since the 90s, in response to the globalization of
English, pedagogical stylistics has rapidly expanded its territory into the
field of English teaching specifically in the ESL and EFL contexts. This
ELS/EFL-oriented theorization is one of the most conspicuous features of
pedagogical stylistics, along with its strong concern for the ideological
aspects of discourse. A revised and updated version of Carter (above) was
printed in Short (1989) by way of a brief historical survey of stylistics,
showing the acceleration of the pedagogical shift of the discipline. The
rest of Short’s collection, including another article by Carter, methodizes
and illustrates the stylistic analysis of literary texts and its application to
classroom practice. Through the whole collection runs the conviction
articulated by the editor in his ‘Introduction’:
From Reading to Writing 63
Over the last few years there has been a resurgence of interest in the
use of literature in language teaching, and a number of the contribu-
tions to this volume reflect this. Stylistic analysis has been of partic-
ular concern to the foreign-language learner as it has been seen as a
device by which the understanding of relatively complex texts can be
achieved. This, coupled with a general interest in English literature,
has led to the stylistic approach becoming more and more popular in
the EFL context. (Short, 1989: 6)
From this stage on, pedagogical stylistics has developed in two general
directions. On the one hand, it has expanded its theoretical and meth-
odological scope in a well organized system of collaboration and serial
publication (Burke et al., 2012; Carter and Nash, 1990; Carter and
Simpson, 1989; Nørgaard et al., 2010; van Peer, 1988; Watson and
Zyngier, 2007; the Routledge ‘Interface’ series with Carter as series
editor). On the other hand, corresponding to, or even propelled by, the
leading stylisticians’ involvement in the National Curriculum Project,
many others have produced textbooks for classroom use (Beard, 2003;
Carter and Long, 1987; 1991; Collie and Slater, 1987; 1993; Freeborn,
1996; Haynes, 1995; Lott, 1986; Saito and Nakamura, 2009; Walker,
1983; etc.). As the greatest concern of stylistics is to provide linguistic
explanations of literary texts and their intrinsic values, pedagogical
stylistics has been theorized, quite naturally, as an application of text-
based analysis to language and literature education, as Short’s remark
above suggests. By the same token, not surprisingly, these textbooks
are so designed as to provide students first with reading materials and
then with a variety of follow-up activities for deepening their under-
standing of them. It is assumed that students should accept each of
those materials as the final realization of the author’s literary ‘inten-
tion’ without considering the possibility of the text being written
in any other way. If it contains some unconventional linguistic or
stylistic forms, they should be understood as ‘intentional deviations’
that are designed to create some effect(s) on the reader.
Provided the author’s literary designs are known to the reader,
however, it is also possible to discuss whether or not the author has
constructed the language of the text efficiently or to argue that he or
she could have chosen some other linguistic forms to realize them. This
line of argument serves as the basis of the design for the bridge between
literary appreciation and creative writing.
64 Yoshifumi Saito
3 Creative stylistics
What creative stylistics claims to be able to do in the ELT context is:
1. to function as a counterbalance to traditional description- and anal-

ysis-oriented stylistics and thereby motivate students of stylistics to
respond to (in most cases literary) texts more actively and creatively
than they have habitually done in reading classrooms;
2. to bring the insights of stylistic analysis into creative writing; and
3. to provide some theoretical guidelines for creative writing and
thereby help not only English-speaking but also non-English-
speaking students to tackle the challenge of literary creation. (Saito,
forthcoming)
The second of these aims was also suggested by Pope (1995; 1998) and
more recently by Scott (2012; 2013), who explains how a stylistic approach
to the teaching of creative writing differs from others as follows:
However, a fundamental difference between a stylistic approach and

other methods of teaching the subject [creative writing] is that the
students begin with a (descriptive) stylistic tenet and then proceed (analyti-
cally) to enact its implications. Rather than a student simply making
subjective judgements and making comments such as ‘I like that’ or
‘this works well’, they are given a specific technique or function to
comment on, and will ask instead ‘Does this piece of writing do the
job it is (presumably) intended to? If so, how? If not, why not? Firmly
based on principles of active learning, the approach moves from
demonstration, to practice, to discussion, to reflection and, eventu-
ally, to second-nature practice. (Scott, 2012: 101; author’s italics)
Whereas the target students of Scott’s pedagogy, which is designed to

bring them from descriptive stylistics over to creative writing, are mostly
native speakers of English, those of my creative stylistics classes are
mainly non-native speakers, who need more careful, prescriptive, step-
by-step instruction. This is why creative stylistics provides guidelines for
creative writing in terms of a checklist, in which the stylistic elements
are so arranged that they build up from the more general to the more
specific as follows:
a. readiness: the (would-be) author is ready for literary creation and has
something to write about;
b. message, theme, or motif: the author must be aware of what he/she

is trying to write (about);
c. text type: the author should choose one particular text type for real-
izing his/her literary intention;
d. setting and characterization: what (or where) is the basic setting of
his/her literary discourse, and what kind of character is needed as an
agent of action(s)?;
e. narrative structure and point of view: who is speaking to whom, from
what point of view?;
f. tense and time-shift: the author must arrange the time sequence
according to his/her literary intentions and textual designs, using
time-shift markers, as necessary, such as ‘had’ (as auxiliary verb, indi-
cating the shift to the past in the story), ‘now’ (as a marker to indicate
the return to the main time sequence of narrative), or other lexical or
graphological signals;
g. syntactic choice: syntactic choices must conform to or be consistent
with other intended textual (phonological, prosodic, semantic, etc.)
designs;
h. lexical choice: in order to fill in a lexical slot in a text, the author should
compare referentially equivalent lexical items and choose one that
most tightens the textual cohesion and coherence with its phonetic,
phonological, connotative, or other values relevant to the context;
i. phonological choice: the author should pay attention to the phono-
logical values of sentences and to the whole prosodic structure of the
discourse;
j. graphological choice: what extra effects will be attained by grapho-
logical variation?;
k. metaphor and symbolism: the author should arrange metaphors so
that they may form a consistent structure and thereby convey the
extra symbolic meaning(s);
l. cohesion, coherence, and overall textual patterning: the author
should look over the text to see if it is cohesive and coherent in terms
of lexico-semantic, syntactic, phonological, rhetorical, or thematic
structures, and adjust the relevant elements, if necessary, to make it
more artistically displayed. (Saito, forthcoming)
The texts finally produced through this process of planning and stylistic
choices are autonomous by themselves and open to appreciative and/or
critical reading. They can also serve, provided they are well written, as
model pieces of student writing to be read and discussed at the begin-
ning of another creative writing session.
66 Yoshifumi Saito
The following sections illustrate the mechanism by which the style-

focused reading of literary texts in class can help students to become
style-sensitive writers.
4 Stylistic analysis of ‘dramatic irony’ in fiction
The target students of my proposed creative stylistics class range from

first- to fourth-year university students, depending on their levels of
English proficiency. The class will start with the close reading of some
unattributed passages, including the following:
[A] Well, but God’s will must be done! and so comes the comfort,
that I shall not be obliged to return back to be a burden to my dear
parents! For my master said, ‘I will take care of you all, my good
maidens; and for you, Pamela,’ (and took me by the hand; yes, he
took my hand before them all), ‘for my dear mother’s sake, I will be a
friend to you, and you shall take care of my linen.’
[B] Through the fence, between the curling flower space, I could see
them hitting. They were coming toward where the flag was and I
went along the fence. Luster was hunting in the grass by the flower
tree. They took the flag out, and they were hitting. Then they put the
flag back and they went to the table, and he hit and the other hit.
[C] I turned to find the young Mr Cardinal beaming happily at me. I
smiled also and said: ‘Fish, sir?’
‘When I was young, I used to keep all sorts of tropical fish in a tank.
Quite a little aquarium it was. I say, Stevens, are you all right?’
I smiled again. ‘Quite all right, thank you, sir.’
‘As you so rightly pointed out, I really should come back here in
the spring. Darlington Hall must be rather lovely then. The last time
I was here, I think it was winter then too. I say, Stevens, are you sure
you’re all right there?’
‘Perfectly all right, thank you, sir.’
‘Not feeling unwell, are you?’
‘Not at all, sir. Please excuse me.’
I proceeded to serve port to some other of the guests. There was a loud
burst of laughter behind me and I heard the Belgian clergyman exclaim:
‘That is really heretical! Positively heretical!’ then laugh loudly himself.
I felt something touch my elbow and turned to find Lord Darlington.
‘Stevens, are you all right?’
Then the students will be instructed to read them quickly to work out and
discuss with other students what kind of text they are, who is speaking to
whom, and what the situations are. It will not be very difficult for them
to find that they are taken from fictional writings (they are, respectively,
from Samuel Richardson’s Pamela [1740], William Faulkner’s The Sound
and the Furyy [1929], and Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Dayy [1989]).
What the students will possibly figure out for themselves is: that, in Text
A, the character named Pamela is talking rather appreciatively about her
master’s special regard for her; that, in Text B, the narrator uses unusu-
ally simple grammatical structures in describing the scene to the extent
that they suggest his or her limited understanding of the situation; and
that, in Text C, something is critically wrong about the way Stevens, the
narrator, looks.
This will be just the point where the teacher is advised to provide some
basic information concerning the three texts, putting emphasis not so
much on literary history or the biographical details of the authors as on
the narrative structures and stylistic features of the texts and especially
on the irony of the narrators disclosing by their words more than they
are aware of: Pamela at this point does not realize that her seemingly
friendly and benevolent master has taken a fancy to her and is trying
to draw her into the private part of his life, which shrewd readers will
associate with the word ‘linen’; Benjy Compson, a 33-year-old man with
mental retardation, who is the narrator in Text B, is simply describing
what is going on before his eyes without understanding that it is a
game of golf; and Stevens, butler to Lord Darlington, believes that he is
serving his guests normally, right after his visit to his father who has just
suffered a serious stroke and is in a critical condition, but unwittingly
reveals (as Ishiguro presumably intends him to) that he is emotionally
disturbed to the extent of looking strange to other people.
This kind of irony is well known in the theatrical arts as ‘dramatic
irony’, which is defined by the OED as ‘the incongruity created when the
(tragic) significance of a character’s speech or action is revealed to the
audience but unknown to the character concerned; the literary device so
used’. Whether in drama or in fiction, creating ‘dramatic irony’ requires
one crucial condition among others, which is satisfied by the narrative
structures of the three texts above, and this condition can be the next
topic for in-class discussion. What is the condition common to all the
three texts we have just read under which the above-mentioned irony
occurs? What is the common feature in all of them in comparison with
other types of fictional discourse, say, in Pride and Prejudice, Tess of the
d’Urbervilles or Ulysses? Here, it is hoped, many students will notice that
68 Yoshifumi Saito
the stories in the three texts are all narrated by character-narrators. (In
this discussion I would avoid the use of such familiar but tautological
terms as ‘first-person narrator’ or ‘I-narrator’, all stories by definition
being told in the first person, whether or not the narrators refer to them-
selves as ‘I’; see also Saito, 2001.) Depending on how students under-
stand the narrative mechanism of dramatic irony in fiction, the teacher
can further expand on it by asking them whether or not dramatic
irony occurs when the omniscient narrator tells us, for example, that
a couple of killers are hiding behind the curtain trying to murder our
ignorant hero. At this point, it is hoped again, most of the students will
understand that dramatic irony is only possible when the story is being
told by one of the characters, in most cases the protagonist, who has a
limited range of information concerning the situation he or she is put
in. After making sure that all the students have understood the point,
the teacher is now advised to switch the classroom practice from reading
to writing.
5 Creating ‘dramatic irony’ in fiction
Once the process in which dramatic irony occurs is adequately under-

stood by the students, then it will be possible in theory to replicate it
in creative writing, and here the checklist of creative stylistics will be of
some help. In Saito (forthcoming) I demonstrated how creative stylistics
helped the students in my writing class at the University of Tokyo to
design and complete their pieces of fictional writing, but this time the
checklist will be all the more useful in the students’ decision-making
processes because the literary effect to be created is well specified. I will
now run through the checklist, involving myself in the step-by-step
creative process as a would-be non-native writer.
a. readiness:
Like most of the students who enrol in my creative stylistics course, I am

perfectly ready for literary creation.
b. message, theme, or motif:
This is the category where ‘dramatic irony’ comes in. In my writing

plan, the motif of dramatic irony is combined with the theme of
communication breakdown. This combination reflects my strong
concern about the excessive Anglicization of education in Japan at the
expense of the students’ L1 acquisition, as is clearly seen in the way

the use of English as a medium of instruction and communication has
lately been highly promoted not only inside but also outside English
classrooms, and the consequent change (in most cases corruption) of
the Japanese language that often disrupts intergenerational commu-
nication in Japanese. One of the greatest ironies about the situation
is that parties involved in the communication often assume they
understand each other perfectly and hardly notice what has caused
the disruption. The central message I intend to convey, therefore, is a
warning against the current trend of over-Anglicized language educa-
tion and culture in Japan.
c. text type:
As we have seen in the previous section, dramatic irony can occur not
only in playwriting but also in some fictional texts, under certain condi-
tions. Since our aim is replicate the mechanism of dramatic irony as seen
in the fictional texts we analysed, my choice is a text of prose fiction,
more specifically a short story, considering that it must be completed
within a semester.
d. setting and characterization:
Here we have to start thinking about the ‘story’ with dramatic irony as its
core motif. The basic setting for realizing the motif as well as the theme
of communication breakdown is a language situation which can possibly
emerge in Japan in some near future if the language policy which is
being adopted by an increasing number of educational institutions and
companies is pursued to an extreme: the situation where English is used
as the primary medium of education and everyday communication. The
critical point in my short story is a moment of verbal contact between
two Japanese, who, being separated widely in terms of age, have experi-
enced totally different language situations and systems of school educa-
tion, and consequently have little common ground in terms of linguistic
culture to share with each other. This literary design will be activated
along the following story line: a young man makes a spring trip to the
village where his mother was born to see his maternal grandparents after
a long interval, but, having been exposed to more English than Japanese
since childhood in communicating with friends and teachers, is unable
to understand many of the things his grandparents say, thereby embar-
rassing them unwittinglyy at every turn of communication.
70 Yoshifumi Saito
e. narrative structure and point of view:
These two stylistic elements, narrative structure and point of view, are
most closely related to the argument in the previous section concerning
the basic condition under which dramatic irony occurs: that it occurs
when the story is told by a character-narrator who is not (fully) aware of
what is happening around him/her. It is not impossible, of course, for
a character-narrator to tell a story from the omniscient point of view,
as is the case with David Copperfield, who is able even to describe how
his mother is feeling right before his birth, but, in order not to spoil the
effect of dramatic irony, my narrator – preferably the young man who
visits his grandparents – needs to have a limited human point of view.
f. tense and time-shift:
Although the story is set in the future – some time in the 2030s – where
the Anglicization of language policies in Japan can be assumed to have
accelerated, I use the preterite as the basic tense of narration. Most pieces
of fiction whose stories are set in the future adopt the past tense, and
there is no reason why my story, with its realistic setting and linear story
line, should deviate from it.
g – j. syntactic, lexical, phonological, and graphological choices:
At the levels of syntactic, lexical and graphological choices, I will also

stay with conventional forms. At the phonological level, the target text
this time being none of those sound-oriented texts of literary discourse
like rhymed verse, drama or oration, no special choices or manipula-
tions will be made.
k. metaphor and symbolism:
Considering the motif, theme, and message of my story, the best policy
of stylistic selection at this level is to think of some element of language –
word, phrase, idiom, etc. – that will enhance the effect of dramatic
irony in the climax. Since the point of the irony is that the protago-
nist, though Japanese by race, fails to understand, without noticing the
failure himself, some of the basic assumptions which Japanese people
of the older generations take for granted in communication, the most
suitable form of language may be some Japanese expression which liter-
ally denotes one thing and conventionally means another. The language
element with which I think I can most effectively spice up the irony is
a pair of culture-specific Japanese metaphors, sakura saku (cherry blos-
soms bloom) and sakura chiru (cherry blossoms fall), which are respec-
tively used to refer to success and failure, with special reference to an
entrance examination. I will use this pair of metaphors in my short story
to create a context where a communication gap opens up between the
old couple’s metaphorical well-wishing and the narrator’s literal under-
standing of it. This sakura metaphors will be further exploited in the
title of my short story, ‘The Country of Fallen Blossoms’, which on the
one hand implies Japan’s failure in its misdirected attempt at ‘globaliza-
tion’ and on the other is intertextually related to the 11th chapter (‘The
Village Where Blossoms Fall’) of Japan’s canonical work of literature The
Tale of Genji. The flower metaphor is also used in Japanese in the phrase
hanashi ni hana ga saku (literally ‘the conversation is in bloom’) to refer
to a lively conversation.
Less important symbolism is exploited in the naming of the protago-
nist. His name Eigo sounds highly familiar as a male name in Japan
(though there are many homophonic variations depending on the
combination of Chinese characters), but it also has the same sound as a
Japanese word for the English language: eigo. It is hoped that this pair of
homophones will evoke the irony of a Japanese boy, born and bred in
Japan, being far more proficient in English than Japanese and thereby
unable to communicate even with his grandparents.
l. cohesion, coherence, and overall textual patterning:
This level of stylistic manipulation, which concerns the long and

complex processes of drafting and revision, will not be discussed in this
chapter.
6 Created text
For want of space, this section first presents a brief summary of my short
story up to the point where the verbal communication between the
narrator and his grandparents finally and critically fails, and then gives
the full text of the last scene.
Eigo, the 18-year-old protagonist-narrator of the story, after failing the
entrance examination of a prestigious university, makes a spring trip to
the village where his mother was born, intending to refresh himself for a
renewed attempt at the examination the following year as well as to visit
his grandparents whom he has not seen since childhood. They all rejoice
72 Yoshifumi Saito
in the reunion at first, but Eigo, having undergone a highly Anglicized

education, misunderstands or fails to understand many things his grand-
parents say, ascribing the occurrences of communication breakdown to
their strong local accents. At one point of their conversation, his grand-
father brings up the topic of the entrance examination Eigo took earlier
that year:
Grandpa then asked me how the examination had gone, or I just

thought he did, and I honestly told him the result. He cast down his
eyes and muttered, ‘sakura-chiru, ka ... ’ At this moment, I was quite
at a loss what to say, for I had no idea how this sudden mention
of falling cherry blossoms could be relevant to the previous talk
about the exam result. Or were we really talking about it? Since I was
perfectly convinced of what Granpa said this time, I looked out of the
window and surely saw cherry blossom petals dancing in the wind!
In order to get the conversation back on track, I expressed my
admiration for their beauty by saying, ‘Kirei desu ne’. Grandpa raised
his puzzled eyes and then looked at Grandma. Grandma also looked
at him. They looked at each other for a few seconds and whisperingly
exchanged some words, of which all I could catch was my name–or
did they mean ‘English’?–and the Japanese words for ‘age’ and ‘educa-
tion’. Grandma then turned to me with a somewhat pensive smile
and said, ‘Rainen wa, sakura saku to ii-wane.’
Was she wishing to see cherry trees bloom next year? Of course, they
will bloom next year again. Japan is the country of cherry blossoms.
7 Conclusion
In Saito (forthcoming) I demonstrated the way creative stylistics helped

the University of Tokyo students in my English writing class with the
task of creative writing, which had been and probably still is consid-
ered difficult for non-native speakers. On the other hand, traditional
analysis- and description-oriented pedagogical stylistics has played an
important role in language classrooms in sensitizing students to the
language of literature and seems to have established itself as a fully-
fledged discipline in the field of English studies. What this chapter
has proposed to do by analyzing and reproducing the literary effect
called ‘dramatic irony’ is to connect these two and by extension many
other different stylistic approaches to language and literature teaching
into a whole system of pedagogico-stylistic methodologies that will be
able to deal with many challenges arising in language and literature
classrooms.
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English]. Tokyo: The University of Tokyo Press.
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5
Unpacking and Evaluating
Properties in Conceptual
Metaphor Domain Mapping:
Cognitive Stylistics as a
Language Learning Tool
Michael Burke
1 Introduction
Metaphor is a productive domain for L2 and EFL research. Several illu-

minating pedagogical studies have been conducted into both tradi-
tional metaphor and conceptual metaphor (see, for example, Boers,
2000; Chen and Lai, 2011; Deignan et al., 1997; Gao and Meng, 2010;
Hall, 2012; Lazar, 1996; Littlemore, 2004; Littlemore and Low, 2006).
The same might be said of stylistics, as it too is a fruitful area for L2 and
EFL research (see, for example, Burke, 2004; Burke et al., 2012; Carter
and McRae, 1996; Clark and Zyngier, 2003; Gower, 1986; Hall, 2005;
2014; Short, 1989; Teranishi et al., 2012; Watson and Zyngier, 2007).
What this chapter seeks to do is to bring together these two disciplines
(conceptual metaphor and stylistics) within a framework of second
language (L2) learning. The goal is to create a productive and trans-
ferrable ‘pedagogical cognitive stylistics’. L2 and EFL metaphor experi-
ments have concentrated on increasing a learner’s vocabulary and
enhancing his/her language acquisition. The conceptual metaphorical
stylistic analysis set out in this chapter, however, seeks not only to do
this, but also to stimulate a deeper level of thinking and comprehen-
sion in L2 learners. In doing so it hopes to facilitate concept retention
through a kind of ‘reverse engineering’ process of idiom unpacking
and concept elaboration. Language learning is enhanced not only by
75
76 Michael Burke
acquiring new terms and new knowledge, but also by understanding

language at a deeper level, which includes comprehending the bodily
basis of language and thought, and in particular, in this case, unpacking
and considering which characteristics and properties are mapped from
the source domain to the target domain in specific contexts, and why.
In what follows, the basics of conceptual metaphor within a stylistics
framework will be briefly explained. Next, a conceptual metaphoric
stylistic analysis will be conducted, interspersed with a number of prac-
tical, interactive activities. Last, a range of further hands-on stylistic
conceptual metaphor exercises will be presented that can help L2 and
EFL learners achieve a deeper and more meaningful level of language
acquisition.
2 Conceptual metaphor
For thousands of years, metaphor has been seen as language that is crea-
tive and striking. This can be traced from Aristotle’s works on poetics
and rhetoric right up to I. A. Richard’s notions of ‘tenor’ and ‘vehicle’
described in the first half of the 20th century (Richards, 1936). The
advent of conceptual metaphor appears to have put an end to this view.
Conceptual metaphor theory is a central concept in cognitive linguistics.
It first came to light when Lakoff and Johnson published Metaphors We
Live Byy in 1980.1 As the title suggests, whereas metaphor had primarily
been dealt with in the domain of literary and poetic language, i.e. some-
thing unique in the sense of being highly wrought, it now became part
of general linguistics. This meant that examples of metaphor abound
in everyday utterances and written texts of all types and genres. Almost
every sentence is replete with metaphors, or so the argument goes. A
central claim made by Lakoff and Johnson is that metaphor is a basic
pattern that is grounded in bodily experience, which underlies human
thought and human language. Put another way, conceptual metaphor
can be seen as a mapping across domains via language.
Conceptual metaphor theory is thus concerned with the notion of
mapping between two domains. Mapping refers to a set of organized
metaphorical correspondences between closely related entities or ideas.
The two domains that are operational in the process of conceptual meta-
phor mapping are known as ‘source’ and ‘target’. So in the sentence
‘Achilles is a lion’ the qualities that are mapped are aggression, fear-
lessness, dominance, independence, pride, etc. rather than qualities
like shaggy-mained, four-footed, warthog-eating, lazy, etc. The source
Unpacking Properties in Conceptual Metaphor Mapping 77
domain, where the mapping comes from, is akin to the traditional

metaphorical notion of ‘vehicle’, while the ‘target’ domain, where the
mapping ends up, is the ‘tenor’. So conceptual metaphor is centrally
concerned with trying to understand which qualities, characteristics
and elements are mapped from a source to a target. Traditionally, there
are three types of conceptual metaphor. They are known as (i) structural,
(ii) orientational and (iii) ontological. We will look at each of these in
a moment and will see how these conceptual metaphors function in
literary, and other creative, texts.
When you read the conceptual metaphor examples and the analyses
in this chapter for the first time, you should be considering how you are
going to get your students actively involved in thinking and learning
activities above and beyond the ones that have been suggested once
you ask them to read the chapter in a classroom setting. Here are four
rules of thumb that I use in my own teaching, which should help to
generate enhanced levels of learning and critical thinking. They are that
you as a teacher should (i) encourage, (ii) embolden, (iii) stimulate and
(iv) inspire your students in their learning adventure. This EESI model,
when deployed appropriately, will lead to easier learning.
● Encourage your students to enter into a constructive-critical dialogue

with all the literary/textual examples that they will encounter. (Get
them to write ideas down in the margins, or elsewhere, so that they are easily
retrievable when later assignments and/or papers need to be written.)
● Embolden your students to engage in a constructive-critical dialogue
with all the critical observations that experts make about texts and
also with what you, as their teacher, say about those observations in
the classroom. (Students can, for example, critically consider whether or
not evaluative and interpretative statements made by an author/analyst
have been sufficiently grounded in the actual language of the text.)
● Stimulate your students to take a meta-level perspective on their own
learning processes and experiences. ((In the case of this chapter, it is
hoped that students will come to realize how a thorough understanding of
how the mapping process functions within conceptual metaphor theory will
aid their knowledge and usage of English.)
● Inspire your students to go beyond the analysis stage to engage in
the synthesis, design and production of language acquisition. This
‘playing around with language’ must be engaged in if robust and
resilient learning is to take place. (The hands-on exercises at the end of
this chapter seek to address this essential requirement.)
78 Michael Burke
3 Structural conceptual metaphor
One of the main examples of a structural conceptual metaphor that

Lakoff and Johnson use is LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Here, elements from the
source domain (journey), such as distance, endurance and the negotia-
tion of obstacles, are mapped back onto the target domain (life), which
incorporates birth, adolescence, old age, etc. This is realized in many
everyday English linguistic expressions such as ‘I have got to get around
this problem’, ‘he still has a long way to go’, but it is also realized in frag-
ments from many literary texts as we will see.
A basic cognitive structure at work in this metaphor is PURPOSES ARE
DESTINATIONS and at a mapping level we can see how destinations are
mapped onto purposes. Here we start to get a grasp of what Lakoff and
Johnson mean when they say that metaphor is a basic pattern that
underlies human thought. Consider the opening lines of Canto I from
‘The Inferno’ in Dante’s Divine Comedy.
Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita

mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
ché la diritta via era smarrita
Midway upon the road of our life
I found myself within a dark forest,
For the straightforward pathway had been lost
The LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor here is alluded to in the first line: del
cammin di nostra vita. Here the road represents the journey. The metaphor
is also fleshed out in the PATH section of a SOURCE–PATH–GOAL image sche-
matic structure by reference to the ‘dark forest’ that is located midway
on that road.2 These days we would perhaps refer to this impediment as
some kind of mid-life crisis (spiritual, marital, mental, physical, etc.). In
abstract cognitive terms, there is an obstacle that one has to overcome.
In this case, the ‘blockage’ is not something entirely concrete or phys-
ical, but is a combination of darkness and a disorientating wood. So we
could say that what is needed, in order to circumvent the ‘hindrance’, is
a guide and some light.
Examples like the one above abound in literature. Take a look at the
opening lines of Robert Frost’s poem ‘The Road Not Taken’:
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both
Here, life is not just a single journey but a number of possible journeys –
in this case, two. In the rest of the poem it becomes clear that there is on
the one hand the well worn path, frequented by the many, and on the
other the seldom trod trail taken by the few. The speaking persona in the
poem eventually chooses the latter.
The examples we have seen so far have been at the micro, textual
level. There are also well-known LIFE IS A JOURNEY stories that operate at
a macro-textual level. A famous example in English literature is John
Bunyan’s late 17th-century tale The Pilgrim’s Progress. The narrative in
this work is simple. The protagonist, called Christian, has to journey
from his home town, called ‘the city of destruction’ (representing earth),
to ‘the celestial city’ (representing heaven). On this life’s journey he is
confronted by a number of obstacles, which he needs to deal with. For
example, he has to pass through ‘the slough of despond’ on the way to
‘the wicket gate’, which will eventually lead back to the straight and
narrow path. There are many other hindrances on this journey in the
form of temptations that might lead him ‘astray’ including ‘the delec-
table mountains’ and the infamous ‘vanity fair’.
The LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor is not limited to canonical literary texts;
it also occurs in other creative texts. Consider, for example, the lyrics of
Tom Buchanan’s 1990s song ‘Life is a Highway’:
Life’s like a road that you travel on

When there’s one day here and the next day gone
From a formal, linguistic, point of view, this text has the structure of a
simile; an explicit comparison. However, the underlying cognitive structure
is still metaphorical. A much more complex account of the same metaphor
can be found in the Beatles’ hit song ‘The Long and Winding Road’. In the
opening verse to that song the speaking voice focuses on the destination,
but suggests that she/he has successfully travelled this path before.
The GOAL part of the PATH metaphor can often refer to death in such
metaphoric structures. In the opening lines of Dylan Thomas’s famous
poem we are encouraged not ‘to go gentle into that good night’ but
rather to rage and rave on until the very end. Such metaphors are not
limited to the literary domain. When someone dies in real life, we might
say ‘he has passed away’, ‘he has gone to the other side’, ‘he is in a better
place’. All of these represent some kind of LIFE(/DEATH) IS A JOURNEY struc-
tural metaphor – or at least the GOAL part of it. Interestingly, cognitive
patterns of thought tend to structure the way we discuss death. Even
an odd-sounding expression like ‘he has kicked the bucket’ ties into the
80 Michael Burke
CONTAINER
R schematic structure, whereby a container filled with liquid
is knocked over and the liquid spills out, emptying the bucket. Think
about it for a moment. If someone has died, would you be able to say
something like: ‘he’s eaten the pastrami sandwich’ or ‘he’s decorated
the bedroom’ or ‘he’s mopped the linoleum’? Probably not. The reason
for this is that these utterances do not have a recognizable underlying
conceptual image schematic structure.
4 Orientational conceptual metaphor
In the previous section we saw how one concept is metaphorically struc-

tured in terms of another. Orientational conceptual metaphors do not
do this. Instead they organize a system of concepts with regard to one
another. They also represent non-arbitrary spatial relationships that have
a basis in our physical cultural experience and in our bodies and how
our bodies move in the space around us. In short, we can say that such
metaphors have an experiential basis. Such experiences are expressed in
abstract conceptualizations like IN–OUT, UP–DOWN, CENTRE–PERIPHERY. These
metaphors give concepts spatial orientations such as GOOD IS UP/HAPPY IS
UP and BAD IS DOWN/SAD IS DOWN, and in this sense they are closely linked
to the notion of image schemas discussed earlier. We have to be a little
careful here and say that although such metaphors hold for very many
cultures around the world, they do not hold for all. For example, in
the Western world the past is viewed as something behind one and the
future and something in front of one. This, however, may not univer-
sally be the case.3 Everyday expressions that underscore many of these
orientational metaphors include:
GOOD/HAPPY/MORE IS UP
● She is on a high
● I got the thumbs up
● That victory really boosted my spirits
● The more, the merrier
BAD/SAD/LESS IS DOWN
● Failing exams depresses him
● She has come down with the flu
● Her mood sank when she heard the news
● My expectations fell on seeing my grades
There is also a literal physical basis for many of these expressions. When
you are feeling good, parts of your body respond. Your eyes widen and
your eyebrows lift, as do the corners of your mouth to produce a smile.

This extends beyond the face to the shoulders and your general posture
that ‘perks up’. We literally ‘jump for joy’ when happy. Conversely,
in states of sadness and depression our face and posture droop. When
someone is ‘downcast’, their head is often literally angled downwards
and they are looking at the ground.
Such oriental conceptual metaphors are abundant in literary language,
too. In some of Shakespeare’s plays it has been convincingly shown that
orientational metaphors structure much of the story.4 For example, in
the play ‘Macbeth’ the story appears to be structured with many PATH
and CONTAINERR metaphors. For instance, at the beginning of the play
Lady Macbeth views herself and her husband as CONTAINERS. First she
says of her husband:
Yet I do fear thy nature;

It is too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness
To catch the nearest way. (I. v. 16–18)
In this attack on his masculinity, Macbeth’s body is the container and

the milk (of human kindness) is the fluid in that receptacle. In the same
section, Lady Macbeth sees her own body as a CONTAINERR filled with a
fortifying liquid that she wishes to pour out into her weak husband:
Hie thee hither,

That I may pour my spirits in thine ear,
And chastise with the valor of my tongue
All that impedes thee from the golden round
(I. v. 25–28)
This is further expanded on by Lady Macbeth with her famous

declaration:
Come, you spirits

That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,
And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full
Of direst cruelty! Make thick my blood;
Stop up the access and passage to remorse,
That no compunctious visitings of nature
Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between
The effect and it! (I. v. 40–47)
82 Michael Burke
5 Ontological conceptual metaphor
Above we saw how spatial orientation provides a rich basis for under-
standing metaphors in experiential terms. However, our experience of
physical objects and physical substances also gives us an extra dimen-
sion to understand metaphors that go beyond orientation. What we are
trying to understand here is how our bodily interaction with an object or
process provides us with a basis for ways of viewing activities, ideas, etc.
Let us start by looking at one of the default ontological conceptual meta-
phors that Lakoff and Johnson provide us with: THE MIND IS A MACHINE.
If we first stop and think what kind of qualities might be mapped from
source to target, we might come up with things that represent both the
positive and negative qualities of a machine. The former might include
the notions of repetitiveness, productivity, stability and cost-efficiency,
while the latter might include the need for regular human intervention/
maintenance and the danger that it might break down at any time. The
metaphor finds form in everyday utterances such as:
THE MIND IS A MACHINE
● I am a little rusty today

● She has had a mental breakdown
● I am really cranking out the ideas
The human mind and/or brain can have other underlying ontological
cognitive patterns. One that abounds in the contemporary intellec-
tual and business world is encapsulated in the metaphor THE MIND IS A
COMPUTER. In many ways this is the modern counterpart of the MIND IS
A MACHINE metaphor. Another example that is decidedly different is THE
MIND IS AN OCEAN. Here, we might expect that what will be mapped from
the source (ocean) to the target (mind) could include the notions of
fluidity, dynamism, rhythm, depth, profundity, unboundedness, etc.
Consider the following everyday utterances.
THE MIND IS AN OCEAN
● Her thoughts drifted back to a time she wished she had forgotten
● My mind has been awash with memories all day
● Once it hit him, he sank into deep thought
● She trawled the depths of her memory but couldn’t recall the
incident
● He was plunged into profound reflection

● Jane found the discussion absorbing
● At once her mind was filled with memories of her childhood
● He could not fathom what he saw as her inverted logic
Several of these examples do indeed here have aspects of dynamism and

rhythm, while others echo the notions of depth and profundity.
6 A conceptual metaphorical stylistic analysis of a poem
In the foregoing sections we have looked very briefly at how all three
types of conceptual metaphor are used in literary and other texts. A cogni-
tive stylistic analysis of one single text will now be conducted, focusing
on conceptual metaphor as the main analytical tool. The analysis will be
interspersed with hands-on learning activities. The text in question is a
poem by William Blake called “Ah! Sun-Flower”, from the book ‘Songs of
Experience’ (Blake, 1977). William Blake was an English poet, painter and
engraver who lived in London from 1757 to 1827. He was a forerunner of
English Romanticism and the themes in his work are often religious. He
was, and indeed still is, viewed as a kind of spiritual visionary.
Ah! Sun-Flower
Ah, Sun-flower! weary of time,
Who countest the steps of the Sun,
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveller’s journey is done:
Where the youth pined away with desire
And the pale Virgin shrouded in snow
Arise from their graves, and aspire
Where my Sun-flower wishes to go.
Activity 1
Before starting the analysis in earnest, ask your students to identify the basic
syntax of the poem. Questions you could pose include:
● How many sentences is this poem made up of?

● What is the main subject?
● What is the main verb?
84 Michael Burke
Once your students have identified the main constituent parts, ask them
to write the poem out as if it were prose discourse. This ‘recasting’ or ‘trans-
posing’ is an exercise that goes back to the progymnasmata rhetorical
schools of the ancient classical Roman world.5 Such an exercise will offer
your students an alternative view and also allow them to experience the
poem in a different setting, which should stimulate their critical thinking
capacities through their experience of a mild cognitive dissonance.
Activity 2
● Recast the poem as prose discourse.

● Does this prose presentation style make the text easier or more difficult to
understand?
● Discuss this in groups and argue either for or against the prose version as
the clearer of the two varieties of the text.
● Now recast the text as something modern: a blog post, a tweet, a text
message, etc. What effect does this have?
Your students should have been able to work out that despite the poem
being made up of two four-line stanzas, it is a single sentence with numerous
sub-clauses. This makes it somewhat difficult to read and understand – even
when recast in prose form. Your students will probably be a little confused
by the text. They may be wondering whether it is semantically logical or
not. To discover whether the text makes sense, ask your students to break
it up into smaller units, based on the prose version, and then comment
briefly on those units one by one. To show you what I mean, I have listed
below how I divided the text and how I commented on them.
• Unit 1: ‘Ah, sun-flower, weary of time, who countest the steps of

the sun;
In the first unit, above, we can see that the sunflower is the most impor-
tant referential noun in the first half of the text. Here, the sunflower has
become fatigued by time, seemingly through spending all day counting
the steps of the sun. The expression ‘weary of time’ means more than
simply being exhausted; it arguably means being tired of life itself. This
becomes clear in the next textual unit:
• Unit 2
2: seeking after that sweet golden clime, where the traveller’s
journey is done:
Here we see how the sunflower is longing for that sweet place where
there is no more travelling to be done. The word ‘golden’ arguably
suggests a sunset and thus a GOAL in the PATH structure. Indeed, in

everyday discourse ‘sunset years’ is a euphemism for old age leading
to death. The conceptual metaphor that starts to emerge here is LIFE IS
A JOURNEY. It also appears to be a tiring, even monotonous, journey. It is
as though the GOAL in this SOURCE–PATH–GOAL image schematic structure
is hard to attain.
Activity 3
● Work in groups to determine what the characteristics and properties are

that are mapped here from the source domain of ‘life’ to the target domain
of a ‘journey’.
● Compare what you have listed with other groups in your class. Is there any
consensus? Debate with each other what you have found.
● Now do the same for the following four examples and also invent two of
your own:
● Life is box of chocolates
● Life is a roller coaster
● Life is a bowl of miso soup
● Life is a manga comic
● Two of your own examples
● Can you also think of three everyday utterances in English that might
underlie the four conceptual metaphors listed above? (Of course, it may not
be possible for them all, as some are purposely somewhat far-fetched.)
• Unit 3: where the youth pined away with desire and the pale virgin
shrouded in snow, arise from their graves, and aspire where my
sunflower wishes to go.
In the third textual unit, the main referential noun changes: it is no

longer the sunflower, but the ‘clime’ that is now in focus. In effect, this
is a shift from the traveller in the PATH schema to the GOAL. Here, we
learn that in this place at the end of the journey, alluded to in the struc-
tural conceptual metaphor, a number of things have occurred. A youth
has died of something akin to lovesickness and both the youth and a
pale, snow-shrouded virgin apparently arise from their graves and aspire
or desire to go to the same place that the sunflower longs to go to. This
leaves us with a number of questions. Who is the youth? Who is the
virgin? Might they be the same person? And, perhaps most importantly,
does the story make really sense, semantically and grammatically?
The youth and the virgin referred to in the text probably have their
origins in Greek mythology; for example, the following story recounted
in a version of Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
86 Michael Burke
The story of Clytië
The nymph Clytië was in love with the sun-god Helios, but he rejected her advances
and took another lover, a girl called Leucothoë. Clytië then schemed against
Leucothoë, which led to her death. As a result, Helios’s attitude towards Clytië hard-
ened. Clytië then took herself away from him and sat on the cold ground without
food or water except for her own tears and the morning dew and spent her days
watching Helios ride in his chariot across the sky, from sunrise in the east to sunset
in the west. She looked at nothing else except the sun. After nine days of this pining,
her limbs became rooted to the ground and her face slowly turned into a flower. And
now when the sunflower follows the sun in its course across the sky, it is not merely
some elegant yellow bloom that takes this daily path, but Clytië, still pining for her
lost love, Helios.
If we take this as the basis for Blake’s story, then the youth and the virgin
both appear to refer to Clytië. But this is not possible in the poem, since
the poet uses the word ‘their’ in the poem instead of ‘her’ in the line
‘arise from theirr graves’. There is another problem. How can they be both
aspiring to be at the end of the journey and, rising from their graves, there
already? Added to this, we have the confusion that the word ‘aspire’ also
means ‘breathe’ as in ‘aspiration’, meaning the act or process of drawing
breath, from the Latin word aspiratus. The notions of breathing and death
or afterlife somehow sit uncomfortably together. We have to conclude
that there is a kind of ‘hole’ in the time framework and as a result a
kind of ‘fault’ in the JOURNEY. Whether the grammar is flawed or whether
the poet has consciously played with a sense of openness is something
we cannot know. We can, however, conclude for the time being that
although the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor has not been completely under-
mined by the inconsistencies in the text, it has been placed on somewhat
shaky ground.6 As a result of the above discussion, we can see another
structural metaphor emerging, namely LOVE IS A JOURNEY.
Activity 4
● Can you think of three examples (short sentences) from everyday English
that embody the above conceptual metaphor? Here is an example to get
you going: Their marriage had reached a dead end.
● Now think of at least two everyday examples (short sentences) like this in
your own language.
● Do the words used in the sentences fit well into either the source or target
domains?
● Do the words representing ‘journey’ differ at all across your examples? If
so, how?
We see here clearly how LOVERS ARE TRAVELLERS embarked on the same
journey. They have shared goals, namely a destination to be reached and
goals to be achieved on that journey. They travel together, as one, using
an unspecified mode of locomotion, but there are all kinds of impedi-
ments lying in wait that may bring the journey to a halt. Reflecting on
this, we see that our particular LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor involving
Clytië and Helios in the text is not the default kind, since there are a
number of inconsistencies. For example, although our two individuals
in the poem do indeed travel at the same speed and along the same
trajectory, from east to west, they do not travel in proximity but distally.
Other discrepancies include (i) the love is not mutual, (ii) the journey is
repeated on a daily basis, and (iii) the goals are not shared. We can there-
fore conclude that although the metaphor is most certainly activated at
the conceptual level it is not fully sustained in the language of the text.
It is helpful at this stage to step back and reflect on the fact that the
conceptual metaphorical notion that the movement of the sun in a day
can represent a life is not a modern or contemporary idea. The lines
below are written by the first-century Roman poet Catullus:
Let us live, my Lesbia, let us love,

And all the gossip of the crabbed old men
We’ll overvalue at a single farthing.
Although the sun can set and rise again;
For us when once our short-lived light has set,
There follows one unending night of sleep.7
This poetic fragment, originally in Latin, with its key reference to the
sun setting and rising again, shows us the diachronic nature of concep-
tual metaphors in poetry and in doing so supports the cogent argument
of underlying their embodied nature.
Let us return to the journey of our sunflower. There is a paradox in this
passage: although the sunflower takes part in the travelling, from SOURCE
along the PATH to GOAL, it is only her head that moves. Her ‘feet’ remain
rooted to the ground (literally) and in this sense there is no movement
and arguably no real journey, since journeying involves locomotion, not
simply looking. In literary texts, however, and in other everyday imagi-
native texts, creative licence is often taken, consciously or otherwise,
and, as a result, unusually foregrounded noun–verb juxtapositions can
occur. Of course, such juxtapositions are not limited to these two parts of
speech, but can involve adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions,
88 Michael Burke
etc. The lines below are from Jack London’s short story ‘A Day’s Lodging’.
They illustrate how the boundaries between two concepts, in this case
‘vision’ and ‘locomotion’, can be purposely blurred.
Again her eyes travelled around the room, and the terror in them
leaped up at sight of the other bunk
Here it is the eyes that do the travelling, not the legs – just as, in our poem,
it is the head of the flower that is in motion. But let us put our investiga-
tion into this structural conceptual metaphor on hold for a moment and
explore some of the main orientational conceptual metaphors in the text.
It will be recalled how GOOD IS UP and BAD IS DOWN are central embodied
phenomena in the way situations are envisioned and also realized through
linguistic expressions, especially in the West. The poet has to maintain
a strong sense of hope at the end of the poem, but he is faced with a
challenge, since the sun in its daily cycle does not only rise, but also
descends. Hence, that ‘sweet golden clime, where the traveller’s journey
is done’ can only be arrived at after a descent. In short, the end point in
the journey is the joint lowest point in the journey. As we have seen, BAD
IS DOWN, and if Blake were to have made literal mention of this descent in
the poem, he would surely have challenged the natural embodied view
of the world that his readers possess. So how does Blake get around this
obstacle? Well, he appears to use two linguistic devices. Consider again
the lines below.
Ah, Sun-flower! weary of time,

Who countest the steps of the Sun,
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveller’s journey is done. (Blake, 1977)
In these opening lines we learn from the poem’s speaker – who must be
close to the bloom or some pictorial representation of it in view of the
use of the interjection ‘ah!’ – that the sunflower is weary of time. If it is
weary, then it is probably starting to droop and if it is drooping, then
its body language is communicating to its viewer in paralinguistic terms
the BAD IS DOWN orientational metaphor. But there is an inconsistency
here as the head of the sunflower must remain erect and follow the
sun. Perhaps then it is the stalk and leaves that show signs of fatigue?
Whatever the reason, this Weltschmerz appears to be a direct result of the
head of the sunflower counting the steps of the sun.
Now ask yourself the following question: when you first read these lines
earlier in this chapter did you comprehend those steps as being counted (a)
upwards, (b) downwards, or (c) upwards and then downwards? Perhaps,
like me, when I first read the poem several years ago, you chose option
(a), namely ‘steps go up’. As a result of our embodied cognitive view of the
world, a word such as ‘steps’ or ‘stairs’ triggers the orientational metaphor
GOOD IS UP in the majority of readers. Blake, however, must be referring
to option (c) if he is remaining true to the movement of the sun across
the sky in its daily pattern. However, he appears to have cleverly evoked
the GOOD IS UP metaphor in us by limiting the information we are given,
i.e. he makes no explicit mention of the descent of the sun. The second
linguistic device Blake uses to help us to experience the GOOD IS UP meta-
phor is in his use of the word ‘clime’, a poetic word, meaning region or
place. Phonologically, the word ‘clime’ and the word ‘climb’ (meaning
‘to ascend’) are homophones. This means that they have the same sound
when spoken aloud. It is arguably this that persuades us to read the steps,
referred to in the previous line, as going upwards, not up and then down.
This is plausibly how a modern reader will experience it.8
Let us now reflect on the main points of this cognitive stylistic analysis.
We have thus far encountered a number of inconsistencies that appear
to question the validity of our overriding LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor.
Through the intervention of competing alternatives at the linguistic
level, the notion of LIFE IS A JOURNEYY, and its contextualized parallel meta-
phors A DAY IS A HUMAN LIFE and/or THE DAILY MOVEMENT OF A SUNFLOWER
IS A HUMAN LIFE CYCLE, somehow becomes jarred. This partial blockage
allows a complementary, rather than competing, structural conceptual
metaphor to emerge, namely LIFE IS A CIRCLE. This idea of circularly is
supported by the textual evidence, not least by the idea that the youth
and the virgin are paradoxically born from the grave.
So, to sum up this analysis, unfortunately for the sunflower, the LIFE
IS A JOURNEY metaphor – with the kind of delimited SOURCE–PATH–GOAL
structure that applies to us all – has become a LIFE IS A CIRCLE experience.
This is backed up literally in the opening line with the reference to being
‘weary of time’ and indeed the very utterance ‘Ah!’, which is not merely
the opening word in the opening line of the poem, but also the opening
word in the poem’s title as well. LIFE IS A CIRCLE can be a curse, a living
hell – as Prometheus knew all too well, and as did the protagonist played
by Bill Murray in the film ‘Groundhog Day’. Clytië, our sunflower girl,
appears to be caught in this pattern. However, it can in a way also be a
blessing. The notion of renewal and rebirth is the basis of some of the
major religions of the world, such as Hinduism and Buddhism. It is also
90 Michael Burke
a comforting theme, which many literary texts embody and project. A

fine example can be found in the poem ‘The Trees’ by Phillip Larkin,
which relates to the way trees accumulate hidden rings as evidence of
their power of rebirth. Such evidence of renewal stirs the speaking voice
in the final line of the poem to demand of his listeners and readers, in
an emotive rhetorical style, to begin life ‘afresh, afresh, afresh’.
7 Conceptual metaphor activities
7.1 Unpacking conceptual metaphor in song lyrics

Based on what you have learned try unpacking the conceptual metaphors
in the song ‘The Long and Winding Road’ by the Beatles mentioned earlier
in the chapter. Explore all the possibilities of what is mapped when, to
where, and why. You might extend this into a full stylistic analysis.
7.2 Unpacking conceptual metaphor in drama

Putting your students into groups of three or four, ask them to analyse the
text fragment below from Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar. First, have them
identify the main conceptual metaphors underpinning the text. Then ask
them which of the three categories they think they belong to: structural,
orientational or ontological. Also have them reflect on the extent to which
the notion ‘carpe diem’ resonates in their own culture. Repeat the exercise
with a text from a play written originally in your own native language.
There is a tide in the affairs of men

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;
Omitted, all the voyage of their life
Is bounded in shallows and in miseries.
On such a full sea we are now afloat,
And we must take the current when it serves
Or lose our ventures. (Act 4, scene 3, 218–224)
7.3 Creating and testing new conceptual metaphors

Consider the following conceptual metaphor, ‘as mad as cheese’ (which
formally speaking is a simile), which I have just made up. In conceptual
metaphorical terms it is MADNESS IS CHEESE and could be used in a sentence
like ‘My English linguistics professor is as mad as cheese’. Ask yourself:
does this metaphor have some conceptual metaphorical potential and,
if so, how culturally determined is it? Try jotting down what might be
mapped from source to target. This can be done on the whiteboard by a
group of two or three students and then the whole class can comment,
adding and subtracting properties. A lively critical debate among your
students is what you should be aiming for. Now ask them (a) to do the
same for the three invented conceptual metaphors below, and (b) to
come up with three of their own (or cite them from a poem or piece of
prose). This can be set for homework but should be discussed in class the
week after within the framework of a critical dialogue.
(a) LIFE IS A PIECE OF SANDPAPER

(b) BRAINS ARE PORRIDGE
(c) WAR IS SUDOKU
8 Conclusion
Much excellent pedagogical work has been conducted in the domains

of (conceptual) metaphor and (literary) stylistics. In this chapter, I have
attempted to blend the two approaches. My aim has not been simply
to suggest strategies to extend the vocabulary of L2 English learners but
also to encourage and to foster a deeper level of learning in students.
This has been done by asking learners to consider the nature of under-
lying conceptual metaphor in literature and other creative texts and
crucially by getting them to unpack and consciously process the proper-
ties that are mapped from source domains to target domains and then to
discuss these choices. Such a critical discussion will lead to a deeper level
of learning, resulting in better levels of encoding, storage and recall. It is
hoped that L2 and EFL researchers might be inspired to explore further
the educational potential of conceptual metaphor within the frame-
work of (cognitive) stylistics analysis, for there is a fruitful pedagogical
journey awaiting us in this domain that has scarcely begun.
Notes
1. It has been observed that these ideas pertaining to conceptual metaphor theory
are not as new as Lakoff and Johnson thought and that many writers and
philosophers before them, including Bacon, Vico and Nietzsche, had made
similar arguments (see Wales’ discussion of ‘conceptual metaphor theory’
(2011: 65) for more on this).
2. Image schemas are recurring structures within our cognitive processes that
establish patterns of understanding and reasoning. They are formed from our
bodily interactions (from linguistic experience) and from historical context
(see Johnson, 1987). Categories include ‘force’, ‘spatial motion’ and ‘balance’.
The ‘spatial motion’ group contains such schemas as ‘containment’, ‘path’,
‘blockage’, ‘centre–periphery’, ‘cycle’, ‘cyclic climax’ and ‘source–path–goal’.
92 Michael Burke
3. For example, in Aymara, which is an Amerindian language spoken in the Andean

highlands of Bolivia, Peru and Chile, the word for front (eye/sight) is used to
express past time and the word for back (eye/sight) expresses future time (Núñez
and Sweetser 2006). More commonly, ‘time’ in some major East Asian languages
like Korean, Mandarin and Japanese is expressed vertically rather than horizon-
tally. So something from the past is above rather than behind and something in
the future is below rather than ahead. This leads to expressions like ‘up-week’
(for ‘last week’) and ‘down-week’ (for ‘next week)’. (Radden 2011).
4. See Freeman (1993; 1995).
5. For more on the pedagogical learning methods of the ancient rhetorical
progymnasmata see Kennedy (2003). For a related modern take on this see
Pope (1994).
6. Interestingly, from an etymological point for view, the word ‘journey’ (related
to the French jour) r is similar to the word ‘daily’ in that it used to mean ‘a
day’s work’ or ‘a day’s travel’. This second notion ties in neatly with the daily
progression of the sun and the sunflower in the Greek myth on which the
poem is based. Hence, ‘love is a journey’ becomes ‘love is the travelling/
progression done in a single day’.
7. Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
rumoresque senum severiorum
omnes unius aestimemus assis.
soles occidere et redire possunt:
nobis cum semel occidit brevis lux,
nox est perpetua una dormienda.
8. Whether or not these lexical and phonological criteria counted for the late-
18th-century reader is something that would require detailed diachronic read-
er-reception research, which you are encouraged to explore further.
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6
Playing with Words and Pictures:
Using Post-modernist Picture
Books as a Resource with Teenage
and Adult Language Learners
Gillian Lazar
1 Introduction
In recent decades, there has been an upsurge of interest in the use

of literary texts to promote English language learning in classrooms
(see, for example, Carter and McRae, 1996; Duff and Maley, 1990;
Hall, 2005; Paran, 2006; Parkinson and Reid Thomas, 2000). While
much of the academic literature and many classroom materials have
generally conceived of literary texts as poems, short stories, novels
and plays, Paran (2006) argues that many classroom practitioners
are making use of a much wider range of genres than previously,
including fairy tales, popular songs, popular literature, autobio-
graphical narratives and children’s literature. Children’s literature
has either been integrated into teacher education programmes in
order to develop both teachers’ linguistic competence and pedagogic
skills (McNicholls, 2006; Martin, 2006), or been used with children
to promote their language development, particularly in the case of
picture books (Enever, 2006). While Ho (2000) makes the case for the
value of using children’s literature in general with adult learners of
English, the potential for using picture books with teenage and adult
learners of English does not appear to have been considered. There
are some obvious reasons for this.
First, many picture books are clearly targeted at an implied reader who
is a young child, as well as featuring children as the protagonists. Second,
as picture books are supposedly targeting a very young audience, the
94
Playing with Words and Pictures 95
topics and themes might be irrelevant to the interests of older readers

and these readers may understandably feel that they are being infanti-
lized if such books are used in language lessons. In addition, the language
in picture books might be deemed to be irrelevant to the needs of the
teenage or adult language learner, either because it includes the kinds
of nonsense words or archaisms found in nursery rhymes, or because it
specifically targets young children and focuses on lexical areas such as
the names of toys or animals. Despite these apparent difficulties, this
chapter sets out to explore whether, and in what ways, certain types
of post-modernist picture books could be used as a rich resource with
teenage and adults learning English.
2 Features of post-modernist picture books
Bader (1976: 1; cited in Lewis, 2001: 1) describes a picture book as

‘text, illustrations and total design’, and as an art form which ‘hinges
on the interdependence of pictures and words, on the simultaneous
display of two facing pages, and on the drama of the turning of the
page.’ Many others have built upon this definition, arguing that
picture books have a dual quality, and communicate at two levels,
the visual and the verbal, which interact synergistically with each
other to create a complex semiotic system (Kiefer, 2008). Lewis (2001:
35) refers to Meek’s notion that pictures and words interanimate each
other (Meek, 1992: 176, 177), so that the meaning of one is only fully
comprehended with reference to the other, although the specific way
in which pictures and words interact differs from one type of picture
book to another. This interaction between words and pictures has been
the subject of scholarly attention, with attempts to distinguish and
categorize the different ways in which this relationship manifests itself
(Lewis, 2001).
One distinction that is particularly useful for the purposes of this
chapter is that made by Nikolajeva (2010), who differentiates between
readerly and writerly picture books by drawing on Barthes’s distinc-
tion between readerly and writerly texts. According to Nikolajeva, the
former is based on codes common to authors and readers, in which
the visual images are purely decorative or even redundant in that they
simply duplicate the verbal text, while the latter breaks conventions
and encourages readers’ interpretations, frequently because there is a
disjuncture or contradiction between the written text and the image,
which leads to ambiguity or indeterminacy of meaning. Such texts bear
one of the defining features of post-modernism, in that they lead to
96 Gillian Lazar
a multiplicity of meanings and therefore generate multiple interpreta-

tions by readers. One picture book often mentioned in this regard is
Black and White by David Macaulay, in which each page is divided into
four stories, communicated in four distinctive visual styles ‘that may or
may not be connected’ (Lewis, 2001: 63). The frontispiece even includes
a warning, which says: ‘This book appears to contain a number of stories
that do not necessarily occur at the same time. But it may contain only
one story. Then again, there may be four stories. Or four parts of a story.’
The onus is therefore on the reader to decide, through the ‘careful
inspection’ recommended in the frontispiece, whether the stories are
connected and, if so, how.
A number of other features of post-modernism have been identi-
fied in contemporary picture books. In addition to communicating
multiple meanings, they are considered to break boundaries: for
example, in blurring the distinctions between ‘popular’ and ‘high’
culture as well as between literary genres (Pantaleo and Sipe, 2008).
Boundary-breaking is also seen when ‘characters within a story are
allowed by their author to wander beyond the narrative level to
which they properly belong’ (Lewis, 2001: 94). For example, in The
Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales by Jon Scieszka and
Lane Smith, which is often cited as the quintessential post-modernist
children’s book (Stevenson 1994; cited in Pantaleo and Sipe, 2008),
a little red hen asks another character, seen in the illustration, for
help to plant a kernel of wheat. The character answers that, as he is
Jack the narrator, he is unable to help her plant the wheat as he is ‘a
very busy guy trying to put a book together.’ In the same children’s
book, another key feature of post-modernism is illustrated. This is
a high level of intertextuality, which is made explicit through both
parody and pastiche (Pantaleo and Sipe, 2008; Lewis, 2001). The
book draws on the conventions of well known fairy stories in English
but subverts them in a playful, humorous manner, through both
the written text and the visuals. This playfulness is also mentioned
as a key feature of post-modernist picture books in that it invites
readers to treat the text as a ‘semiotic playground’ (Pantaleo and
Sipe, 2008: 3), often by drawing attention, in a highly self-conscious
manner, to metafictive devices which reveal the fabricated nature
of texts (Pantaleo, 2008). Thus, in The Stinky Cheese Man and other
Fairly Stupid Tales, the traditional children’s story of Chicken Licken
is apparently being narrated. But, rather than the sky falling on all
the characters, as happens in the traditional tale, it is the book’s
Table of Contents which falls on the characters’ heads, and then
appears, as a recognizable listing, a number of pages into the book,

rather than at the beginning.
Hence, we can see that a cluster of characteristics are present in post-
modernist children’s books, including multiplicity of meaning, subver-
sion of literary conventions, explicit focus on intertextuality leading
to pastiche or parody, and self-conscious drawing of attention to the
text as text. One final feature that has been mentioned is that of excess
(Lewis, 2001), in which norms are often disregarded so that the bounds
of realism are pushed to extremes, and reality is replaced by meta-
phors. Lewis mentions a well known picture book by Hiawyn Oram and
Satoshi Kitamura called Angry Arthurr, in which a child’s rage at not being
allowed to watch television results in typhoons and earthquakes, the
perfect metaphor for an infant’s experience of fury as boundless and
catastrophic. Of course, not all post-modernist picture books include
all the characteristics mentioned. This has led Pantaleo and Sipe (2008:
4) to state that it makes sense to ‘think of picture books as located along
a continuum of postmodernism’, some having all the attributes, while
others may only have one or two. This is pertinent in that the books
selected for use with language learners discussed later in this chapter do
not all contain each and every characteristic of post-modernism.
3 Why use picture books with teenage and

adult language learners?
I have already mentioned some of the reasons why the use of picture
books with teenage or adult learners has been overlooked. One central
objection is that picture books feature child protagonists and the implied
reader is a child. However, as we shall see, if carefully selected, certain
post-modernist picture books circumvent this issue as they feature
some child protagonists, but they also feature adult and non-human
protagonists. More importantly, the sophisticated way in which they
play with multi-vocal narrative and literary conventions suggests that
the implied reader is not only the child, but the adult reading the book
with them. In fact, some commentators argue that picture books no
longer represent a genre exclusively directed at small children. Bjorvand
(2010), for example, mentions the Norwegian picture book Sinna Mann
((Angry Man), which is directed at both children and adults. The book
was written in response to the request by a counsellor who wanted a text
that could be used as a therapeutic tool, both with children living with
violence in their families and with violent parents. In any case, it has
been pointed out that for many writers and illustrators of picture books,
98 Gillian Lazar
the question of what audience they are writing for is often seen as irrel-
evant. Salisbury (2008), himself an illustrator, emphasizes that a number
of highly original artists, among them the Australian Shaun Tan, have
chosen to work in the medium of picture books. In answer to the ques-
tion ‘Who do you write and illustrate for?’, Tan says that ‘It’s a little
difficult to answer, as it’s not something I think about much when I’m
working alone in a small studio, quite removed from any audience at
all’ (Tan; cited in Salisbury, 2010: 38). This emphasis on the creation of
the picture book as an expressive object is borne out by Zipes (2002: 43),
who states that, in common with all authors, authors of children’s books
‘write primarily to conceptualize and materialize, through symbols and
signs, experiences and psychic fantasies, what their existence is and
why, and whether it is meaningful.’ Consequently, it can be argued that
a picture book, communicating the vision of its creator emotionally
and aesthetically, should be seen as an ‘art object’, rather than as just a
pedagogic tool, aimed specifically at children in order, for example, to
teach them how to read. In that sense, using a well chosen picture book
means exposing learners to an authentic text from which they can derive
aesthetic pleasure and emotional engagement and which is often more
motivating than the fabricated language and rather contrived narratives
which may be found in English language textbooks.
In addition to their use in exposing learners to an authentic cultural
product, many post-modernist picture books can be used to facilitate
language acquisition. Many of them are short, which means that their
language load is not overwhelming for lower-level learners, in terms of
either reception or production. As Enever (2006: 60) puts it, ‘meaning
is carried by pictures, so there is less need for elaboration.’ The value of
using visual images alongside literary texts is mentioned in Chapter 11
of this volume, and picture books clearly have an advantage in this
regard, particularly for students who are non-readers, in both English
and their mother tongue. Encouraging such students to work with
picture books could be the first step in a graduated syllabus, which moves
towards using more complex literary texts. On the other hand, while
the language load might be fairly simple in picture books, the complex
interaction between image and text will require high-level interpretive
work, engaging the reader in a process of inferencing and making inter-
pretations based on both visual and verbal evidence. In an empirical
study, Sipe (2008: 234) concludes that a cohort of young children accom-
plished ‘a great deal of interpretive work’ in a class discussion of a post-
modernist text, David Wiesner’s The Three Little Pigs. Interestingly, this
conclusion chimes closely with Widdowson’s view that using literary
texts with adult learners promotes the development of ‘sense-making’

procedures (cited in Brumfit and Carter, 1986: 14). Widdowson argues
that one of the benefits of exposing learners to literary texts is that they
demand a high level of interpretive engagement, and that this is likely
to have benefits in other areas of language learning, such as guessing
word meaning from context or interpreting the nuances in conversa-
tional English.
A further reason for using post-modernist picture books with teenage
and adult learners of English is the cultural exposure this affords. Clearly,
a children’s book does not provide an accurate documentary rendering
of the society in which it is produced. Nevertheless, exposure to picture
books can give teenage and adult language learners more of an ‘insider
view’ of how life might be lived in other societies. It may also provide
learners with a glimpse of how a particular society views childhood and
the values that adults can be seen to be transmitting to children through
picture books. In fact, picture books have been described as ‘a key means
of apprenticeship into literacy, literature and social values’ (Painter
et al., 2013: 1). By laying bare the elements of this apprenticeship, they
become a useful classroom resource for discussion and cross-cultural
comparison. In the case of post-modernist picture books, making sense
of cultural content might be particularly challenging, since some of
the material in the book may arise from parody or intertextuality, and
learners will therefore need to have some knowledge of the other texts
(both verbal and visual) that are being referenced in order to appreciate
the parody or intertextual linkages. This has implications for the design
of materials used with such books, as does another feature of post-
modernist picture books – the way in which they play with or subvert
literary conventions. Ho (2000) has suggested that children’s literature
is an excellent resource for developing learners’ literary competence,
i.e. their understanding of the features of different literary genres, and
the conventions we use to make sense of these. However, in order to
understand how a convention is being subverted, the learner needs to
know what the convention is. Thus, while students in certain parts of
the world (such as India or Singapore) may have some knowledge of the
cultural and literary conventions which a text written in English both
draws on and subverts, students in other parts of the world may lack
this knowledge. The teacher, therefore, needs to ensure that the picture
books chosen are not so far out of the students’ frame of reference as to
be completely baffling or demotivating. He or she also needs to ensure
that the materials designed to exploit the texts in class take account of
the need for some cultural input. For example, one of the texts discussed
100 Gillian Lazar
later on, The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon, takes as its starting
point the children’s nursery rhyme Hey Diddle Diddle. Students would
need to be familiarized with this nursery rhyme before they can begin
to make sense of the text itself.
It is something of a truism now to say that the internet is exposing
language learners to a plethora of multi-modal texts, incorporating
both written and spoken texts, as well as all manner of visual signs
and images. Given that readers in the contemporary world need to be
critical of verbal, visual and auditory material, developing a critical
response to visual images should also be considered an educational
goal. Close reading of post-modernist children’s books in class might
be one way of recognizing that nowadays our learners are frequently
multimodal readers, who need to interpret and evaluate both verbal
and visual texts.
Finally, using post-modernist children’s books with language learners
offers many opportunities for classroom creativity. As we have seen,
such books are often seen as incorporating a high level of playfulness,
both verbally and visually. Play is generally identified as an activity for
children, facilitating their emotional, cognitive and physical develop-
ment. Yet exposure to playful texts can be a way of generating an expan-
sive creativity in learners of all ages, encouraging them to experiment
with language and take risks in trying out new grammar structures or
new vocabulary.
4 Suggestions for using picture books
Given the features of post-modernist picture books described above, I

believe that they offer teachers a rich classroom resource for developing
students’ linguistic and cultural awareness and their capacity for inter-
pretation. Such picture books could be used with both teenage and adult
learners from the early intermediate to the advanced stages of language
learning, in both schools and colleges around the world. Books could
be either used as one-offs, linked to relevant topics in a language course
(e.g. with a group of teenagers at school), or more systematically to
stimulate language acquisition and develop a wider knowledge of chil-
dren’s literature in English (e.g. for trainee teachers or literature majors
at college). Individual educators will need to decide which picture books
may be appropriate for their learners, in terms of language level as well
as cultural and literary content. Having chosen appropriate texts, the
teacher should consider what types of activity could be used in the class-
room to exploit the texts.
I would therefore like to make some suggestions about the kinds

of activity teachers might utilize when using picture books. So I have
chosen three well known picture books published in English. The first
is Anthony Browne’s Voices in the Park, published in 1998, and winner
of the Kurt Maschler ‘Emil’ Award 1998 for ‘a work of imagination in
the children’s field in which text and illustration are of excellence and
so presented that each enhances and yet balances the other’ (Lewis,
2001: 2). Anthony Browne is an internationally acclaimed children’s
author and illustrator with more than 40 titles to his name, and was the
Children’s Laureate in the UK from 2009 to 2011. My second choice is
Mimi Grey’s The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon, winner of the Kate
Greenaway Medal from professional librarians in 2007, which recog-
nizes the best illustrated book in the UK for that year. This picture book
has been adapted as a children’s musical, as has been the third choice,
Shaun Tan’s The Red Tree (2001). Tan is a renowned Australian writer
and illustrator, who has won numerous awards including the prestigious
2011 Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award, given by the Swedish govern-
ment. I have chosen these three titles not only for their obvious literary
merits and their capacity to engage learners of English both cognitively
and imaginatively, but also because they will enable teachers to explore
some of the post-modernist features described earlier, including multi-
vocal narration (Voices in the Park), intertextuality and parody of popular
genres (The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon) and the use of evocative
images to convey extreme mental states (The Red Tree). In addition, all
three titles are sufficiently well known for there to be numerous supple-
mentary online resources available for teachers wishing to use them,
including reviews, authors’ websites, visual images and videos. A number
of activities for scaffolding such creative classroom activities will now be
suggested in relation to these three very different picture books.
5 Activities using picture books
5.1 Voices in the Park

Anthony Browne’s Voices in the Park is a multi-vocal narrative, in which
four characters, with human bodies and the faces of apes, tell an appar-
ently simple story, each from their own perspective. The first voice
is that of Charles’s mother, a stiffly formal and rather distant upper-
class character, while the contrasting second voice is that of Smudge’s
father, who is unemployed and depressed. Both these adult characters
take their children Charles, a repressed and lonely boy, and Smudge,
a cheerful and optimistic girl, for a walk in the park, accompanied by
102 Gillian Lazar
their dogs Victoria and Albert. While neither adult interacts with the
other, the dogs play energetically with each other. After a tentative start,
the children also play happily with each other, until Charles’s mother
cuts short their games, as she does not want her child to play with ‘a
very rough-looking child’ (Browne, 1998). This seemingly simple narra-
tive thus provides ‘multiple perspectives on social stratification and the
resulting economic inequalities’ (Lehr, 2008: 165).
Each voice in the narrative is richly conveyed through specific
linguistic choices. Stephens (1999: 73) has argued that ‘the most perva-
sive concern of children’s literature is the representation of SELF’, the
subjectivity of which is conveyed through the narrator in the text.
According to Stephens, this subjectivity can be analysed through
stylistics. Thus, Charles’s mother, the first voice, uses a formal, rather
old-fashioned register throughout and a lexicon that conveys strong
disapproval of Smudge, her father and their dog, who are described as
‘frightful types’ and ‘a scruffy mongrel’. In a telling linguistic reversal,
she uses the type of command given to a dog when addressing her son
Charles, telling him to ‘sit’. In contrast, the language used by Smudge’s
father is colloquial, personal and affectionate towards his daughter.
Moreover, the personalities and emotions of the different voices are
conveyed not only linguistically but also visually, the pictures for each
voice employing a very different visual style, as well as typeface. Thus,
Charles’s story is communicated in a simple grey font while the pictures
in his story are initially lacking in colour, until his increasing confi-
dence and happiness while playing with Smudge are signified through
delicate pastels. In contrast, the pictures for Smudge’s voice are exuber-
antly colourful while her story is told in a black, rather spiky typeface.
This interweaving of language and visuals creates complex meanings.
For example, while Charles’s mother claims that Albert is a ‘horrible
thug’ who chases Victoria all over the park, it is clear from the pictures
that Victoria is equally happy chasing Albert. The book thus affords
many opportunities for interpretive engagement, as students attempt to
decode how language is used to represent each character, and how visual
images are utilized to either reinforce or contradict the text. An addi-
tional element is Browne’s hallmark: the use of surrealist images, often
borrowed from the works of Magritte, such as lampposts, bowler hats
and trees in strange shapes. These playful images draw the reader into
a magical but perplexing world, inviting multiple interpretations about
the meanings of the images. While a plethora of activities could be used
with this picture book, those itemized below focus on close stylistic
analysis of the text and close visual analysis of the pictures.
Figure 6.1 Third Voice (Charles) from Anthony Browne’s ‘Voices in the Park’
Pre-reading activity
1. Students are given the opening lines of each voice in the park. For
example, Charles’s mother says, ‘It was time to take Victoria, our
pedigree Labrador, and Charles, our son, for a walk.’ Smudge’s father,
on the other hand, says: ‘I needed to get out of the house, so me and
Smudge took the dog to the park.’ In groups, students discuss the
following questions: Who do you think is saying these words? What
kind of person do you think they are? Why? What differences in
language do you notice between these characters? What do you think
is the relationship between them? Why?
104 Gillian Lazar
Figure 6.2 Fourth Voice (Smudge) from Anthony Browne’s ‘Voices in the Park’
While-reading activities
2. The teacher reads the story aloud once and asks students to confirm
their predictions about the characters. Then it is read again, this time
pausing to discuss every page in detail, focusing on the relationship
between text and image. Possible questions are: What does the char-
acter say? What can you see in the picture? What colours are used?
What does the body language of the characters in the picture show?
What is the composition of the picture? Do you notice anything
strange or unusual? What typeface is the text written in and what
does this signify?
3. While the text is read aloud again, the students are asked to write
the words used to describe the dogs in the story. Who uses them and
what do these words tell us about that character?
Post-reading activities
4. Students discuss the text in groups, using these questions: How are
the lives and relationships of Smudge and her father different from
those of Charles and his mother? What do you think this tells you
about modern British society? Could a similar story take place in your
home town/city? If not, why not?
5. Students are asked to choose their favourite ‘voice’ in the story and
explain why. Using this voice, they should write a short story about
what happens the next day.
5.2 The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon

In contrast to Voices in the Park, The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon by
Mimi Grey employs a single narrative voice in a book dense with inter-
textual references and parody of literary and cinematic genres. The book
begins with a frontispiece located in the benign world of an old-fashioned
children’s nursery, with an illustration of an open book featuring the well
known English children’s nursery rhyme Hey Diddle Diddle. However, the
rhyme is not complete, since the last line, ‘And the dish ran away with
the spoon’, is left out, and the book then offers a narrative based on this
line by describing the adventures of the dish and the spoon. In a series of
illustrations with short lines of text, the couple is seen leaving behind the
white cliffs of Dover to cross the ocean to New York, where they become
a popular travelling show. But due to the extravagance of the Dish (capi-
talized as a name in the narrative), who loves jewellery and furs, they
lose all their money and are forced to borrow from a criminal gang of
‘sharp and shady characters’ (pictured as aggressive knives). The rest of
the narrative details their misfortunes, including their participation in a
bank robbery, the deportation of the Dish and the prison sentence of the
Spoon. Finally, however, there is a happy ending: they are miraculously
reunited in a junk shop many years later. The narrative thus draws on a
series of popular genres and clichés, which are parodied in quite cinematic
106 Gillian Lazar
images – the immigrants’ arrival in New York, the rags-to-riches rise of

the showbiz celebrity, criminal gang intimidation leading to a bank heist
and finally a Rip Van Winkle return to a changed world after imprison-
ment. Underscoring all these mini-scenarios is the romantic love story of
the Dish and the Spoon. A further element of parody in the books is the
jokey play on the conventions of written texts, including a wanted poster
for criminals, identity cards and even the sign for a begging cup, which
says ‘jug and 8 saucers to support’. All of these elements can be exploited
in the following classroom activities:
Pre-reading
1. The students read and discuss the English nursery rhyme Hey Diddle
Diddle. They are asked to discuss similar nonsense rhymes in their
own language and why they are popular with children.
2. As the main protagonists in the narrative are crockery and cutlery,
the teacher reviews this lexical area in English with the students,
perhaps by bringing in real examples. This may also lead to an inter-
esting discussion about the different eating utensils used in different
parts of the world and how this might relate to the different kinds of
food eaten.
3. The students are given photocopies of two visual side-panels from the
book, showing the Dish and the Spoon arriving in New York Harbour
in front of the Statue of Liberty and living the high life. In pairs, they
are asked to make predictions about the story.
While-reading
4. The story is read aloud by the teacher a number of times, if neces-

sary explaining any unfamiliar vocabulary to the students and giving
students time to examine the visual images on each page in detail
and to discuss them.
5. Since the narrative seems to draw on a number of Western cinematic
genres, such as that of the bank heist and romantic love, students
could suggest what kind of music might be appropriate for each page
if the story was made into a film.
6. Students could be asked to research in dictionaries the double mean-
ings of words used both literally and metaphorically in the text, such
as the description of the gang of thieves/knives as ‘sharp characters’,
or the dish and the spoon as ‘broken’ after they are arrested by the
police.
Post-reading
7. Students could be asked to come up with a ‘moral’ for the story, which
encapsulates key themes, such as ‘Crime never pays’, ‘You only live
once’ or ‘Love never dies’.
8. Students could be asked to consider any (line from a) children’s song
or rhyme in their own language that has the potential to kick-start
a narrative. In groups, they then write the story before reading it to
the class.
5.3 The Red Tree

The visual humour in The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon contrasts
sharply with the mood of Shaun Tan’s evocative picture book, The Red
Tree. This story begins with a girl waking up in her bedroom where dark
leaves (or possibly strange winged creatures?) are starting to fall. The first
line of text is: ‘sometimes the day begins with nothing to look forward
to’, and a series of double-page spreads then suggest mental states such
as loneliness, depression, isolation and boredom. Finally, though, at the
end of the day and the end of the book, the narrator returns to her
bedroom to be greeted by a ‘bright and vivid’ red tree, symbolising hope
and renewal.
Since much of the power of this picture book resides in its images, in
terms of classroom activities it may be best to simply read the text aloud
a number of times, giving students the chance to absorb and comment
on each image. During one of the readings, students could be asked to
write down some of the negative words in the text (e.g. nothing, g terrible
fates, bad to worse, troubles, darkness), which heavily outweigh the posi-
tive words (wonderful things, bright and vivid).
d They could also be asked
to suggest reasons for the narrator’s state of mind, and to comment on
the kind of representation of childhood conveyed in the book. Finally, if
appropriate for this cohort of learners, students could be asked to choose
another emotion (e.g. anger or contentment) and develop their own
artwork to convey this, using art materials or even images downloaded
from the internet.
6 Conclusion
As I have tried to show, post-modernist picture books offer numerous

classroom opportunities to develop linguistic and cultural awareness
and interpretive strategies in both teenage and adult learners of English.
The playful creativity evident in these texts can be used to generate tasks
108 Gillian Lazar
enhancing students’ own creativity. However, a number of issues need

to be explored further.
First of all, in order to develop appropriate classroom activities, we
need more detailed case studies of how teenage and adult learners
respond in practice to picture books, following the methodologies used
to research children’s responses (see, for example, Sipe, 2008; Arizpe,
2010). A pilot of some of the activities suggested above carried out with
two classes of Science and Technology majors at a university by Professor
Yuka Kusanagi1 suggests that Japanese learners respond very favourably
to activities such as writing their own story based on a Japanese rhyme
that has been translated (The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon), or
creating artwork in response to a text (The Red Tree). In this pilot, the
students, whose English level equated to TOEIC 400, were asked to write
interpretations of the texts and comments about the activities. While a
number of students said that it was difficult to understand the texts and
illustrations, many commented positively, as is demonstrated by these
quotes from students, translated from Japanese by Kusanagi:
The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon (Translation of a rhyme from
the Japanese, followed by story writing)
‘Even picture books can tell us something. I could think while reading.’
‘I couldn’t imagine the story from the rhyme. It was an interpreting
story because I couldn’t guess what the story was about from glancing
at the first illustration.’
‘I enjoyed thinking how to translate the rhyme I used to like. It was
very enjoyable for me to create my own story and it made it possible
for me to observe rhyme from various points of view.’
‘Translating the Japanese nursery rhyme revealed that the translation
means the same but it doesn’t sound right in English. But translation
helped me analyse the meaning of the rhyme deeply.’
‘I enjoyed it very much and learned from classmates, who presented
rhymes and created interesting stories.’
The Red Tree (Making an artwork)
‘It was a very i’nteresting book. I could use my imagination because

there were some odd points.’
‘I couldn’t develop my imagination on my own when I was reading,
but seeing others’ works helped me to do that.’
‘I enjoyed the activity because it was the first time I had had a group
discussion after reading this type of book.’
‘I had surprises and discoveries from the different images created in

collage works by classmates.’
‘It was good to see individual students’ unique images.’
‘It is good for us to draw our own images. It helps us to understand
the book.’
‘Picture books are interesting because there is room for readers to
think freely by themselves.’
Overall, the student comments suggest that the activities undertaken

were fun, enjoyable and interesting. Students appreciated that they
encouraged an imaginative response as well as close interaction with
classmates. While this pilot is clearly very promising, more studies need
to be undertaken with students of different ages and levels of proficiency
in English.
A second issue which needs to be investigated further is that of
cross-cultural differences in processing visual images. As Arizpe (2010)
comments, more research is needed to explore how particular ways of
‘reading’ images in different cultures might influence the way in which
‘Western’ images are read. On a more practical level, we need to iden-
tify picture books that might be appropriate for use with both teenagers
and adults and that can be used alongside the picture books available
in the students’ own language to extend students’ linguistic exper-
tise and broaden their imagination. For example, teachers working in
Japan might wish to use picture books in English, alongside those by
Mitsumasa Anno and Susumi Shingu for instance, to engage in cross-
cultural comparisons, while simultaneously encouraging their learners
to enjoy the aesthetic pleasure derived from the interaction of text and
visuals.
Note
1. I would like to express my deep appreciation and thanks to Professor Yuka
Kusanagi for piloting some of my ideas for activities with her students,
and for allowing me to include her students’ comments in this chapter. I
would also like to thank the students for participating in this preliminary
study.
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A. Paran (ed.) Literature in Language Teaching and Learningg, 87–100. Alexandria,
Virginia: TESOL.
McNicholls, S. (2006) ‘Using Enchantment: Children’s Literature in an EFL
Teacher Education Context’ in A. Paran (ed.) Literature in Language Teaching and
Learning,
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(eds) After Alice, 172–187. London: Cassell.
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Picturebooks’ in T. Colomer, B. Kümmerling-Meibauer and C. Silva-Diaz (eds)
New Directions in Picturebook Research, 27–40. Oxford: Routledge.
Painter, C., Martin, J. R. and Unsworth, L. (2013) Reading Visual Narratives: Image
Analysis of Children’s Picture Books. Sheffield: Equinox.
Pantaleo, S. (2008) ‘Ed Vere’s The Getaway: Starring a Postmodern Cheese Thief’
in L. R. Sipe and S. Pantaleo (eds) Postmodern Picturebooks: Play, Parody and Self-
Referentiality, 238–255. Oxford: Routledge.
Pantaleo, S. and Sipe, L. R. (2008) ‘Introduction: Postmodernism and Picturebooks’
in L. R. Sipe and S. Pantaleo (eds) Postmodern Picture Books: Play, Parody and Self-
Referentiality, 1–8. London: Routledge.
Parkinson, B. and Reid Thomas, H. (2000) Teaching Literature in a Second Language.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Salisbury, M. (2008) ‘The Artist and the Postmodern Picturebook’ in L. R. Sipe

and S. Pantaleo (eds) Postmodern Picturebooks: Play, Parody and Self-Referentiality,
22–40. London: Routledge.
Sipe, L. R. (2008) ‘First Graders Interpret David Wiesner’s The Three Pigs: A Case
Study’ in L. R. Sipe and S. Pantaleo (eds) Postmodern Picturebooks: Play, Parody
and Self-Referentiality, 223–237. London: Routledge.
Stephens, J. (1999) ‘Analysing Texts: Linguistics and Stylistics’ in P. Hunt (ed.)
Understanding Children’s Literature (2nd edition), 73–85. London: Routledge.
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from Slovenly Peter to Harry Potter. London: Routledge.
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Part II
Empirical and Case Studies
7
Achievement Tests for Literary
Reading in General EFL Reading
Courses
Takayuki Nishihara
1 Introduction
This chapter presents a discussion of how to use literary texts in

achievement tests for general EFL reading courses based on my testing
practice at a Japanese university, where learners at different English
proficiency levels are enrolled. Although the use of literary texts for
foreign language teaching has been examined in various contexts,
most investigations reported in the literature have been done from a
teaching perspective, presenting teaching procedures. Although some
innovative proposals for literature testing have been presented recently
(for example, Spiro, 2010), they tend to assess integrative language
performance, of which literary reading is only one component. This
chapter presents a discussion of how to address literary reading itself
and to assess its multifarious aspects (also see Chapter 8 by Oku and
Chapter 19 by Lambrou). I argue that achievement tests using literary
texts need to differ from those with expository texts or practical texts
such as e-mails and menus. Simultaneously, they should include both
test items for general reading comprehension and those for genre-
specific traits.
2 Notes on testing conventions in Japan
First of all, some testing conventions for general EFL reading courses in
Japan should be described. The following conventions are often applied
to the administration of achievement tests at junior high schools, high
schools, and universities.1
115
116 Takayuki Nishihara
Reading passages used in a test are usually not new to learners: typi-
cally, the main texts used in class are re-used. Even the test items which
learners have examined in class are repeated; however, some new test
items are added. Learners have come to expect these types of tests and
understand that reviewing the course contents can help them get good
scores on achievement tests. Therefore, the possibility persists that
learners may receive good scores in reading achievement tests merely by
memorizing the course contents (Paran, 2010).
Achievement tests for reading courses often include multiple-choice-
type and descriptive-type test items. Typically, the latter items invite
learners to write answers in Japanese, to avoid having students’ limited
English writing proficiency negatively impact their scores. They are
usually not open-ended questions: each item has one correct answer.
3 Why teachers are reluctant to use literary texts in

achievement tests
Alderson (2000: 66) points out the following paradox in achievement

tests using literary texts: ‘[i]f it is the case that readers respond to literary
texts in personally meaningful, often idiosyncratic ways, it is hard to see
what sort of “meaning” one could test in order to say that a reader had
actually understood a literary text.’ There are other reasons teachers feel
reluctant to use literary texts in a test.
At least three reasons derive from the circumstances surrounding
literary texts in ELT in Japan (also see Chapter 2 by Takahashi). First,
teachers’ literary experience tends to be very poor because most instruc-
tors of English in Japan have read American or British literature only in
a required literature course in a teacher training curriculum. Secondly,
teachers do not know how to test learners’ literary reading because
this was not taught in the course. Thirdly, the use of literary texts is
usually limited to supplementary extensive reading activities (actually,
Chapter 17 by Fukaya is exceptional in that she integrates extensive
and intensive reading activities in one course). As mentioned already,
achievement tests tend to repeat the main texts used in the course.
The underdevelopment of literary competence models might also
increase teachers’ reluctance to use literary texts. Descriptions of literary
competence are often partial (for example, Bachman, 1990; Bachman
and Palmer, 2010; Bierwisch, 1970 [1965]; Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei, and
Thurrell, 1995; Durán, 1988; Grinder and Elgin, 1973; Hanauer, 1997;
Riffaterre, 1978; Schauber and Spolsky, 1986);2 too professional for
foreign language learners (for example, Culler, 1975; Riffaterre, 1978;
Achievement Tests for Literary Reading 117
Schauber and Spolsky, 1986); or too general, not covering the genre-
specific traits of literary reading (for example, Hawkey and Rezk, 1991;
McRae, 1991). Also, the description of literary competence differs mark-
edly from one model to another. As a result, teachers are at a loss as to
which model should be chosen when designing a test. Moreover, models
of literary competence do not explain its relations to other relevant
constructs such as linguistic competence or communicative competence.
Culler (1975) and Schauber and Spolsky (1986), for instance, recognize
their interrelation, but they fail to define it clearly.
Traditional ideas about and conventional administrations of testing
with literary texts might also invite the underuse of literary texts. Literary
reading has been regarded as advanced or ‘luxurious’ reading. Therefore,
it has been argued that it should be allowed only for advanced learners.
For instance, Henning (1992) insists that novice-level learners on the
literary interpretation scale must reach an intermediate high level on the
scale for general reading skills. In addition, as Carter and Long (1990)
and Spiro (1991) suggest, the test-item types used in literature testing
have little variety: in most cases, they are mechanical comprehension
questions or open-ended descriptive questions. Consequently, teachers
have only a few test-item models.
Previous studies on literature testing may also discourage teachers
from constructing tests with literary texts. First, no balance for handling
different traits of literary reading in one test has been presented.
Researchers often fail to regard this balance, especially when they
insist on covering the new traits which previous studies have missed
considering. Secondly, recent studies do not deal with literary reading
itself, but instead treat its performance in more integrative linguistic
activities, which include literary reading as a component: writing abil-
ities about literary texts (Brumfit and Killam, 1986; Hanauer, 1996;
Paran, 2010) or creative ability (Spiro, 2010). These recent enterprises
do not show how well learners can read literary texts. At any rate, liter-
ature testing is ‘a thin and surprisingly under-researched area’ (Hall,
2005: 148), for which testing methodologies have not been established
(Carter, 2007).
As discussed above, teachers have been deterred from composing tests
with literary texts for various reasons. At the moment, using literary
texts for this purpose might be risky in Japan. Although Saito et al.
(2004) have noticed the problem that Japanese teachers of English do
not know how to teach using literary texts,3 a more serious problem
might lie on the testing side. Therefore, even passionate teachers who
have used literary texts in class tend to avoid them in tests.
In effect, some researchers oppose producing and administering a test

for literary reading (for example, Parkinson and Thomas, 2000). Even
Paran (2010), who proposes test items of various types, advises that,
ideally, literary reading need not be examined. This chapter takes the
same position as Brumfit (1991), who argues that literary reading should
be dealt with even if it includes untestable aspects.
4 Five tips for constructing achievement tests using

literary texts
As explained above, most teachers do not seem to have the resources to

construct achievement tests with literary texts. For those who wish to
make such tests, there seems to be no choice but to follow the testing
methodologies for expository reading, which are taught widely in
teacher training courses (such tests might include only items for literal
meaning comprehension). Other teachers, wanting to distinguish tests
for literary reading from those for expository reading, might produce
tests including only items for the genre-specific traits. Both cases will
have a negative impact on the learners’ literary reading practice. Some
learners, for instance, might get the wrong idea that literary texts should
be read in the same way as expository texts or that literal meaning
comprehension is unimportant in literary reading.
Fortunately, empirical study on actual literary reading processes by
ordinary readers (laymen including students) in L1 has developed over
the past 30 years. Based on these empirical findings, this chapter presents
a proposal of the following five points as tips for test construction with
literary texts in EFL; these methods should also be of use in designing
courses.
a. Test items should be constructed based on literary reading exercises

by ordinary L1 readers, not by expert L1 literary readers.
b. Most items should target the literal meaning comprehension of the
text.
c. The test should include a limited number of specific test items for
interpreting the text.
d. The test should include a limited number of specific test items for
linguistic creativity involved in the text.
e. The test should include a limited number of specific test items for
eliciting learners’ personal meanings from the text and affective
responses to it.
In the tips above, historical and socio-cultural traits are not consid-
ered because improvement in such knowledge is not a primary goal in
the general EFL reading course. Although such content might pique
learners’ curiosity, dealing with such content would be more meaningful
in professional courses for literature majors, such as courses on British
and American literature targeted at students of letters, as described by
Teranishi in Chapter 11.
4.1 Background of Tip (a)

This chapter presents a discussion of achievement tests in general
EFL reading courses. Testing practice based on expert literary readers’
reading practice (for example, literary critics’ reading) often require that
foreign language learners show performance that even native speakers
cannot manage. The following four tips rest on ordinary literary readers’
reading traits.
4.2 Background of Tip (b)

As it is for other types of reading such as expository reading, literal
meaning comprehension is fundamentally important in literary
reading. This comprehension becomes the basis for interpretation or
critical reading later on. In fact, previous reports have shown that ordi-
nary literary readers strive primarily to understand the literal meaning
of the text in their L1. For example, Miall and Kuiken (1999) asked 30
advanced undergraduate English learners to read through ‘The Trout’
written by Sean O’Faolain, and showed that most of them devoted
much attention to what the characters did in the fictional world during
their reading processes. Vipond and Hunt (1984) have also observed
the same reading tendency in their research. They invited 150 partici-
pants to read ‘A & P’ by John Updike and concluded that most of them
were reading for understanding the storyline of the text, particularly
addressing the events and characters’ actions in the story.
In some contexts, literal meaning comprehension has been overly
emphasized. For example, Purves (1992) revealed that many L1 tests for
literary reading consist only of the test items for this aspect. However,
literal meaning comprehension is disregarded in other contexts, espe-
cially when researchers strive to differentiate tests with literary texts
from those with expository texts. This chapter presents the assertion
that most of the test items should be targeted at literal meaning compre-
hension and that teachers should add to some specific test items for
genre-specific traits, which are discussed in Tips (c), (d), and (e) below.
4.3 Background of Tip (c)

As the statement by Fish (1980: 355) ‘like it or not, interpretation is the
only game in town’ implies, interpretation has been highly regarded in
literary reading particularly since the beginning of last century (Miall,
2006). Literary studies have long debated the issue of what a valid inter-
pretation of a literary work is, considering how readers should reach
an interpretation and where the supporting ground for interpretation
should be sought. However, empirical studies have reported that ordi-
nary literary readers do not engage in interpretation as much as expected
(Miall and Kuiken, 1999; Vipond and Hunt, 1984).
Nevertheless, the test items for interpretation should not be eliminated
from achievement tests for literary reading. In fact, a lot of researchers
consider interpretation an important literary reading skill (for example,
Henning, 1992; Vipond and Hunt, 1984; Zyngier and Fialho, 2010).
Besides, the empirical studies cited above report that some readers actu-
ally constructed an interpretation of a text. Teachers should not consider
interpretation the only game for literary reading. Rather, these findings
should be understood as a caution not to set too many items on this
aspect in one test.
4.4 Background of Tip (d)

L1 readers devote attention to linguistic creativity such as deviant,
repetitive, or figurative expressions during their literary reading proc-
esses and construct a strong memory of the surface information in their
mind (Hanauer, 1998; van Peer, 1986; Zwaan, 1993). According to van
Peer (1986), for instance, when readers encounter a striking expression,
they are apt to regard it as important for the significance of the text.4
They assign great emphasis to such marked expressions to construct the
interpretation of the text.
Although the importance of linguistic creativity in literary reading is
widely accepted and various studies have actually provided empirical
evidence for this (also see Chapter 9 by Ishihara and Ono), it is rarely
dealt with in tests (Purves, 1990). This chapter asserts that achievement
tests for literary reading should set a few specific test items for this
aspect.
4.5 Background of Tip (e)

According to Halász (1996) and Miall (2006), readers bring their own
experiences and thoughts into literary reading (also see Chapter 14 by
Kusanagi). In their reading processes, readers respond to the text with
various emotions and create numerous personal meanings. In ELT,
thanks to Hirvela (1996), teachers now agree that those emotions and
experiences should be respected. Questions such as ‘which scene do you
like best?’ or ‘what would you do if you were in the character’s situa-
tion?’ are often asked of learners in class. Unfortunately, however, these
questions are rarely included in tests because it is almost impossible to
evaluate their answers objectively and teachers cannot but accept any
answer. Responses to literary texts are an essential part of literary reading.
Eliminating them from testing can give learners a mistaken notion that
literary reading should not be affective or imbued with personal mean-
ings. This chapter presents the argument that achievement tests for
literary reading should include a few specific test items for this aspect.
5 Testing practice
This section reports on achievement test practice with literary texts

based on the five tips presented above.
5.1 Course description

The achievement test reported on here was conducted as the end-of-term
examination for an elective general EFL reading course entitled English
VI, which is for second-year learners in the Department of International
Relations at my own university. This course aims at improving learners’
literary reading performance.
A textbook by Hayase and Egashira (2010) was used. This textbook
consists of extracts from famous American literary works accompanied
by reading comprehension questions and grammar exercises, both of
which are written in English.
I taught this course using the five tips presented above. Because almost
all the textbook questions were for understanding events or storylines
in the text (literal meaning comprehension), I produced extra questions
to deal with interpretation, creative language, and personal responses
to the text. I also made extra questions on the actions of characters
and the storyline which the textbook questions did not address. These
supplementary questions were produced in English. They were given
to learners in a handout and were discussed plenarily in class. Learners
were allowed to answer the questions in Japanese because answering
them in English was often beyond their capabilities.
5.2 Descriptions of learners

In this course, 37 learners were enrolled (36 Japanese and 1 Chinese). Of
those, 33 were second-year learners. The rest were third-year learners.
Their ages were 19–21 years. Nineteen learners had taken a TOEIC Test
(a general English proficiency test) during the semester. Their scores
ranged between 400–835 (TOEIC Test scores are 10–990). Therefore,
learners with very different English proficiency levels were enrolled in
this course. Their levels of interest in English also differed individually.
Some were planning to major in English in the future, but others were
more interested in studying Japanese, Chinese, or Korean. Although
their literary experiences in English were quite limited, they were more
or less intent on improving their literary reading proficiency in English
by taking this course.
5.3 Description of the achievement test

This test was administered on the final session of the course. Learners
were given 90 minutes to complete the test. The test had a total value of
100 points. Although learners were allowed to answer the questions in
either English or Japanese, eventually, all of them chose Japanese.
Following achievement test design customs in Japan, the passages
used in class (three passages from the textbook with vocabulary glosses
removed) were used again. Test items included both modifications of
the questions handled in class and newly developed ones. All the test
items were rewritten in Japanese to remove the need for reading test
prompts in English. Here I focus on the test section constructed on the
passage from Charlotte Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’ The passage
and an English translation of each test item prompt are presented in
Appendix 1.
The test items were classified as follows:
Grammar: Questions (1) and (6)

Literal meaning comprehension: Questions (2), (3), (4), (5), (7), (8),
(9), (10), (12), (13), (16), and (17)
Interpretation: Question (11)
Creative language: Question (14)
Response to the text: Question (15)
Following the second tip, most of the test items were targeted at literal
meaning comprehension of the text. At the same time, based on the
last three tips, a few test items for interpretation, creative language, and
personal responses to the text were included. In addition, grammatical
items were added because they had been covered in class. The other two
test sessions were organized similarly.
As Appendix 1 shows, Question (11) was divided into two sub-items

to evaluate the targeted aspect more accurately: one for interpretation
itself and the other for requiring learners to present supportive evidence
for their interpretation (also see Chapter 16 by Sugimura). Similarly,
Question (15) consists of two sub-items: one for their personal responses
and the other for the reasons why they thought so.
Since I was the only one authorized to administer grades, all questions
were marked solely by me. Learners had one point subtracted for two-
point questions when their answers were not satisfactorily elaborate, or
when their answers partially included obscure or incorrect information.
Permission to use their marks for research purposes was obtained from
the learners before the test was administered.
6 Results and implications
The test results presented some important pedagogical implications.

First, the five tips successfully dealt with different traits of literary reading
in the test (Tables 7.1 and 7.2). Although LMC shows a strong positive
correlation coefficient with G (.54), its correlation values with I and CL
are quite weak (.14 and .20). Therefore, the ability to interpret literary
texts or understand creative language (and RT) cannot be evaluated by
Table 7.1 Test results
G LMC I CL RT Total
Full 6 22 4 2 4 38
Lowest 1 4 0 0 4 13
Highest 6 22 4 2 4 37
Mean 3.7 15.9 2.9 1.6 4 28.1
Standard Deviation 1.4 4.2 1.0 0.6 0 5.7
Note: G, grammar; LMC, literal meaning comprehension; I, interpretation; CL, creative

language; RT, response to the text.
Table 7.2 Correlation coefficients between test item types
G LMC I CL RT
G 1 .54 .14 .20 n/a

LMC 1 .32 .23 n/a
I 1 .11 n/a
CL 1 n/a
RT 1
test items for LMC. The achievement test for literary reading requires
specific test items for these genre-specific traits.
Secondly, the test items for RT elicited learners’ individual ideas. For
Question (15-ii), six learners who responded to Question (15-i) that they
would feel happy emphasized that the husband’s decision does not mean
that he does not love his wife (‘because the husband’s consideration for
the protagonist is still real’ (translated by the author)). Most of the other
learners who answered Question (15-i) contrarily emphasized the point
that the protagonist’s freedom is violated (‘no matter how much I were
cherished, I would not want to be shut in a room’). It is particularly
noteworthy that some of the latter learners wrote interesting answers
such as ‘My husband tells me to stay in the room because he worries
about my health. However, I would still want to go out. So I would
feel sorry for him.’ or ‘I would feel that my husband might be feeling
shameful about me and want to hide me from his neighbours.’
Nevertheless, this test presented some difficulties in marking. First,
it was difficult to assign a zero grade to the test items for CL because
what learners addressed were literary readings’ actual effects on
them. In the marking procedures, I awarded all the learners at least
one point as far as they wrote something about the linguistic effect.
Secondly, I was not able to rate learners’ answers for the test items for
RT because their answers also reflected their actual literary engage-
ment. As Table 7.1 shows, full points were given to all the learners.
Although it is difficult to grade the learners by these test items, it is
important to have learners understand that CL and RT are significant
aspects of literary reading.
Regarded comprehensively, this end-of-term exam (and teaching
as well) gave the learners some pointers about how to tackle literary
texts in English. They were encouraged to engage in the passage from
various perspectives because the test required them not only to show
literal meaning comprehension of the text, but also to exhibit interpre-
tation of the passage, sensitivity to linguistic creativity, and personal
responses to the text. In addition, this test gave all learners opportuni-
ties to present their own ideas about the passage. As exemplified above,
they were willing to answer the test items.
7 Applicability of the five tips and the testing practice
Because this practice was done in Japan, I followed some Japanese

educational customs such as the re-use of passages, the repetition of
test-items with some modifications, setting multiple-choice-type and
descriptive-type test items, and allowing learners to answer the test

items in Japanese. However, the test development based on the five tips
is applicable to a variety of levels of education in different countries with
different testing purposes. The followings are some merits that testing
practices based on the five tips are expected to bring about.
In the test construction process, the five tips will provide teachers
with a framework for a better-balanced test for literary reading. These
tips help teachers to avoid constructing tests which overemphasize or
underemphasize specific aspects of literary reading.
A test designed using these tips is also expected to yield positive effects
on learners’ literary reading. Through taking a test, learners can be aware
of a balanced literary reading (proper emphasis on different aspects of
literary reading): while the main emphasis should be on literal meaning
comprehension, they should also be encouraged to interpret the text,
devote attention to linguistic creativity in the text, and express their
personal meanings or affective responses when reading literary texts.
These reading strategies are expected to bring learners rich literary expe-
riences outside the classroom as well.
Moreover, by integrating the test results shown in this chapter and
those in other sessions, it is inferred that there are different types of
literary readers: for example, (1) those whose English proficiency is
not very high but who can nevertheless develop a unique interpreta-
tion; (2) those who are not good at constructing an interpretation but
have a strong sensitivity to creative language; and (3) those who have
a high general reading proficiency but are not good at interpreting
literary texts. A conventional test might indicate merely that (1) is a
poor literary reader and (3) a good literary reader. Test results obtained
using my proposed method will show learners (and teachers) both their
strong and weak points; therefore providing helpful feedback for them
to develop as literary readers and to enjoy literary texts more.
8 Conclusion
This chapter has suggested five tips for constructing achievement tests
for literary reading. These tips are intended to incorporate in a test
literary reading which L1 readers often practice, and to handle its multi-
farious traits with a more appropriate balance. Obviously, teaching and
testing are two sides of the same coin and both sides must be inves-
tigated equally. However, compared to teaching methodologies, the
testing methodologies for literary reading have remained inadequately
examined. It is to be hoped that this chapter will contribute to better
testing practices and induce teachers to use literary texts in general EFL
reading courses.
Appendix 1: Test section using Charlotte Gilman’s

‘The Yellow Wallpaper’
The following text is a passage from Charlotte Gilman’s ‘The Yellow

Wallpaper’. The narrator of this text writes about her life in the attic of
her house after developing postpartum depression. Read the passage and
answer the following questions (the point allocated to each test item is
indicated in square brackets).
(a)I
don’t know whyy I should write this.
I don’t want to.
I don’t feel able.
And I know John would think it absurd. But I mustt say what I feel and
think in some way – it is such a relief!
But the effort is getting to be greater than the relief.
(b)Half the time now I am awfully lazy, and lie down ever so much.
John says I mustn’t lose my strength, and has me take (c)cod liver oil and
lots of tonics and things,
g , to say
y ( A ) of ale and wine and rare meat.
Dear John! He loves me very dearly, and hates to have me sick. I tried to
have (d)a real earnest reasonable talk with him the other day, and tell him
how I wish he would let me go and make a visit to Cousin Henry and Julia.
But he said (e)I wasn’t able to go,
g , nor able to stand it after I got
g there; and I
did not make ( B ) a very good case for myself, for I was crying before I had
finished.
It is getting to be a great effort for me to think straight. Just this nervous
weakness I suppose.
And dear John gathered me up in his arms, and just carried me upstairs and
laid me on the bed, and sat by me and read to me till (f)it tired my head.
He said I was his darling and his comfort and all he had, and that I must
take care of myself for his sake, and keep well.
He says no one but myself can help me out of (g)it, that I must use my will
and self-control and not let any silly fancies run away with me.
There’s one comfort, the baby is well and happy, and does not have to
occupy this nursery with (h)the horrid wallpaper.
p p
If we had not used it, that blessed child would have! (i)What a fortunate
escape!
p Why, I wouldn’t have a child of mine, an impressionable little thing,
( C ) in such a room for worlds.
I never thought of it before, but it is lucky that John kept me here after all,
I can stand it so much easier than a baby, you see.
Of course I never mention it to them any more – I am too wise, – but I keep
watch of it all the same.
There are things in that paper that nobody knows ( D ) me, or ever will.
Behind that outside pattern the dim shapes get clearer every day.
It is always the same shape, only very numerous.
(j)And it is like a woman stooping p g down and creeping
p g about behind that
p
pattern. I don’t like it a bit. I wonder – I begin to think – I wish John would
take me away from here!
* * *
(k)It is so hard to talk with John
J about my y case, because he is so wise, and
because he loves me so.
(l)But I tried it last night.
g
It was moonlight. The moon shines in all around just as the sun does.
I hate to see it sometimes, it creeps so slowly, and always comes in by one
window or another.
John was asleep and I hated to waken him, so I kept still and watched the
moonlight on that undulating wallpaper till I felt creepy.
The faint figure behind seemed to shake the pattern, just as if she wanted
to get out.
1. Choose the best answer for each parenthesis in the passage. [1 for
each]
( A ): (i) something (ii) nothing (iii) anything (iv) everything
( B ): (i) up (ii) away (iii) out (iv) with
( C ): (i) lives (ii) live (iii) to live (iv) lived
( D ): (i) or (ii) but (iii) and (iv) however
2. Despite the utterance marked as underlined position (a), why did
the narrator decide to write it? [2]
3. During the time designated at underlined position (b), what was the
narrator doing? [2]
4. Why did the narrator’s husband give the narrator the foods speci-
fied at underlined position (c)? [2]
5. What did the narrator specifically say to her husband in the conver-
sation marked as underlined position (d)? [2]
6. Reconstruct the utterance which the husband actually said to the
narrator by changing the expression at underlined position (e) into
a direct speech form. [2]
7. To what does ‘it’ at underlined position (f) refer? [2]
8. To what does ‘it’ at underlined position (g) refer? [2]
9. Why did the author describe the wallpaper as ‘the horrid wallpaper’
at underlined position (h)? [2]
10. To what does ‘fortunate escape’ at underlined position (i) refer in
this passage? [2]
11. (i) To what does ‘a woman’ at underlined position (j) refer? (ii) Also
provide the reason why you think so. [2 for each]
12. What order from the husband led to the narrator’s idea presented at
underlined position (k)? [2]
13. What was the outcome of the event designated at underlined posi-
tion (l)? [2]
14. What effects do the ill-formed paragraphs and sentences (for example,
their extreme shortness and excessive use of ‘and’) achieve? [2]
15. If you were in the narrator’s shoes with the same husband, (i) would
you feel happy? (ii) Also provide the reason why you feel so. [2]
16. Is the sentence True or False? [1]
Q. It is becoming harder and harder for John’s wife to think
straight.
17. Choose the best answer for the following question. [1]
Q. How did John express his love for his wife?
(i) He said his wife was all he had. (ii) He said his wife was his relief.
(iii) He said his wife was his fancy. (iv) He said his wife was what he was.
Notes
1. Reading in English is not a goal for education in elementary schools in
Japan.
2. Spiro (1991) offers the most comprehensive literary competence model to
date.
3. In this sense, the Japanese contributors to this volume are exceptional teachers
in Japan.
4. Miall and Kuiken (1999) showed that encounters with linguistic creativity in
literary texts transform or modify readers’ conventional feelings.
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Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:
Bachman, L. and Palmer, A. (2010) Language Assessment in Practice. Oxford:
Bierwisch, M. (1970 [1965]) ‘Poetics and Linguistics’, trans. P. H. Salus, in D. C.
Freeman (ed.) Linguistics and Literary Style, 96–115. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Brumfit, C. (1991) ‘Testing Literature’, in C. Brumfit (ed.) Assessment in Literature
Teaching,
g 1–8. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Brumfit, C. J. and Killam, G. D. (1986) ‘Proposed Examination Paper’, in C. J.
Brumfit and R. A. Carter (eds) Literature and Language Teachingg, 253–255.

Carter, R. and Long, M. (1990) ‘Testing Literature in EFL Classes: Tradition and
Innovation’, ELT Journal 44 (3): 215–221.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dörnyei, Z. and Thurrell, S. (1995) ‘Communicative
Competence: A Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications’,
Issues in Applied Linguistics 6 (2): 5–35.
Culler, J. (1975) Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of
Literature. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Durán, R. (1988) ‘Validity and Language Skills Assessment: Non-English
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Fish, S. (1980) Is There a Text in This Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities.
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Grinder, J. T. and Elgin, S. H. (1973) Guide to Transformational Grammar: History,
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Halász, L. (1996) ‘General and Personal Meaning in Literary Reading’, in R. J.
Kreuz and M. S. MacNealy (eds) Empirical Approaches to Literature and Aesthetics,
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8
A Stylistic Approach to Digital
Texts: Teaching Literary Texts
through New Media
Soichiro Oku
1 Introduction
This chapter explores how Japanese university students read literary

texts through new media in the EFL classroom. Another purpose is to
present some aspects of reading strategies for digital texts. In the class-
room, the reading process has changed drastically with the development
of digital media such as the internet and e-books. The expansion of
e-book readers, such as the iPad and Kindle, enhances a rapid growth in
the availability of digital texts. Now learners can browse through almost
any text on a computer screen, monitor, tablet or smart phone instead
of reading printed versions, and it is also possible to browse any book
via a digital library. Then do learners read digital texts in a different
way from printed texts? So it has become necessary to examine learners’
reading strategies of digital texts in educational settings.
2 Reading process and digital reading
In this section, two terms, ‘reading’ and ‘reading strategy’, are examined
for theoretical preliminary consideration, and then the characteristics of
reading digital texts are summarized. First, the process of reading consists
of two aspects, decoding and comprehending. Decoding is the process
of reading physical letters, and comprehending is the process of getting
information from those letters. The top-down approach and bottom-up
approaches are complementary ways of processing a text as a whole.
In top-down processing, readers can make use of all that they bring to
the text such as their world knowledge, common sense and personal
131
132 Soichiro Oku
experience, which have tended to be undervalued in the reading class.

On the other hand, in bottom-up processing, readers build up meaning
from the texts themselves. This process involves recognizing letters and
words, working out sentence structure, and making the text coherent by
way of grammatical and lexical devices, which have been emphasized
in the traditional reading class. Thus the processes of reading can be
divided into a physical aspect and a mental aspect.
According to Brown (2008), in the language classroom good readers
are supposed to use the following ‘reading process’. Good readers are
able to make connections and inferences based on background knowl-
edge and predict what happens next in a text. By visualizing the context
and asking self-questions, they can summarize important information.
They can also activate problem-solving and clarifying their reading
process (Brown, 2008). These reading processes have been tested by
psychological experiments for printed texts. When considering digital
texts, we have to inquire into another way of reading process.
With this in mind, we can focus on the differences between digital
texts and printed texts, which have been discussed in various fields.
Many recent studies report that reading from print and from digital
displays differs significantly in a wide range of aspects.
Sigal and Yoram (2012) summarize the findings about these two types
of reading. In screen-reading, more time is spent browsing and scanning
(similar findings were reported by many scholars). In an eye-tracking
study, print readers tend to read the text methodologically, line by line,
whereas digital readers tend to ‘jump’ from place to place in the text as
they read. Reading from a digital display is slower than reading from
print (Evans et al., 2009). Readers of digital texts usually report fatigue
and discomfort (Rouet, 2000) and the lack of a ‘physical text’ creates
a feeling of disorientation (Armitage et al., 2004). It was found that
reading digital texts involved a higher perceived cognitive load (Van
den Broek et al., 2009) and lower comprehension and memorization
levels (Morineau et al., 2005) compared with printed texts. A few studies
reported that the conversion of text from print to a digital display results
in reduced text comprehension (Eshet-Alkalai and Geri, 2010), especially
when a text that was designed to be read in print is scanned and read
on a digital display. Studies of digital reading preferences clearly indicate
that most readers prefer to read printed texts.
Thus, there have been many claims that digital texts and printed texts
are distinctly different media requiring different cognitive processes,
and the negative aspects of digital reading have been emphasized (Sigal
and Yoram, 2012). These differences are mainly caused by the legibility
A Stylistic Approach to Digital Texts 133
of digital texts, the load of processing visual objects, including varying

fonts and type sizes. The main problem is that digital screens can cause
eye strain after long reading. Paper books allow readers to look at a text
for a longer time, and so the use of digital texts seems inferior to the
use of printed texts. Nevertheless, digital texts have become popular
with the development of electronic devices such as mobile phones,
computers and tablets.
3 Classroom and digital reading
Despite increases in the use of information and communication tech-

nologies in the language classroom and at home, little is known about
the relatively new interactive environment of digital texts. In educa-
tional settings in Japan, the effective use of ICT has been promoted
by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
(MEXT) as well as by telecommunication industries. Thanks to inte-
grated efforts by national and private organizations, almost all Japanese
schools are equipped with various kinds of ICT tools: monitors, projec-
tors, electronic whiteboards, computers, tablets and CALL, as well as
digital learning tools. Therefore, Japanese students are accustomed to
using digital appliances, which are easily accessible to them. In the EFL
classroom, the effective use of ICT tools is encouraged among students
as well as teachers. For the development of listening and speaking skills,
ICT provides students with authentic materials (see Chapter 2 in this
volume). As regards reading materials, online newspapers, electronic
encyclopedias, blogs and online journals are very popular among students
and teachers alike. However, it should be noted that many digital texts
were originated from literary texts like manuscripts that have been digi-
tized. The emergence of these took place with the advent of computers
and network technology in the 1980s, which allowed readers to read
literary texts with electronic tools. The digitization of literary texts and
the accumulation of digital texts with Project Gutenberg has led to the
development of corpus linguistics and corpus stylistics. In this sense,
digital texts are closely related to literary texts.
In the EFL classroom, students have increasing opportunities to read
digital literary texts via computer monitors or their own tablet devices.
This means that reading is an activity more likely to take place on
monitors than on printed pages. As to the load of reading digital texts,
teachers have worried about the negative effects of digital texts that
have been proved in previous psychological studies. Students may have
trouble in reading digital texts in that they create a higher cognitive
134 Soichiro Oku
load. As a result, reading digital texts may lead to lower comprehension

and memorization, compared with printed texts. In order to overcome
the cognitive load of reading digital texts, teachers may help students
promote their reading processes by giving hints or tasks. On the other
hand, students may modify their own reading strategies that are suitable
for digital texts. To find better ways of reading digital texts in the EFL
classroom, the differences in the ability of readers to read texts in print
and in digital formats will be investigated.
Two research questions are to be tackled in this section: What is it that
reading digital texts can do that reading printed texts cannot? How do
learners read digital texts? The data for analysis is excerpts from an English
novel and a picture book, and the method consists of examination of the
results of reading activities by Japanese EFL learners after reading digital
texts and printed texts. The data mainly comes from comparative obser-
vations in practice with the digital texts and printed texts. Analysing
the results of activities can reveal the difference in reading strategies for
these two types of texts, and this will help in the development of the
effective use of digital texts in EFL learners’ classrooms. It is hypothesized
that significant differences between the two formats will be found, as
reported in so many other studies comparing digital displays with print
reading (e.g. Van den Broek et al., 2009).
4 Methodology
4.1 Participants
One hundred and twenty-four undergraduate students at an interme-
diate proficiency level and sixty undergraduate students at an advanced
proficiency level participated in the study. The average age of the partic-
ipants was 19. All participants were born in Japan and Japanese was
their native language. They all had personal computers, and used them
intensively.
4.2 Framework of tasks

The following tasks are established within the framework of peda-
gogical stylistics, which provides teachers with a good guideline for
enhancing learners’ language awareness. To date, various activities and
tasks have been proposed such as cloze tests. Form-focused tasks lead
students to discover salient linguistic features. They can become aware
of objective evidence from the text that allows them to move on to
more meaning-focused tasks for interpreting what the text represents.
These approaches still lack any direct practical applications that could
be used by EFL teachers. However, the tasks in this investigation focus
on the combination of stylistic approaches and language awareness in
the EFL classroom. While identifying the writers’ craft through stylistic
analysis, teachers encourage students to acquire language knowledge. It
is a valuable exercise to analyse language from a stylistic point of view.
Furthermore, it is a preliminary step in the appreciation of literary texts
as well as non-literary texts.
Tasks are divided into three types: scanning to find repetition and
rhymes, checking linguistic knowledge, and comprehension. Although
scanning tasks are seemingly to related to cognitive load, it is easier for
users of digital texts to scan objectives because of zooming functions.
4.3 Tasks
Task 1: The 124 participants were divided into two groups: Group A (49
students) and Group B (75 students) according to their proficiency. Each
group was given 20 minutes to read the initial part of the picture book
The Little House by Virginia Lee (1942), Group A in print and Group B
in digital format, and then answer questions. In EFL classrooms, picture
books are often used as basic reading materials, because the readers have
a visual context with the verbal text. On completion of the task, both
groups completed the same paper-based questionnaire. The questions
were as follows:
Question 1: List 10 adjectives from the text. (Scanning)

Question 2: Fill in the verbs in the blanks. (Scanning)
(1) She watched the sun . ... . ... . ... . ... ... in the morning and she
watched the sun . ... . ... . ... in the evening.
(2) She watched the children . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... in the brook.
(3) In the long summer days, she sat in the sun and watched the trees
. ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... themselves with leaves and the white daisies . ... . .
.. . ... . ... . ... . ... the hill.
(4) She watched the children . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... in the pool.
(5) She watched the harvest . ... . ... . ... . ... ... and the apples . ... . ... . ...
. ... . ... .. ·
Question 3: Fill in the adverbs in the blanks. (Scanning)
Time passed (1) . ... . ... . ... . ... ... for the Little House as she watched the
countryside (2) . ... . ... . ... . ... ... change with the seasons.
136 Soichiro Oku
Question 4: Fill in the colour terms in the blanks. (Scanning)

She watched the grass turn (1) . ... . ... . ... . ... ... .
She watched the apples turn (2) . ... . ... . ... . ... ... and ripen.
She watched the first frost turn the leaves to bright (3) . ... . ... . ... . ... ...
and (4) . ... . ... . ... . ... ... and red.
Question 5: What is the meaning of ‘The Little House was curious
about the city and wondered what it would be like to live there’?
(Comprehension)
Question 6: What is ‘the first robin’? (Inference, linguistic
knowledge)
These questions are mainly concerned with scanning.
Task 2: Another sixty EFL students were divided into two groups; Group
C (30 students) read a printed text and answered a paper-based quiz.
Group D (30 students) read a PDF file on screen and answered the same
paper-based quiz. The following instructions were given to the students.
Read the first page of The Remains of the Dayy by Kazuo Ishiguro (1989).
Within 20 minutes, answer the following questions on the paper.
(1) Who is ‘I’? (Identification of the narrator, comprehension)

(2) Check the verbs. List as many of them as possible. (Scanning)
(3) What is the function of ‘should’ in ‘I should say’? (Grammatical
knowledge)
(4) What is a ‘chaise-longue’? (Inference, linguistic knowledge)
(5) What is ‘this announcement’? (Comprehension)
(6) Where will ‘I’ go? (Comprehension)
(7) What is the meaning of ‘be locked up here’ in the context of the
text? (Figurative language, comprehension)
(8) Paraphrase the phrase ‘On seeing my person’ into a clause with a
conjunction. (Grammatical knowledge)
These questions are mainly concerned with comprehension and gram-

matical knowledge.
4.4 Data analysis

Each group’s performance for the two formats was analysed by exam-
ining the average scores from the tasks. In order to examine the differ-
ence between the success percentages in the print and the digital
100
91
90 86
82 81
80 75
74
Q1
70 65
Q2
60 52 Q3
% 50 Q4
40 Q5
30
30 Q6
20
13 13
11
10
0
PDF P
PAPER
Figure 8.1 Average of scores (Task 1)
100 94
90 89 87 86
80 78 78 79
74 75
69
70 Q1
61 62 62
60 Q2
54
% 50 49 Q3
Q4
40
30 Q5
30
Q6
20
Q7
10
Q8
0
PDF on the screen P
PA
PAPER
Figure 8.2 Average of scores (Task 2)

138 Soichiro Oku
format, the percentage of the scores of all participants’ answers has been
calculated.
From an examination of these two figures, no statistically significant
difference was found between the two formats. However, differences
between the print and digital formats were found in the comprehen-
sion questions (Task 1 Q5, Task 2 Q5, 6, 8). When reading digital texts,
readers are likely to jump from text to text because of its legibility, so
then they have enough time to consider or construct the content texts
produce. Apart from the texts themselves, readers can comprehend
the textual contexts. Thus readers modify their reading strategies for
comprehension in the time duration. Despite the reports on differences
between print and digital reading, our findings clearly suggest that there
is almost no performance difference between the reading of print and
the digital formats. Rather, digital texts facilitate comprehension and are
therefore more effective for language learning.
5 Conclusion
In the EFL classroom, young Japanese readers are likely to overcome the
cognitive load, the legibility of digital texts. They are growing accus-
tomed to using digital appliances, so they can modify their reading
strategies.
According to the study by the UK’s National Literary Trust of the
reading habits of almost 35,000 eight- to sixteen-year-olds in the UK
(Coughian, 2013), high levels of access to mobile phones, computers
and tablets now means that reading is an activity more likely to be
conducted on screen than on the printed page. Not only British but also
Japanese students are becoming ‘digital natives’, and they are learning
how to deal with the additional cognitive load involved in digital
reading. These findings can be considered as evidence to support the
results of this study.
More research on print versus digital reading in the EFL classroom
is necessary in order to clarify the nature and implications of today’s
emphasis on digital reading. Furthermore, teachers should take the
distinctive aspects of digital reading and reading strategies into consid-
eration to make stylistic-based tasks more effective.
References
Armitage U., Wilson, S. and Sharp, H. (2004) ‘Navigation and Ownership for
Learning in Electronic Texts: An Experimental Study’, Electronic Journal of
E-Learningg 2 (2): http://www.ejel.org/volume-2/vol2-issue1/issue1-art17.htm
Brown, R. (2008) ‘The Road Not Yet Taken: A Transactional Strategies Approach to
Comprehension Instruction’, The Reading Teacherr 61 (7): 538–547.
Coughian, S. (2013) ‘Young People “Prefer to Read on Screen”’, BBC News
Education and Family, 16 May. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/
education-22540408 [accessed 16 May 2013].
Eshet-Alkalai, Y. and Geri, N. (2010) ‘Does the Medium Affect the Message? The
Effect of Congruent Versus Incongruent Display on Critical Reading’, Human
Systems Managementt 29 (4): 243–251.
Evans, M. A., Charland, A. R. and Saint-Aubin, J. (2009) ‘A New Look at an Old
Format: Eye-tracking Studies of Shared Book Reading and Implications for
eBook and eBook Research’, in G. Bus and S. Neuman (eds) Multimedia and
Literacy Development,t 89–111. New York: Routledge.
Morineau, T., Blanche, C., Tobin, L. and Guéguen, N. (2005) ‘The Emergence of
the Contextual Role of the E-book in Cognitive Processes through an Ecological
and Functional Analysis’, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 62:
329–348.
Rouet, J. F. (2000) ‘Hypermedia and Learning – Cognitive Perspectives’, Journal of
Computer Assisted Learningg 16: 97–101.
Sigal, E. and Yoram, E.-A. (2012) ‘Print Versus Digital: The Effect of Format on
Performance in Editing Text’, Proceedings of the Chais Conference on Instructional
Technologies Research 2012: Learning in the Technological Era, 13–21.
Van den Broek, P., Kendeou, P. and White, M. J. (2009) ‘Cognitive Processes
during Reading: Implications for the Use of Multimedia to Foster Reading
Comprehension’, G. in Bus and S. Neuman (eds) Multimedia and Literacy
Development, t 57–74. New York: Routledge.
9
The Effects of Literary Texts on
Students’ Sentence Recognition:
Translation Tasks and
Comprehension Tasks
Tomohide Ishihara and Akira Ono
1 Introduction
While the popularity of utilizing literary materials for English language

learning has diminished in Japan in the past few decades (see Chapter 2
in this volume), the effectiveness of using literary materials in second or
foreign language teaching has now been reevaluating (see Hall, 2005, for
a summary of the arguments on the use of literary materials in foreign
classrooms and a foundation for further discussion). In the Japanese
context, Kosako et al. (2010) and Yoshimura et al. (2013) have presented
examples of successful classroom activities using literary texts (see also
the other chapters in Part 2 of this volume for various case studies in the
EFL context).
Yet, researchers and teachers in Japan have yet to reach a consensus
regarding the effectiveness of using literary materials for EFL/ESL
instruction, partly due to a lack of empirical data determining how
students read literary texts or how they acquire literary reading skills.
Reading studies in the field of EFL teaching in Japan have focused on
how students understand the plot of a story and process the information
in a passage (e.g. Kimura, 2012; 2013), but they have paid little attention
to literary reading or the literariness of a text.
In the field of English literature in Japan, on the other hand, the
number of reports on language teaching using literary texts has been
notably increasing. Nonetheless, these reports still lack a methodo-
logical background and empirical data. Nishihara (2003) describes how
140
Effects of Literary Texts on Sentence Recognition 141
students read poetry in a second language (L2) and draws pedagogical

conclusions on how literary texts and literary reading can be used to
facilitate L2 acquisition. By and large, however, there is an insufficient
number of studies in this area.
Therefore, in this study, we employed a literary text as reading material
and attempted to describe how text types affect students’ reading. The
results will be presented along with the empirical data, so that our find-
ings will be compatible with other reading studies that have employed
a quantitative methodology. We expect this study to contribute signifi-
cant findings on L2 literary reading and subsequently to make a case for
the use of literary materials in EFL/ESL instruction.
2 Background of the study
2.1 Literary texts and literary reading

In reading courses in Japan, many teachers have been attempting to
motivate students to read strategically. In other words, the focus of the
teaching of reading has been to improve students’ reading strategies.
Students are encouraged to change their reading strategies according to
the text genre, the purpose of the reading and the tasks they are expected
to handle. They are trained to read a passage for particular information,
summarize the article, or to write essays on what they have read.
In the light of this trend, teachers and researchers in EFL should
consider how to develop students’ literary reading skills. According to
Rosenblatt (1978), literary reading – or, as Rosenblatt puts it, ‘aesthetic
reading’ – is characterized by the reader’s experience reading a literary
text; the reader’s attention is drawn to how the language is used besides
the content of the text, since the language in literature is often marked
or defamiliarized. Consequently, automatic understandings of the text
are disturbed, so promoting inferences about the writers’ intentions or
the implicit meaning of the text.
Previous studies (e.g. Hanauer, 1999; 2001; Miall and Kuiken, 1994;
1995; van Peer, 1983; Zwaan, 1996) show that how people read is affected
by neither their background knowledge of the literature nor the amount
of experience in reading literature. In other words, any reader, regardless
of background, seems to stop reading or slow his or her reading speed at
particular points in the passage in order to make inferences.
However, most of the studies described above were targeted at first
language (L1) readers and bilingual and advanced learners of English.
Thus, there remains the question of how applicable their findings are
to students who are novice or intermediate learners of English. The
142 Tomohide Ishihara and Akira Ono
participants in this study are in a Japanese context; nonetheless, the

findings should be of interest to educators who must address the needs
of lower-level English language learners in EFL settings in other contexts
as well.
2.2 Assessment of literary reading

When considering the use of literary materials in the L2 classroom,
teachers often face the problem of reading assessment. This may be one
of the most crucial issues because the line between appropriate interpre-
tation and misinterpretation is still open to dispute. To measure inter-
pretation, teachers primarily ask students for their personal responses
to literature. Yet, while this instruction encourages readers to interpret
literary texts rather freely, it is doubtful whether students’ sensitivity
alone is sufficient to measure appropriate literary reading. In this study,
we limit the issue of assessing literary reading to quantitative aspects so
that we can later discuss our findings in relation to previously conducted
reading studies.
One study that provided inspiration is Lin (2010: 193), who notes
that literary assessment should tame ‘the ability to identifyy the stylistic
features ... and account for their representational significance (or effects)
in (literary) texts’ (italic in original). Lin’s idea is to evaluate how much
attention students pay to linguistic/stylistic features while reading a
literary text. Although Lin uses the term ‘language awareness’ to refer
to the ability to detect and interpret stylistic devices in a text, the idea is
quite useful in consideration of how to assess students’ literary reading
because it can be done in a quantitative way.
Furthermore, to assess literary reading, it is useful to consider the
method used in cognitive psychology. Studies in this field employ recall
tasks to estimate the extent of students’ understanding of a passage and
the amount of attention they have paid to it. In recall tasks, students
are asked to reproduce what they remember. Among such tasks is the
recognition task, which is designed to evaluate students’ ability to recall
whether a particular word or sentence was in the passage they have read.
This task is used to estimate how much information in the text is stored
in the memory. Sometimes the sentence recognition task is employed,
as it is assumed to be useful to check if the students’ focus is on the form
or meaning of the text in the passage.
Muramoto (1994; 1998; 2000) conducted a series of studies employing
sentence recognition tasks, through which he tried to detect how partic-
ipants decode words and sentences, extract meanings from them and
integrate them into a structured mental model in their mind; results of
Muramoto’s study, however, were rather contradictory. On one hand,

the participants did not retain most of the information on surface struc-
tures (phonological, lexical and syntactic) in their memory after they
had read a passage, which means that the meaning of the sentences
tended to be integrated successively to form a holistic mental represen-
tation while the memory of how it described was eventually abandoned.
On the other hand, the participants did seem to retain some degree of
information on surface structures, as they successfully detected whether
the test sentences were ones they had read or not.
The findings of Muramoto’s studies suggest that the degree to which
this information is retained is still open to debate. Sanford and Graesser
(2006), for instance, state that some stylistic features, such as syntactic,
semantic and lexical information, unique layouts, and phonological
devices (rhythm, rhyming), help readers to retain surface information.
As Fukuda (2009) points out, how literary text affects students’ memory
still needs to be tested or verified in an empirically designed study.
2.3 Translation in language teaching

Another factor that affects students’ reading strategy is the task type.
A recent trend in the teaching of reading is to use skill-based training.
Accordingly, reading in the classroom tends to consist of skimming a
passage quickly for the gist or scanning it to find a specific piece of
information.
On the other hand, translation tasks, which are now mostly excluded
from classrooms, are being revisited by researchers and practitioners
such as Cook (2010), Witte et al. (2009) and Zabalbeascoa (1997). The
term Translation in Language Teaching (TILT), which is also the title
of Cook’s influential (2010) book, refers to the idea that the activity
of translation enhances EFL/ESL learners’ awareness of language, which
helps their language learning. Witte et al. (2009) collected representa-
tive articles on TILT in their book, helping to establish the background
of the field.
Yet, despite a recent remarkable attention on reconsidering the tasks,
translation tasks seem to be in need of scrutiny. The fields of transla-
tion studies and English education in Japan have had little discussion or
interaction with each other on the issue. Compared to the ample number
of linguistic and sociological analyses of translation and interpretation,
little concern has been paid to empirical investigations of how learners
translate and how translation can be taught. Also, in the English educa-
tion field, the matter of how translation tasks differ from other reading
tasks, such as comprehension tasks, has yet to be fully considered.
3 Method
3.1 Research questions

In the light of the findings and problems discussed in the previous
sections, this study aims to describe how students’ reading is affected
by text type and task type. The following two research questions (RQs)
are investigated:
RQ 1: Are literary texts more likely to draw students’ attention

towards the surface structure and enhance recognition of the
sentences than non-literary texts?
RQ 2: Are translation tasks more likely to draw students’ attention
towards the surface structure and enhance recognition of the
sentences than comprehension tasks?
3.2 Participants
The participants in this study were 141 Japanese university students
majoring in law, economics and business administration. According
to their scores in the TOEIC test, one of the most widely used English
proficiency tests in Japanese universities (shown below), their English
proficiency was from novice to pre-intermediate level. Many first- and
second-year Japanese university students who are not majoring in
English fall into this range.
Students were divided into two groups: seventy-three students were
assigned a literary text and the remaining sixty-eight a newspaper article.
The average TOEIC test scores were 354.46 (SD = 62.17; n = 65) for the
literary group, and 354.10 (SD = 68.29; n = 61) for the expository group,
with 15 students’ scores not available. The tt-test showed that there
was no significant difference between the two groups: t(124) = 0.37,
p = .98.
After the tasks, 19 students who had scored below two points out of
five on the comprehension task (see Section 3.4) were excluded from
the analysis because of their insufficient understanding of the passage.
Thus, the number of participants was 63 for the literary text and 59 for
the newspaper article.
3.3 Texts
The texts used in the study were (1) ‘The Old Bus’(1971), a short story
written by the American novelist Richard Brautigan, and (2) a news-
paper article ‘“Crunch time” prompting many firms to get into the
power game’, from The Nikkei Weeklyy on 4 June 2012.
Brautigan is one of the most widely read American novelists from the
1970s, and ‘The Old Bus’ is one of his 62 short stories that appear in
Revenge of the Lawns: Stories 1962–1970. As Fujimoto (2008) states in her
post-edit comment, Brautigan successfully describes the feelings of occlu-
sion and stagnation in America at the time as well as his own sense of
alienation. Particularly with his unique metaphorical expressions, he
succeeds in evoking rich images and unique feelings in his readers. We
identified ‘The Old Bus’ as one of his most successful short stories and we
anticipated that the study participants would enjoy reading it. The story
contains 481 words (34 sentences), which means that it is short enough to
be read by novice Japanese EFL students in a reasonable amount of time.
The newspaper article is about the shift from using electricity gener-
ated by nuclear power plants to using renewable energy in the wake of
the 11 March 2011 earthquake and tsunami that struck the northeastern
coast of Japan. The Nikkei Weeklyy is an established economic newspaper
in Japan, and the topic of the article was expected to be familiar to
participants and easy for them to read. The passage contains 444 words
(24 sentences), which was considered to make it a good companion to
the Brautigan text.
3.4 Tasks
The participants were assigned tasks during and after reading the texts.
There were two types of while-reading tasks: English-Japanese transla-
tion and true-or-false (T/F) comprehension questions. The after-reading
task was a sentence recognition task. These tasks are explained below.
(1) While-reading tasks: Translation and comprehension

The students were assigned a translation task and comprehension task
during their reading.
Translation tasks are often used in reading classrooms or as assign-
ments in Japan. We assigned three sentences in each passage for the
participants to translate into Japanese as they read. The sentences to
be translated were chosen based on the criteria that, for the Brautigan
passage, some unique metaphorical expressions were included, and
for the Nikkei passage, some English idioms were included, so that the
participants would conceivably struggle to translate them.
The comprehension task is also a very popular way to assess students’
understanding of a passage. We used T/F questions, in which students
are presented with a statement and asked to judge whether it is true or
false according to the passage. In order to hedge the risk of students
guessing, we asked the students not only whether each statement was
true or false, but also to correct the statement if they believed it was false
and to cite the line number of the information in the passage if they
believed it was true.
(2) After-reading task: Sentence recognition

After the participants had read the materials, we asked them to complete
a sentence recognition task. This task was conducted to investigate how
much of the surface information of the target sentences they retained.
The six target sentences in the task were taken from the translation
task (three sentences) and comprehension task (three sentences). We
prepared three types of sentence on the basis of the six target sentences
in the passage: (a) correct sentences, (b) paraphrased sentences and
(c) incorrect sentences.
We included the question ‘Do you think the sentences shown below
are in the passage? Select the number to describe how confident you
are’ in the instructions at the top of the A4 sheet and a confidence scale
(1: definitely not included in the passage ~ 7: definitely included in the
passage). Below the instructions, each sheet includes six target sentences
with three different variations (two correct sentences, two paraphrased
and two incorrect). Also, we prepared three versions of the sheet which
has different combinations of three types of sentences and handed
them out randomly to the participants in order to decrease the chance
of a measurement error for a particular target sentence. In short, all
the participants were required to judge six target sentences (two in the
correct form, two paraphrased and two incorrect) in terms of whether or
not they had read the sentences during the reading task.
Table 9.1 Examples of the three types of sentence in the sentence recognition
task
Sentence type Definition Example
(a) Correct The same sentence as in the She had a large purse and white
passage (i.e. target sentence). gloves that fit her hands like
the skins of vegetables
(b) Paraphrased The meaning of the target She had a large purse and white
sentence is retained while gloves that fit her hands tightly
the surface structure is
changed.
(c) Incorrect The meaning of the target She had a large purse and white
sentence is changed. gloves that didn’t fit her hands
at all
3.5 Procedure
The research was conducted in December 2012. We explained the aim
of the research to the participants, gave them instructions and handed
out the reading material; however, we left them uninformed about the
recognition tasks to be performed after the reading task. Subsequently,
students were given the option not to have their data used by writing
‘not participate’ on the handout before submitting it.
Before the while-reading tasks, we explained to the participants that
their scores on the task would not affect their grade in the class; the time
allowed for the task would be 40 minutes; and the use of dictionaries
would not be allowed. After the task, we conducted the after-reading
task. We handed them a sheet with the six sentences and asked them
to judge whether each sentence was in the passage they had just read.
After we were sure that all the participants had completed the task, we
collected the material for the recognition task.
4 Results and discussion
Table 9.2 shows the descriptive statistics for the sentence recognition
task.
The results of a 2 (text type: Brautigan, Nikkei) × 2 (task type: transla-
tion, comprehension) × 3 (sentence type: correct, paraphrased, incor-
rect) ANOVA show that there is no significant interaction among the
three factors, F (1.87, 224.54) = 0.60, p = .541, partial η2 = .005.
Although a 2 (text type) × 2 (task type) ANOVA does not show statistical
significance, F (1, 120) = 2.09, p = .151, partial η2 = .017, a 2 (text type) ×
3 (sentence type) ANOVA and a 2 (task type) × 3 (sentence type) ANOVA
show significant interaction between the factors, F (1.90, 228.18) = 7.27,
p = .001, partial η2 = .057; F (1.87, 224.54) = 34.12, p = .000, partial
η2 = .221, respectively.
Table 9.2 Descriptive statistics for the sentence recognition task
Sentence type
Correct Paraphrased Incorrect
Text type Task type M SD M SD M SD
Brautigan (n = 63) Translation 6.65 0.83 2.06 1.73 2.10 1.79

Comprehension 4.41 2.26 2.59 1.74 2.37 1.67
Nikkei (n = 59) Translation 5.97 1.90 2.63 2.12 3.07 2.18
Comprehension 4.53 1.95 3.41 1.96 3.46 2.18
The main effect of the text type is not significant for the correct
sentence condition, F (1, 120) = 0.10, p = .751, but is significant for the
paraphrased sentence condition, F (1, 120) = 4.12, p = .045. The main
effect of the task type is significant for both the correct sentence condi-
tion, F (1, 240) = 258.52, p = .000, and the paraphrased sentence condi-
tion, F (1, 120) = 53.37, p = .000.
In summary, the statistical analysis shows that (1) students who read
the literary text were less likely to misrecognize paraphrased sentences
and (2) sentences that were assigned to translation tasks were recog-
nized better in both the correct sentence condition and the paraphrased
sentence condition. These findings imply that a literary text and/or
translation task draws students’ attention to the surface structure of the
target sentences. Although the implications for EFL classrooms still need
to be discussed, it seems that the findings can be applied to facilitate
students’ vocabulary learning or to improve and develop their language
awareness as a literary text and/or translation task draws students’ focus
to the target vocabulary or grammar and also these items can be effec-
tively remembered.
5 Further research
This study empirically shows that the way EFL students read a literary text
is different from the way they read a newspaper article. Furthermore, it
illustrates that translation tasks are different from comprehension tasks
in that students focus on the sentences’ surface structure. While these
findings are encouraging and may provide guidance to language educa-
tors interested in using literary materials with lower-level EFL learners,
there remain two things that require further research.
First, it is necessary to clarify the relationship between the focus of
attention on sentence structure and L2 language acquisition. Research
on L2 acquisition has demonstrated that noticing is essential to learners’
acquisition of new linguistic items. However, few empirical researches
have been conducted on such issues as learning new vocabularies or
grammatical items by reading literary texts. In addition, applications to
the L2 classroom – that is, specific tasks or teaching materials – should
also be developed.
The other topic to be studied further is how these students’ focus
on sentence structure and linguistic features can be connected or
expanded to the interpretation of the text itself. From the perspective
of bottom-up stylistics approaches to literature, noticing text features
is the first step towards text interpretation, although the development
of students’ understanding and interpreting remains uninvestigated.

In addition, teachers need to give students guidance to bridge their
noticing of text features and their interpretation of the text in class-
room activities.
While this study contributes to empirical research on literary reading
in the EFL context, an area that has been largely untouched, by clari-
fying the characteristics of literary materials from the viewpoint of
students’ cognition, the abovementioned topics will be investigated in
future studies.
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10
Benefits of Teaching
Speech/Thought Presentation:
Developing Language Awareness
through Reading Austen and Eliot
Tetsuko Nakamura
1 Introduction
Japanese universities offer various English literary courses for undergrad-

uates specializing in English language and literature or studying literature
as part of secondary school English teacher-training programmes. These
courses are designed to expose students to a variety of literary texts and
approaches, improve their linguistic and literary understanding, and
instil knowledge of literary history and writers and their works. I taught
one such English literature course in 2013, which focused on 18th- and
19th-century women’s fiction and was taught in Japanese. The study of
pre-20th-century English fiction is essential for students specializing in
English or training to become English teachers, as it will enable them to
develop their language and literary scholarship. In this context, a focus
on speech and thought presentation in the teaching of traditional and
canonical fiction is meaningful: this approach helps students of litera-
ture to develop sensitivity to the way in which fictional characterization
is generated and controlled, and it helps those training to be teachers
to appreciate the extent to which language system contribute to the
production of literature. Language and literature are thus taught in
combination, allowing full exploitation of pedagogical stylistics, which
is a useful method of developing language awareness.
This chapter explores the pedagogical significance of teaching speech
and thought presentation to Japanese-speaking students. It also high-
lights the specific difficulties these students face, presents a tried and
151
152 Tetsuko Nakamura
tested pedagogical process, and recommends literary materials suitable

for those who are not familiar with stylistic approaches.
2 Pedagogical significance of speech/thought presentation
Speech and thought presentation has attracted academic interest since

Leech and Short (2007: 253–281) proposed five categories in each of
speech and thought presentations: narrator’s representation of speech/
thought act, indirect speech/thought, free indirect speech/thought,
direct speech/thought and free direct speech/thought. As Wales (2014:
39) says in discussing methods and sub-disciplines for stylistics, free
indirect discourse has long been ‘a preoccupation of both literary criti-
cism and stylistics in Europe’ and is regarded as ‘one of the major devices
of the representation of speech (and of thought) in classical fiction’.
Free indirect discourse, which has the grammatical features of indirect
discourse (in terms of tense and person) but maintains the voice in
direct discourse, is an effective narrative style used to merge the narra-
tor’s voice with that of the character, changing the impact on the reader
of the character’s speech or thought.
Native speakers of English are exposed from childhood to free indirect
discourse through stories and novels. This is seen, for example, in the
repetitive use of free indirect thought presentations in the first chapter of
Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, which effectively express Harry’s
uncle’s thoughts in reaction to the strange events he encounters. The
first example can be seen in the following passage:
For a second, Mr. Dursley didn’t realize what he had seen – then he
jerked his head around to look again. There was a tabby cat standing
on the corner of Privet Drive, but there wasn’t a map in sight. What
could he have been thinking of? It must have been a trick of the light.
Mr. Dursley blinked and stared at the cat. (Rowling, 1997: 7–8)
Even young children are thus expected to be sensitive to shifts in

the narrative voice and understand the representations of the char-
acters’ inner thoughts. However, Japanese EFL learners are generally
not aware of free indirect thought representations; none of about 50
first- and second-year students at intermediate or upper-intermediate
level whom I taught in 2013 could clearly point out the shifts when
they read the first chapter of this book by themselves. Japanese EFL
teachers therefore need to direct their attention to the development of
learners’ understanding of speech and thought presentation, because
Benefits of Teaching Speech/Thought Presentation 153
it is challenging for learners to recognize the mechanism and to

understand the effects of different modes of presentation. Without
doing so, however, they will be unable to appreciate the characters or
the story fully.
3 Difficulties in learning speech/thought presentation
The linguistic difficulties Japanese learners encounter in this context

arise from stylistic features associated with speech and thought pres-
entation in Japanese, mainly in association with tense and aspect, and
also person.1 In the first place, the presentation of speech and thought
in indirect discourse in Japanese is not affected by the sequence of verb
tenses seen in English and does not always refer to the person producing
the speech and thought in the third person, as seen in the following
example:
വƤઞƥ ƓǂƂ 30ૐரơ ‫ض‬Ƃ䊋ƙƜƅǂƕ

Watashi no haha wa, sore ga sanjunen-mae ni chichi ga katte kureta
[my mother] [it 30 years ago/before] [(my) father bought (for her)]
ǢǔόǾƖƞ 䁅ƍƜƅǂƕ
scarf dato hanashite kureta.
[is (a) scarf] [told (to me)]
N.B. The English words in round brackets do not appear in the

Japanese sentence.
English translation: My mother told me that it was a scarf my father

had bought her 30 years before.
Although the English translation includes ‘it was a scarf’ in the past
tense and ‘my father had bought her’ in the past perfect, the original
Japanese keeps the former in the present tense and the latter in the past
tense. In fact, since the Japanese language does not have perfect tenses,
‘sanjunen-mae ni’ is equivalent to both ‘30 years ago’ and ‘30 years
before’. In addition, the verbal phrases ‘katte kureta’ and ‘hanashite
kureta’ do not specify whom the actions are directed at, which can only
be inferred from the context. As a result, indirect speech in Japanese
sounds very similar to direct speech.
In the context of English–Japanese literary translation, Mano (2010)
points out that indirect speech in the original English should be presented
in direct speech in Japanese translation, because direct speech is more

natural to Japanese readers. This observation is essentially shared by
Nakagawa (1983) in her comments on free indirect style in English and in
Japanese; she remarks that tense and person in free indirect discourse in
Japanese are basically the same as those in direct discourse, and discusses
how Japanese writers use various linguistic devices to control the distance
between the voice of the speech/thought presenter and the reader. No
systematic framework of free indirect discourse exists in Japanese, and
Suzuki (2002) interestingly analyses the influence of free indirect discourse
in European languages on changes in free indirect style in Japanese.
Because of these differences between Japanese and English, the
teaching of speech and thought presentation is important to Japanese
EFL learners, who need to study this mechanism more attentively than
native speakers of European languages. Although free indirect style in
English is different from that in French and German, as seen in the
presentation of subordinate clauses, and that in Russian, as seen in the
tense and aspect of verbs (Fludernik, 1993), the differences between
English and Asian languages are far greater. Chinese does not have verb
conjugations or tense and employs its own mechanism of free indirect
style (Hagenaar, 1996; Nakazatomi, 2011). The Korean representation of
speech and thought is similar to that of Japanese in that it is not affected
by tense sequences or shifts in person (Jo, 1976). EFL teachers need to
be aware of the difficulties Asian students encounter in learning speech
and thought presentation in English.
4 Effective use of translation
Focusing on speech and thought presentation when teaching well known

traditional fiction allows EFL teachers to take advantage of translations.
Since translations of canonical novels are widely available in many
languages, teachers can have learners read these in their own time, along
with the explanatory information they usually contain. This allows
learners to assimilate the plots and lets teachers incorporate excerpts
from various novels or from different chapters of a single novel into
their teaching programmes without wasting time explaining plot details.
Teachers can also encourage learners to use the translated versions to
explore how speech and thought representation is used to develop char-
acterization. Translations are particularly helpful in courses involving
longer novels or for students with lower levels of English proficiency.
Linguistically, however, translations do not faithfully reflect the orig-
inal speech and thought presentations, which means that learners need
to read the original carefully to appreciate the full effect of the presen-
tations. Also, using more than one translation of the original can help
learners to enhance both their language awareness and their literary
appreciation. This comparative approach is especially worthwhile when
the interpretation of texts revolving around free indirect thought is not
straightforward. Teachers should, therefore, carefully explore ways to
make efficient use of translations, while always bearing in mind that
the main goal is to help learners to read and appreciate the texts in the
original language.
5 One-term literature lecture course
5.1 Course arrangements

In the literature lecture course I taught in the spring term of 2013, my
aim was to develop the students’ understanding of speech and thought
presentation by using excerpts from several 18th- and 19th-century
women’s novels. This optional course was open to second-, third- and
fourth-year undergraduates in the Department of English and American
Literature, and also to students in other Departments training to become
secondary school English teachers; seven native speakers of Japanese and
two of Korean (with good Japanese language proficiency) completed the
course requirements.
The novels featured in the course were Jane Austen’s Pride and
Prejudice (1813) and Emma (1815), George Eliot’s Adam Bede (1859),
Mary Wollstonecraft’s The Wrongs of Woman (1798), Clara Reeve’s
The Old English Baron (1778), and Maria Edgeworth’s Castle Rackrent
(1800), in that order. The excerpts from the Austen novels and Adam
Bede were longer and were dealt with in more detail than the others.
The Austen and Eliot excerpts included various types of speech and
thought presentation, while the excerpts from the other novels incor-
porated no free indirect discourse. The excerpt from The Wrongs of
Woman included an example of indirect speech with quotation marks,
and the one from The Old English Baron employed direct speech without
quotation marks but using dashes; the one from Castle Rackrentt incor-
porated different types of narrative – a main narrative by a steward,
and footnotes and a glossary created by the ‘editor’ of the main narra-
tive, who is also fictional. The students were not familiar with these
earlier presentation styles, so they gained an overview of some of the
historical changes that speech and thought presentation has under-
gone, and gained an awareness of the more sophisticated representa-
tions by Austen and Eliot.
All of these novels have one or more than one available Japanese
translation, and Pride and Prejudice and Emma have Korean translations;
students were free to choose whichever suited their own needs or
preferences.
Evaluation of the students’ progress was based mainly on their term
papers, in which they were requested to analyse speech and thought
presentation in any British novel. They could also submit, as an optional
task, samples of their own writing containing examples of free indirect
discourse together with any other mode of speech and thought presenta-
tion. This task was intended to gauge to what extent the students had
mastered the mechanisms of discourse and the use of free indirect style.
In the following sub-sections, I will discuss a step-by-step pedagogical
approach to Austen and Eliot that helps novice students to develop their
understanding of the mechanisms of speech and thought presentation
and to improve their literary appreciation of the text.
5.2 Introductory approach: Pride and Prejudice

The students were first introduced to the first chapter of Pride and Prejudice.
The famous first and second sentences are the key to understanding the
cultural context of contemporary marriage, but the succeeding conversa-
tion between Mr and Mrs Bennet is vital in understanding their relation-
ship and the context surrounding the Bennets. This scene is dominated
by direct speech, which is easier for students to follow and is therefore
beneficial in introducing them to speech and thought presentation and
its effects in novels. The pedagogical value of this text is pointed out by
Lambrou in Chapter 19, who selected this opening passage as one of the
texts her students could analyse in a mini-lesson.
Just the beginning of the conversation presented below is sufficient to
convey the kind of relationship Mr and Mrs Bennet have.
‘My dear Mr. Bennet,’ said his lady to him one day, ‘have you heard
that Netherfield Park is let at last?’
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
‘But it is,’ returned she; ‘for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told
me all about it.’
Mr. Bennet made no answer.
‘Do not you want to know who has taken it?’ cried his wife
impatiently
p y.
‘You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.’
This was invitation enough.*
‘Whyy, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is
y
taken by a young man of large fortune from the north of England;
that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to see the place,
and was so much delighted with it, that he agreed with Mr. Morris
immediately; that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and
some of his servants are to be in the house by the end of next week.’
‘What is his name?’
‘Bingley.’
‘Is he married or single?’
‘Oh! single,
g , my
y dear,, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or
five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!’
‘How so? how can it affect them?’
‘My dear Mr. Bennet,’ replied his wife, ‘how can you
y be so tiresome!
You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.’
‘Is that his design in settling here?’
‘Design!
g nonsense,, how can y you talk so! But it is very likely that he
mayy fall in love with one of them, and therefore you must visit him
as soon as he comes.’2 (Austen, 2012: 2, 4; underlining and bold
emphases are mine)
Mrs Bennet’s very talkative, highly emotional and over-reactive nature

is presented through the use of interjections and exclamation marks
together with the narrator’s representation of her speech (e.g. ‘cried his
wife impatiently’), as indicated with underlines. Her vivid clarity and
directness serve to create a certain distance between Mr Bennet and the
reader. In addition, Mr Bennet’s reserved attitude is symbolically indi-
cated by the two boldfaced sentences – the first in indirect speech, and
the second in the narrator’s representation of the speech act.
Students were directed to pay attention not only to the features and
effects of the two characters’ speech but also to the narrator’s ironic
voice presented in the line marked with an asterisk: ‘This was invitation
enough’, a comment that signals Mr Bennet’s generally sarcastic way of
communicating with his wife. The students were encouraged to note
the effect of the narrator’s voice in guiding and controlling the reader’s
appreciation of the characters.
The characterizations of the couple are in a way confirmed in a kind
of summary of their characters at the end of the chapter: ‘Mr. Bennet
was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour, reserve, and
caprice.... She [Mrs. Bennet] was a woman of mean understanding, little
information, and uncertain temper’ (Austen, 2012: 6). This structural

arrangement was pointed out, as was the importance of paying atten-
tion to characterization through the dialogues presented in novels.
The most recently published Japanese translation was useful for
developing language awareness. There are many discrepancies between
the original English and the translation, including the indirect speech
marked in boldface above: ‘Mr. Bennet replied that he had not’. This is
translated into direct speech in Japanese, but without Japanese quota-
tion marks: ‘źƺ㘲źƜƠźƣƞȂǶǬǱ೩[Iya, kiitenai ne, to
Bennet-shi] ’ (Nakano, 2003: I, 7), which is equivalent to ‘No, I had not,
said Mr. Bennet’. The translator uses direct speech, because it sounds
natural in Japanese; however, his omission of Japanese quotation marks
makes Mr Bennet’s speech seem somewhat indirect and points up his
reserved attitude. This contrasts with Mrs Bennet’s forwardness, as
demonstrated via the normal mode of direct speech. Thus, this short
passage was effective in promoting the student’s language awareness in
both English and Japanese.
After dealing with direct and indirect speech presentation in connec-
tion with characterization, the course went on to consider thought pres-
entation as featured in the scene following Darcy’s letter’s revelation
of the truth to Elizabeth in Volume II, Chapter 13. This scene is one
of the climaxes of the novel, marking the point where Elizabeth’s feel-
ings towards Darcy begin to change. Her reflections here are effectively
presented through the use of different modes of thought presentation
together with monological speech. It was relatively easy for the students
to recognize the shifts in the modes of thought presentation in the
following passage:
From herself to Jane – from Jane to Bingley, her [Elizabeth’s]

thoughts were in a line which soon brought to her recollection that
Mr. Darcy’s explanation there, had appeared very insufficient; and she
read it again. Widelyy different was the effect of a second p
perusal. –
How could she deny that credit to his assertions, in one instance,
which she had been obliged to give in the other [Wickham]? – He
declared himself to have been totally unsuspicious of her sister’s
attachment; – and she could not help remembering what Charlotte’s
opinion had always been. – Neither could she deny the justice of his
description of Jane. – She felt that Jane’s feelings, though fervent,
were little displayed, and that there was a constant complacency in
her air and manner, not often united with great sensibility. (Austen,
2012: 406; the underlining is mine)
Since the underlined inverted sentence shows a stark contrast with the
previous simple explanatory ‘and she read it again’, the students could
intuitively sense the difference in tone. The following rhetorical ques-
tion also helped them to understand the stream of Elizabeth’s thoughts,
and attention was also directed to the function of the dashes frequently
used. Focusing on this type of shift in thought presentation, teachers
can comfortably introduce students to free indirect thought. In this
passage, the students were also expected to notice the transition from
free indirect thought to indirect thought; the second that-clause
t in the
last sentence (‘She felt that …’) clearly indicates it to be an indirect
thought presentation.
By the use of separate excerpts from Pride and Prejudice, beginning
with grammatically simple speech representations significantly asso-
ciated with character development, I proceeded to deal with thought
presentation, including free indirect style. In order to ensure students’
understanding of this approach, I next employed an excerpt of the
conversation between Miss Bates and Emma (Vol. II, Ch. 1) in which
the former endlessly speaks and the latter shows some reluctance to
continue the conversation. The character contrast is as intriguing as that
at the beginning of Pride and Prejudice.
5.3 Approach to thought presentation in Adam Bede

In the next step, my focus was on the more complicated thought pres-
entation found in Chapters 12 and 13 of Eliot’s first full-length novel,
Adam Bede, which is somewhat easier for students to work on than her
later novels. The following passage was included in the excerpt I dealt
with in the classroom. In this scene, Arthur Donnithorne, the landlord’s
heir, is vacillating over whether to contrive to meet Hetty, the heroine,
on her way to a housekeeper’s room for a handicraft lesson. Ultimately,
Arthur meets Hetty, triggering the intimate relationship that leads to
her fatal destiny. Arthur’s bewilderment is considered a key to under-
standing both his character and the development of the plot; his free
indirect thought is indicated in bold:
‘Salkeld [a colleague of Arthur’s] would have drunk a bottle of port

every day,’ he muttered to himself; ‘but I’m not well-seasoned
enough for that. Well, since I can’t go to Eagledale, I’ll have a gallop
on Rattler to Norburne this morning, and lunch with Gawaine [a
friend of Arthur’s].’
Behind this explicit resolution there lay an implicit one. If he
lunched with Gawaine and lingered chatting, he should not
reach the Chase again till nearly five, when Hetty would be safe
out of his sight
g in the housekeeper’s room; and when she set out
to go home, it would be his lazy time after dinner, so he should
keepp out of her way y altogether. There really would have been no
harm in being kind to the little thing, and it was worth dancing
with a dozen ball-room belles only to look at Hetty for half an
hour. But perhaps he had better not take any more notice of her;
it might put notions into her head, as Irwine had hinted; though
Arthur, for his part, thought girls were not by any means so soft and
easily bruised; indeed, he had generally found them twice as cool
and cunning as he was himself. As for any real harm in Hetty’s
case, it was out of the question: Arthur Donnithorne accepted his
own bond for himself with perfect confidence. (Eliot, 2008: 115–116;
underlining and bold emphases are mine)
The second paragraph as a whole indicates how strongly Arthur desires

to meet Hetty, even though he is in a situation where he could easily
miss the chance. However, the expression of his essentially selfish desire
is skilfully controlled so that he does not appear to be an amorous and
irresponsible womanizer. The underlined expressions ‘be safe out of
his sight’ and ‘keep out of her way’ help to confirm to the reader that
he does not want to bring any harm to Hetty: Eliot could have used
more neutral expressions (simply ‘be out of his sight’ and ‘not have any
chance to meet her’, respectively). Arthur’s concern for Hetty is thus
implied and his integrity is maintained to some extent. Although these
two expressions are delivered as Arthur’s, they clearly reflect the narra-
tor’s intention to depict him as considerate and caring. The students
were thus directed to discern the voice of the narrator through Arthur’s
thought representation.
The dual voices embedded in narratives have been recurrently
discussed in many ways, and the difficulties associated with the way
the narrator colours thought presentation have attracted attention
(Fludernik, 1993; Herman and Vervaeck, 2007). Although the two
underlined examples above might appear trivial, they should be evalu-
ated in the wider context of Eliot’s habit of having narrators frequently
expound their own views in her novels. In the classroom, referring to a
couple of example passages in which Eliot’s narrators suddenly present
themselves in the texts, I focused the students’ attention on the narra-
tor’s controlling of the characters’ voices and the significance of double-
voiced discourse in Eliot’s novels. This approach is in line with the
theory of polyphony promulgated by Mikhail Bakhtin, based on which,

Lodge (1990) explored the network of voices that weave the text of
Middlemarch. Since he thus elucidated the indeterminacy of the text and
the irresponsible narrator, this novel has often been viewed from the
perspective of narratology and stylistics (Teranishi, 2008). I explained
this background context in the classroom and encouraged the students
to expand their literary perspectives. Eliot’s later novels tend to appeal
more to academics, but Adam Bede shows a glimpse of the expertise that
is abundantly in evidence in her later novels.
The presentation of Arthur’s free indirect thoughts through the narra-
tor’s voice in the above passage and other passages in Adam Bede helps
to contrast Arthur with Hetty, whose inner thoughts and feelings are
rarely explored in the novel. Hetty is frequently depicted with reference
to small animals, which cannot communicate verbally (Marshall, 1997),
while her physical reactions to communication are frequently empha-
sized in the novel (Nakamura, 2016). Such features discourage readers
from viewing the story from Hetty’s point of view and prepare them
to see her punishment for infanticide as well deserved. The narrator
thus controls the reader’s perspectives on the characters, and the speech
and thought presentations play a significant role in this respect. Thus, I
taught a literary approach revolving around speech and thought presen-
tation, and benefitting from pedagogical stylistics.
5.4 Students’ achievements

The main purpose of this literary course was to teach speech and thought
presentation and its effects on the reader’s appreciation of characters,
and the approach functioned as a bridging discipline between linguis-
tics and literature. The main assignment the students were required to
submit was a term paper focusing on literary analysis of speech and
thought discourse in novels. This was optionally supplemented by a
more language-based assignment to write a fictional episode – a story
based on personal experience or an adaptation of an existing narrative
or drama; the episode had to include free indirect discourse.
The novels the students selected for discussion in the term papers
were as follows: Pride and Prejudice (two students), Sense and Sensibility
(two students), Mansfield Park, Jane Eyre, Mrs Dalloway, ‘A Stone Woman’
(by A. S. Byatt), and Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (one student
each). The level of textual analysis ranged from a clear lack of ability to
recognize free indirect discourse to a demonstration of textual under-
standing sufficient to allow appreciation of the characters and other
features of the novels. In the pedagogical context, the following results

are suggestive:
1. Two of the nine students were unable to demonstrate a clear under-

standing of free indirect discourse.
2. Two of the seven students who showed a satisfactory understanding
of speech and thought presentation referred to discrepancies between
the original English passages and their Japanese translations.
a. Student A discussed the transition from free indirect discourse in
English to direct discourse in Japanese.
b. Student B pointed out that the subjects of Japanese sentences
tend to be omitted, which makes free indirect discourse in
English appear to be free direct discourse in Japanese translation.
This phenomenon is reinforced by the fact that, unlike English,
Japanese is not rich in verb tenses. Although free direct discourse
was only briefly explained in the classroom, this student demon-
strated a clear understanding of this mode in relation to Japanese
translation.
3. The student who chose to deal with Jane Eyre, a first-person novel,
had difficulty differentiating the narrator’s descriptions of her memo-
ries of what she did and thought at one point in the past from free
indirect discourse in which her past speech or thoughts as the heroine
of the narrative are presented. The student’s lack of comprehension
owes much to the frequent occupation of sentence-subject posi-
tion by the narrator, and to the fact that Japanese-speaking students
tend to have trouble accurately grasping English verb tenses. Novels
written in the first person had actually been ruled out as materials for
this course because of the complexity of the agreement between the
narrator and the agent.
4. Two other students discussed the character developments of Elinor
and Marianne in Austen’s Sense and Sensibilityy (1811), applying the
approach they had learned in this course to another of Austen’s
novels.
5. The other two focused on some passages from each work and atten-
tively followed the changes in the character’s mind through an
analysis of speech and thought representations. One analysed a
contemporary short story (‘A Stone Woman’) and correctly pointed
out examples of direct speech representations without quotation
marks, presumably having recognized them from similar examples in
The Old English Baron, which was covered in the course.
I did not recognize any particular differences between the Japanese and
Korean students. Their native languages share features related to tense
and person, as a result of which they showed similar comprehension
difficulties in their papers. The main problem for all of the students was
polyphonic representations of speech and thought, but some of them
were conscious of the narrators’ use of speech and thought presentations
to develop characterization. The student who wrote about Mansfield
Park appropriately referred to the narrator’s sarcastic voice embedded in
a free indirect speech presentation of Mrs Norris’s words.
The difficulties surrounding free indirect discourse demonstrated in
the term papers were also seen in the optional writing tasks submitted
by six of the students. All six included direct discourse and free indi-
rect discourse, and also, interestingly, free direct discourse in their
passages, but only one incorporated indirect discourse. This limited
use of indirect discourse is largely explained by the fact that, in
Japanese, direct discourse is preferred to indirect discourse, which
essentially does not sound natural. The students’ preference for free
direct discourse, on the other hand, can probably be largely explained
by the fact that there is no mode equivalent to free indirect discourse
in Japanese; students are not used to employing the tense/person shifts
necessary to write free indirect discourse in English. Therefore, they
tend to produce free direct discourse when they should write free indi-
rect discourse. Here is a typical example (the protagonist has received
a gift): ‘A brown stuffed rabbit appeared on wrapping paper. It was
smaller and dirtier than in her memory. But how can she mistake her
best friend! It is Mimi. Memories in her childhood were revived’ (the
underlining is mine). The underlined part is free direct speech; since
the student’s writing includes only one very short sentence of free
indirect speech, these two sentences are likely to have been intended
as examples of free indirect speech, the inclusion of which was a main
requirement.
It is understandable that all six of the students’ passages included
free direct discourse maintaining the present tense, as seen in Japanese
translations of free indirect discourse in English. Certainly, the students
were not very conscious of the importance of tense sequences. On the
surface, many of the free direct discourse examples included in the six
passages demonstrate simple mistakes in English verb tense sequencing;
however, the fundamental problem is rooted in differences between
English and Japanese, and maybe between English and Korean. Again,
I did not observe any particular differences between the Japanese and
Korean students in this task. I should point out, however, that neither
the intentions of the students in using free direct discourse nor the
influence of the Korean language on the Korean students’ writing are
examined here.
In terms of teaching speech and thought presentation, then, teachers
should understand the differences between English and learners’ native
languages and teach them the appropriate mechanisms for carrying out
various kinds of discourse. In this respect, non-native English teachers
familiar with stylistics certainly have an important role to play in
teaching English language and literature.
6 Conclusion
In a course on 18th- and 19th-century women’s novels, I focused on

teaching speech and thought presentation to Japanese and Japanese-
speaking Korean undergraduates who had only a basic knowledge of the
functions of direct and indirect speech. Using various texts from tradi-
tional novels by Austen and Eliot that included sophisticated examples
of free indirect discourse, I employed a pedagogical stylistics approach
to offer the students opportunities to acquire language skills while at
the same time promoting their appreciation of literature. Most of the
students gained an understanding of the mechanisms of speech and
thought presentation and of the significance of these mechanisms in
discourse representations, thus strengthening their appreciation of the
characters and of the novels themselves.
Published translations of the novels helped students to expand their
coverage of fictional texts and develop language awareness in both
English and Japanese, as clearly demonstrated in some of their term
papers, which discussed speech and thought representations in works
of their choosing.
However, not all of the students who completed the course fully
mastered speech and thought presentation. The most significant
hindrance to mastery of this element of discourse is structural differ-
ences, especially in tense and person, between English and Japanese
(and presumably also between English and Korean), as I clearly observed
in my analysis of their term papers and assignments in which they were
required to write fictional episodes including free indirect speech. In this
context, teachers who are proficient in the learners’ native languages
certainly have a pedagogical advantage in their ability to adopt a stylistic
approach in the classroom.
Notes
1. Soga (1983) provides the whole picture of the grammatical frameworks of
tense and aspect in the Japanese language; Kuno’s discussion (1976) aids
understanding of person in constituent clauses in Japanese.
2. From the pedagogical point of view, annotated editions of novels are helpful
to EFL learners.
References
Austen, J. (2012) The Annotated Pride and Prejudice, ed. D. M. Shapard, Revised and
expanded edn. New York: Anchor Books.
Eliot, G. (2008) Adam Bede, ed. C. A. Martin, Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford:
Fludernik, M. (1993) The Fictions of Language and the Languages of Fiction: The
Linguistic Representation of Speech and Consciousness. Abingdon: Routledge.
Hagenaar, E. (1996) ‘Free Indirect Speech in Chinese’, in T. A. J. M. Janssen and
W. Van Der Wurff (eds) Reported Speech: Forms and Functions of the Verb, 289–298.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Herman, L. and Vervaeck, B. (2007) ‘Ideology’, in D. Herman (ed.) The Cambridge
Companion to Narrative, 217–230. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jo, Mi-Jeung (1976) ‘The Retrospective Suffix and Speech Level of Narration in
Korean’, Applied Linguistics, 8 (1): 57–79.
Kuno, S. (1976) ‘Subject Raising’, in M. Shibatani (ed.) Japanese Generative
Grammar, r Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 5, 17–49. New York: Academic Press.
Leech, G. and Short, M. (2007 [1981]) Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to
English Fictional Prose. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Lodge, D. (1990) After Bakhtin: Essays on Fiction and Criticism. London: Routledge.
Mano, Y. (2010) Eigo no Shikumi to Yakushi-kata [The Structure of English and
Japanese Translation]. Tokyo: Kenkyusha.
Marshall, J. B. (1997) ‘Gossip, Metaphor, and Intimacy: Narrative Syntax in the
Treatment of Hetty Sorel’, in P. Gately, D. Leavens and D. C. Woodcox (eds)
Perspectives on Self and Community in George Eliot: Dorothea’s Window, 125–162.
Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Nakagawa, Y. (1983) Jiyukansetsu-waho: Eigo no Shosetsu ni Miru Keitai to Kino
[Free Indirect Speech: Its Forms and Functions in English Novels]. Kyoto:
Apollon-sha.
Nakamura, T. (2016) ‘Characterisation and the Modes of Communication and
Reflection: A Stylistic Analysis of George Eliot’s Adam Bede’, forthcoming.
Nakano, K., trans. (2003) Koman to Henken [Pride and Prejudice], by J. Austen,
2 vols. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo.
Nakazatomi, S. (2011) ‘Chugoku-go no Jiyukansetsu-waho ni tsuite [Free Indirect
Discourse in Chinese]’, Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies (Kansai
University) Suppl. 7: 123–139.
Rowling, J. K. (1997) Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. London:
Bloomsbury.
Soga, M. (1983) Tense and Aspect in Modern Colloquial Japanese. Vancouver:
University of British Columbia Press.
Suzuki, Y. (2002) ‘The Acceptance of “Free Indirect Discourse”: A Change in the

Representation of Thought in Japanese’, in T. Güldemann and M. von Roncador
(eds) Reported Discourse: A Meeting Ground for Different Linguistic Domains,
109–120. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Teranishi, M. (2008) Polyphony in Fiction: A Stylistic Analysis off Middlemarch,
Nostromo, and d Herzog. Bern: Peter Lang.
Wales, K. (2014) ‘The Stylistic Tool-Kit: Methods and Sub-Disciplines’, in
P. Stockwell and S. Whiteley (eds) The Cambridge Handbook of Stylistics, 32–45.
11
Teaching English Novels in the
EFL Classroom
Masayuki Teranishi
1 Introduction
This chapter has two main aims: one is to clarify what EFL students
can and should learn from authentic English literary fiction. For this
purpose I shall consider specifically the extent to which English litera-
ture and language studies can collaborate. My second aim is to examine
whether the teaching of literature should be incorporated into foreign
language education: should students learn literature exclusively through
instruction in their native language, or could reading and studying liter-
ature in English facilitate greater depth in learning? To answer these
questions, data has been collected from students enrolled in an English
literature course at a Japanese university. This chapter will present the
methodology behind the course and show an analysis of student data;
furthermore, the pedagogical implications of English language and
English literature education working in concert, both in classrooms in
Japan and around the world, will be considered.
2 Using literature in the EFL classroom: extensive reading,

intensive reading and stylistics
As Takahashi explains in detail in Chapter 2 of this volume, since a

focus upon the improvement of oral communication skills has become
a priority in Japanese English education, it has often been argued that
literary texts are irrelevant to reaching this goal and should therefore be
driven away from English lessons. Setting aside the heated discussion
on who is to blame for this regrettable tendency, it should be stressed
that the methods and the appropriate choice of materials for teaching
English and/through literature need further study. In fact, it is difficult
167
168 Masayuki Teranishi
to find teaching methods and materials appropriate for Japanese EFL

students due to a wide range of issues that must be taken into consid-
eration, such as English proficiency, the cultural and social background
required to appreciate specific literary texts, and knowledge of literary
conventions and how to apply them to actual reading.
A popular Japanese method for the teaching of literature is still the
verbatim translation of a fragment of a work from English into Japanese.
This methodology has demerits, despite some positive aspects: learning
to adequately translate English into one’s native language is a signifi-
cant process in foreign language acquisition, through which a student
can become sensitive to the differences between the two languages (see
Chapter 10 by Nakamura and Chapter 13 by Sakamoto). Also, as Ishihara
and Ono suggest in Chapter 9 of this volume, the translation may
facilitate EFL learners’ retention of their target language. Furthermore,
the translation provides an entry point for EFL readers, helping them
to interpret and enjoy the text, however small, as a part of a literary
piece of work. On the other hand, such a translation is not necessarily
evidence of a full appreciation of the work, or even acquisition of the
target language, since some literary, stylistic and narratological devices
in authentic works, such as rhymes and points of view, are untranslat-
able or get lost in translation (see Boase-Beier, 2014).
Language-based approaches to literature in EFL have often been asso-
ciated with stylistics (Carter and McRae, 1996) and, in Japan, transla-
tion. On the other hand, extensive reading (ER) has recently become
a method of (re)introducing literary works into Japanese EFL class-
rooms (see Chapter 17 by Fukaya and Chapter 18 by Sheehan). The
basic discipline and principle behind ER is based upon Krashen’s (1982;
2004) belief that learners can acquire the target language by exposure
to ‘comprehensible input’. Along with a variety of other genres, such as
non-fiction and essays, simplified (‘retold’) versions of classical litera-
ture play a significant role in ER programmes; even beginner learners
who may be allergic to English reading can find and read suitable books.
Many English teachers also believe that reading extensively and enjoy-
ably may solve some problems that arise from word-by-word translation
or grammatical or stylistic analysis (see Gower, 1986).
However, ER also has some downsides, especially when retold versions
of literary texts are employed. Carroli (2008: 11), for example, points out
that simplified texts are ‘denuded of depth because the cultural content
is often diminished and trivialized’ and they ‘devalue the literary nature
of the text’. Thus ER’s most severe critics include literary scholars
who appreciate the value of original texts as well as linguists who are
Teaching English Novels in the EFL Classroom 169
concerned with the skilful use of language in literature. In fact, the

huge gap between the original and retold versions may cause scholars,
teachers and even students to doubt that they are reading ‘literature’. In
many retold versions, not only vocabulary and syntax but also literary
tropes are simplified or cut. While many of these graded retellings attract
readers through their simplified presentation of stories, some literary
works owe their value to the elaborate way the story has been crafted. In
that case, once the original version has been simplified, the value of the
text as a work of literature can be called into question.
Such differences are noticeable in two versions of Henry James’s
Washington Square (1880), for instance. The following is a passage from
the original version in which the character Morris confesses his love for
another character, Catherine.
Catherine received the young man the next day on the ground she
had chosen – amid the chaste upholstery of a New York drawing-
room furnished in the fashion of fifty years ago. ... What Morris had
told Catherine at last was simply that he loved her, or rather adored
her. (James, 2007 [1880]: 56–57)
In the retold version, the same scene is revised as follows:
The next day Morris came to the house. He told Catherine that he
loved her. (James, 1999 [1880]: 15)
Obviously the retold version is written in a much simpler form than

the original. More significantly, the narrator’s opinion, or what Labov
(1972) defines as evaluation, expressed by evaluative adverbial phrases
such as ‘at last’ and ‘simply’ in the original, is omitted and literariness
disappears. Some EFL learners may find it mediocre because it is too
simple, even compared with everyday conversations and texts.
One of the advantages of the retold versions is that they are more
accessible than the original versions and should be recommended for
EFL learners to familiarize themselves with a variety of famous works in
a foreign culture. On the other hand, students should also be encouraged
to read the original version so that they can appreciate what is missing
in the retold version. For this purpose, students should be instructed
in how to tackle authentic literary works. Specifically, they need to be
familiar with stylistic, narrative and literary devices, many of which are
often deleted in the retold version but are essential to fully appreciate
the value of literature. This is the primary reason why authentic texts
from English novels have been employed in my own lessons; the details
will be described below.
3 Content of lessons
3.1 Why English novels?

The lessons analysed in this chapter are part of a course entitled ‘English
and American Literature’. The course is composed of 15 classes; each
class is 90 minutes. The course was taught to 31 students in 2010 and
55 students in 2012. The structure of the course involves three scholars
taking turns to present the essence of English and American literature
in their allocated classes (I teach four 90-minute classes). Since the two
other professors are specialists in drama and poetry, a good curricular
reason for my teaching fiction presented itself.
The main reason for the choice of materials is, however, my assump-
tion that English as a Foreign Language and literary studies can comple-
ment each other through an examination of the language of fiction.
Sophisticated fiction encourages students to concentrate on language
that reflects authorial intentions and the themes of the work. Moreover,
some Realist or Pre-modernist English novels may be relevant to the
context in which they are produced and this relevance has often
attracted literary critics’ attentions. The use of a reliable first-person
narrator in a 19th-century Realist work of fiction, for instance, could
be regarded as reflecting a stable atmosphere in society; what happened
at the turn of the 19th century (i.e. the change in the view of reality,
from belief – absolute and external – to doubt – relative and internal)
should influence the fiction produced around this period (Modernist),
in which unreliable narrators or multiple viewpoints are employed; in
the postwar period, the existence of reality itself is often questioned and
this nihilistic atmosphere is reflected in the anarchical and fragmentary
textual features of some Postmodernist fiction (see Teranishi, 2008). EFL
students can learn linguistic features while pursuing the literary inter-
pretation of the authentic work by connecting language features with
social, cultural and historical contexts which contributed to the produc-
tion of that particular work.
3.2 Students
Students enrolled in the course described above are second- and third-
year students at a Japanese public university that offers an interdisci-
plinary programme where the relationship between the environment
and human beings is of great importance. Like many other Japanese

university students, they regard English as a Foreign Language and
English communication skills as important tools for global communica-
tion; literature is taught as a part of general education. Most students are
unlikely to pursue the study of English literature, or to use knowledge
and skills acquired in that field after graduation. On the other hand,
most students enjoy reading Japanese ‘light novels’, a style of Japanese
novel mainly targeting middle and high school students. Students in
this course have an average level of English proficiency in comparison
with national levels (TOEIC 400–700).
3.3 Goals
As Figure 11.1 shows, the abilities or skills that EFL students should learn
through reading English literature can be divided into two categories:
language skills (practical communication skills in particular) and literary
skills (critical ability, awareness of literariness, creativity, etc.).
While the two kinds of skill are located at opposite ends of the scale,
they never contradict but often reinforce each other. Between the two
categories are some abilities and skills that can be improved ‘incidentally’
by reading literary texts, such as critical thinking and the deepening
of knowledge of culture and society. Since few students in the course
plan to become translators or English teachers, or professional writers
or literary critics, gaining advanced skills and knowledge in English
language or literature does not strongly motivate students, whereas
improving such ‘incidental’ skills and knowledge may be regarded as
more important. Considering students’ aptitude, as well as their plans,
several goals have been set for students to achieve through my lessons,
from basic to advanced.
• to appreciate life
• cross-cultural
understanding
Skills for: Skills for:
• interpreter Language aspects Literary aspects • writer
• translator • literary critic
• knowledge of society
• critical thinking
Figure 11.1 Knowledge and skills to be improved through reading English

literature
The basic goals include:
1. to improve knowledge of three different genres of fiction (Realist,

Modernist and Postmodernist);
2. to point out aspects peculiar to each mode of writing.
These goals are considered achievable for students who attend lectures
regularly and engage with course materials.
The intermediate to advanced-level goals include:
3. to appreciate the nature of each literary work by paying attention to

how language works in it;
4. to develop possible meanings of texts by inferring the theme of the
novel, the authorial intention, as well as the social, cultural and
historical contexts in which the text was produced;
5. to critically reconsider the established definition of the significant
modes of writing (e.g. Modernism) and renew the definition of the
terms.
These challenging goals require theoretical applications and/or critical

thinking. For example, to fulfil goal 5, students need to define Realist,
Modernist and Postmodernist fiction not only as peculiar to a particular
historical time in Western culture (as explained by many introductory
textbooks on English literature) but also as modes of writing which
appeared regardless of time and place. Thus these goals are suitable for
those who are serious enough to improve their knowledge of English
literature and their skills in reading it. Relevant to what the students can
learn ‘incidentaly’ as well, the goals (5 in particular) are also concerned
with the improvement of critical thinking skills essential to live as adults
in society after graduation.
All the students are also asked to read my chosen fictional works in
English for the improvement of language skills. Although reading in
English is not always easy for Japanese EFL students, achieving this task
was not included in the advanced goals because the course is ‘English
and American Literature’ and the skills for reading literature should be
emphasized more than English language skills.
3.4 Teaching method and materials

My four lessons were divided into lectures and practice tasks, so that
students could apply what they had learned to the actual reading and
interpretation of literary fiction. In the lectures, students were provided
with basic knowledge of the terms (Realism, Modernism, etc.). They were
also presented with introductory ideas on the narratological and stylistic
features characterizing the different modes of fiction. Subsequently, the
students themselves read and analysed selected texts to check for rele-
vant features.
In the lectures, several seminal and introductory books, such as
Bradbury and McFarlane (1976), Brooker (1992), Childs (2000), Lodge
(1977), Malpas (2004) and Morris (2003), were referred to. Childs (2000),
for instance, explains Modernist theories and writings by focusing upon
people, scientific theories and discoveries, and the philosophy which
contributed to changes in the concept of ‘reality’. He focuses upon six
key persons who influenced the Modernist movement: Marx, Darwin,
Freud, Nietzsche, Saussure and Einstein. To provide an example of how
these ideas were incorporated into the lessons, it may be instructive to
describe how I introduced Einstein in the literature classroom.
One of the most significant features of Modernist fiction is ‘[t]he
tendency towards narrative relativity’ (Childs, 2000: 66), as shown in
the prevalence of multiple viewpoints and unreliable narrators. In this
connection, Einstein’s scientific findings are particularly significant
because the possibility of two contradictory truths being existent is
scientifically proved. In the lecture, the concept of narrative relativity
was introduced in connection with Einstein’s theory of relativity so
that the students could realize that seemingly strange narrative struc-
tures and literary devices of Modernist fiction are connected to such a
groundbreaking idea. This introduction was followed by a discussion
of the difference between the Realist novel, in which ‘[r]eliable, objec-
tive narrators encompassed the single perspective of a world governed
by consistent, dependable scientific laws’, and Modernist fiction,
in which time was expressed as ‘moving in arcs, flashbacks, jumps,
repetitions and, above all, subjective leaps and swerves’ and ‘[s]pace
was compressed, oppressive, threatening and subjectively perceived’
(Childs, 2000: 67).
In the lecture on Postmodernism, another elusive term, several key
words were focused upon: ‘temporal disorder’, ‘pastiche’, ‘fragmenta-
tion’, ‘looseness of association’, ‘paranoia’ and ‘vicious circles’ (Lewis,
1998: 124–131). Among several features of Postmodernist fiction, a
detailed explanation of ‘language disorder’ (Lewis, 1998: 132) or ‘schizo-
phrenic subjectivity’ (Malpas, 2004: 25) was given, partly because this
Postmodernist feature is remarkable not only in English fiction (e.g.
John Fowles’s The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969)) but also in some
contemporary Japanese novels.1
After such basic knowledge had been presented, the students read extracts
from the novels generally considered as belonging to the different modes
of writing. The chosen texts included passages from Jane Austen’s Pride
and Prejudicee (1813), Ford Madox Ford’s The Good Soldierr (1915), Katherine
Mansfield’s ‘The Garden Party’(1921), Virginia Woolf’s ‘The Mark on the
Wall’ (1922) and John Fowles’s The French Lieutenant’s Woman. Both inside
and outside the classroom, students were required to read, analyse and
interpret some of these passages by focusing upon how the features of
different modes of writing are reflected in their narratological and stylistic
features. Students were also encouraged to apply their learned analytical
framework to the reading of other English or Japanese novels.
3.5 Quizzes
While lectures and instruction are essential to teach basic background
knowledge, students tend to be passive or even bored during the teach-
er’s talk. An effective device to avoid this and to stimulate students’ curi-
osity and motivation is in-class quizzes. Quizzes also encourage students
to create meaningful interactions with their classmates or teacher, and
to take part in the lecture actively and reflectively.
Therefore, at the beginning of the first lecture, students were given
a quiz in which they were asked to associate some examples of paint-
ings, titles of novels and features of novels with Realism, Modernism
and Postmodernism. For example, the titles of novels were: Charlotte
Brontë’s Jane Eyre (1847), which is the protagonist’s name and may
reflect Realism, D. H. Lawrence’s The Rainbow w (1915), which is symbolic
and may reflect Modernism, and Haruki Murakami’s 1Q84 (2009–2010),
which is a pastiche of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-fourr (1949) and
may therefore be regarded as a Postmodernist novel.2 As features of
novels, terms such as ‘closed ending’, ‘open ending’ and ‘contradic-
tion’ were provided for students to choose as labels for the endings of
different kinds of novel. Students were also shown three famous paint-
ings: Millet’s ‘The Gleaners’, Munch’s ‘The Scream’ and Picasso’s ‘Three
Musicians’. In addition to this, students were asked to define each term
in their own words. In the process of answering these questions, the
students shared their answers with each other and discussed what they
were expected to learn in my lessons.
There was another merit to implementing this quiz: to check students’
preliminary knowledge. Since the same questions were asked at the end
of the last lesson, they also became a significant instrument to check
what students learned from my lessons. Students’ answers were analysed
to check their understanding and to get hints on how to improve my
lessons and the course as a whole. The results are illustrated and analysed
in Section 4.1 below.
3.6 Final essay

I asked students to wirte an essay at the end of my allocated lessons for
the purpose of evaluating their progress and the pedagogical value of my
lectures and the practice that followed. The students had to submit their
essays within one week. Three options for the essay were set:
1. to read one of the works (original English version preferable but

Japanese translations also accepted) referred to in the lessons and
write a summary and impression (basic level question);
2. to read one of the works referred to in the lesson (English version pref-
erable) and discuss how it reflects the mode of Realism, Modernism
or Postmodernism (from basic to intermediate level);
3. to choose one work of prose fiction from among works they are
familiar with, including works not discussed in the lesson, and clarify
how the features of different modes of writing are reflected in the
chosen text (from intermediate to advanced level).
Option 1 was set to encourage the students to familiarize themselves with

English fiction but they were not required to read ‘professionally’ in this
option. Options 2 and 3 were set according to the goals shown in Section
3.3 above: Option 2 relates to goals 1, 2, and 4, while option 3 is mostly
concerned with goal 5. Many students chose option 2 and most of their
essays were on the work of Modernist fiction studied in my lessons. For
example, in 2010, 18 out of 31 students chose to write about Modernist
fiction (‘The Mark on the Wall’ (11 students), ‘The Garden Party’ (4
students), Mrs Dallowayy (2 students), The Good Soldierr (1 student), and in
2012, 12 out of 55 students chose Woolf’s works. These choices could be
evidence of a sophistication gained by students in their understanding of
and approach to reading literary fiction.
Another remarkable finding is that the number of students who chose
option 3 increased dramatically from 3 in 2010 to 43 in 2012. Some
answers that seem to typify current Japanese students’ attitudes will be
presented for analysis in the next section.
4 Analysis of students’ responses
The analysis of students’ responses is mainly concerned with the

following questions: (1) how the students reacted to different modes
of writing and what they learned by reading them, and (2) whether the
goals of the lessons shown in 3.3 were achieved or not.
4.1 Improvement in knowledge

First, the results of the quizzes conducted at the beginning of my first
lesson showed that students had little preliminary knowledge of the
three literary terms. Their written answers confirmed these assump-
tions: in the 2010 course, for example, only one student gave an answer,
which was quite short and fragmentary: ‘Realism is the description of
reality’. This response suggests that without instruction in these terms,
students could not enjoy or appreciate the reading of different modes
of fiction.
On the other hand, students’ responses to the paintings were much
more to the point even from the start of the course. This is prob-
ably because, although they were not familiar with Modernism and
Postmodernism, it was not difficult for them to associate ‘Realism’ with
‘the description of reality’ as shown obviously in Millet’s painting. The
chosen paintings have proved to be good materials for the introduction
of these terms (see Chapter 6 by Lazar).
Another significant finding is that student knowledge improved. As
Table 11.1 shows, after the lessons, more students came to associate
Jane Eyre and The Rainbow w with Realism and Modernism, respectively,
for instance. Moreover, while only one student was able to write the
definition of the terms at the beginning of my first lesson, 25 students
wrote their own definitions of each trend in my last lesson (in the year
2010). These responses show that lectures and exercises, both conducted
mainly in Japanese, worked well at least for students to improve their
knowledge of these technical literary terms.
4.2 Influences on reading style

The final essays submitted by students also contain some pedagogical
implications. Most significant is that the lectures and lessons changed
students’ ways of reading fiction. In the essays, many students tried
to appreciate literary, stylistic and narratological devices, rather than
simply follow the story. In other words, they considered how and why
the story is told. Some students even tried to associate the textual features
with contextual aspects, such as the societal and historical period that
contributed to the production of each literary piece of work.
This change is most marked in their reading of Modernist fiction. In
particular, the remarkable Modernist features of The Good Soldier, r ‘The
Garden Party’, ‘The Mark on the Wall’ and Mrs Dallowayy (1925) seem to
Table 11.1 Results of the quiz (2010, n = 29)
Trends Modes Realism Modernism Postmodernism
Time of
quiz
Works and features before after before after before after
1Q84 1.77 1.61 2.68 1.95 2.14 2.54

Jane Eyre 1.90 2.53 2.25 2.06 2.14 2.69
The Rainbow
w 2.16 1.93 2.21 2.61 1.85 1.45
Closed ending 2.43 2.93 2.05 1.31 1.71 1.29
Open ending 2.00 1.30 2.32 2.29 2.45 2.63
Contradiction 1.52 1.09 2.22 2.63 2.59 2.81
‘The Gleaners’ 2.85 2.89 1.55 1.44 1.60 1.45
‘The Scream’ 1.68 1.24 2.43 2.83 2.14 2.18
‘Three Musicians’ 1.43 1.23 2.10 2.39 2.65 2.79
Note: Students were asked to associate the works and the features in the left column with
‘Realism’, ‘Modernism’ or ‘Postmodernism’. Their answers are based upon a graded scale
(from 1 to 3). If a student regards ‘Open ending’ as the strongest characteristic of Modernism
and the weakest characteristic of Postmodernism, for instance, s/he should write ‘3’ under
Modernism, and ‘1’ under Postmodernism and ‘2’ under Realism.
have attracted Japanese students’ attention. It will be instructive here to

note how one student reacted to the Woolfian texts:
In ‘The Mark on the Wall’ and Mrs Dalloway, even narration (the part
where quotation marks are not employed) is filled with characters’
emotions. By introducing characters’ perspectives Woolf creates a
new world which cannot be described by the ‘omniscient’ narrator.
(Translated into English and emphasis provided by Teranishi)
There were other similar comments which focused upon stylistic devices
and narrative structures employed in the Modernist novels. The students
seem to have learned how to analyse literature to arrive at a deeper level
of interpretation.
4.3 Rediscovering the value of literature in

one’s native language
To emphasize further the importance of engaging students with literary
fiction, it is worth discussing that the increased knowledge of different
modes of fiction prompted some students to compare English fiction
with Japanese fiction. For instance, the reading of English fiction
prompted one student to examine again and reevaluate ‘Kataude

(One arm)’ (1965), a short work of fiction by the Japanese Nobel Prize-
winning novelist Yasunari Kawabata. This is a surrealistic story told by
an ‘I’-narrator who ‘borrows’ one arm from a girl, goes home with it,
sleeps to find his own arm replaced with hers, and finally retrieves his
own arm by exchanging the two arms again. This student attempted
to re-interpret the seemingly Postmodernist fiction as Modernist fiction
because she has realized that this seemingly unrealistic story is not a
mere fantasy but symbolically describes real life. Her interpretation
may be influenced by her new knowledge that some Modernist writers
are concerned with how to represent reality in a way that is more real
than appearance. Regardless of the correctness of her reinterpretation,
it is pedagogically significant that the student’s increased knowledge of
Modernism and reading of English Modernist fiction encouraged her to
broaden the implications of the Japanese novella.
Another student discussed narrative and stylistic techniques in The
Tale of Genji (c. 1008) for her final essay. In this classic Japanese novel, the
female author, Murasaki Shikibu, who was concerned with the represen-
tation of consciousness, employed some of the same literary devices with
which western Modernist writers became concerned at the turn of the
19th century: free indirect discourse and the ‘unreliable’ narrator, which
appears in Chapter 44, entitled ‘Takekawa’ (Bamboo River). Although
the student’s analysis of this novel was not detailed or extensive enough
to appreciate these subtleties, it is pedagogically worth noting that the
comparison between English and Japanese literature stimulated the
student’s interests in the literary language of the great author.
These students’ essays remind us of the significant fact that Realist,
Modernist and Postmodernist techniques are not exclusive to Western
culture. In fact, Japanese and English writers’ concerns often coincide.
Being able to discuss the complexity of those prototypical modes of
writing is a significant step towards improving critical thinking abilities,
one of the advanced goals of my lessons (goal 5).
4.4 Reading a text in a literary way: improvement of

language awareness
Another pedagogical implication of this approach to teaching
literary fiction lies in the improvement of language awareness. Some
students reevaluated the lyrics of Japanese popular songs as typifying
Postmodernism. For example, one student chose ‘Punishment’ (2007), a
pop song by a Japanese rock act 9mm Parabellum Bullett and gave it a close
reading. The following are the lyrics the student selected for analysis:
Abaita seimeikagaku no matsuro

Εźƕಶ઄ࣖནƤએৡ ((I have) found the end of life science)
Kasure-ta tsubasa no iro kagerô
r
৽ǂƕ࿷Ƥ౧䱑ྃ (the blurred colour of wings is a veil of heat
shimmer)
Saigen fukanô
႟⧒Ѕࣙૂ (impossible to reproduce)
Tairyûken no kioku
ᇒৃೣƤ㿬ដ (memory of the troposphere)
ag
Nagare-ta jikan
ৃǂƕᰖ䭧 (time that has passed)
Hadaka no shinzô
㻌ȃᖗ㞧Ġnaked heart)
Maisô-yô no hyôj
ôô
ඟ㩀⫼ȃ㸼ᚙ (a look for burial)
Yakare-ta denshô
✐ǠȡǴӱᡓ (a burned legend)
Rasenjô no zero
㶈ᮟ⢊ȃɄɵ(spiral zero)
Wasure-ta hito
ᖬȡǴҎ (a forgotten man) (From 9mm Parabellum Bullet’s t
‘Punishment’ (2007), English translation and emphasis provided by
Teranishi.)
This student argued that the lyrics are semantically anarchical and frag-
mentary. On the other hand, phonetically the lines listed above keep cohe-
sion: the first syllables of each line (a ka sa ta na ha ma ya ra wa) construct
the first line of the systematic table of the Japanese kana. Those loose
unities are, she argues, prototypical characteristics of Postmodernism. In
this manner, triggered by the reading of English literature, the student was
able to recognize a creative usage of language in a familiar pop song and
re-interpret it more deeply. The fact that the lyrics of English pop and rock
music can promote EFL students’ learning has already been confirmed
both in Japanese and other EFL/ESL classrooms (see Edmondson, 1997).
This student’s reaction may also suggest that EFL students can become
more sensitive to creativity and literariness in their own language and
culture through the English literature course. Recognizing literary aspects

of a text is a significant step in the process of becoming more sensitive
to the way language works, both in one’s native language and in foreign
languages, and the language-based approach to English literature has
turned out to be quite effective in improving this skill.3
5 Conclusion: from Japanese to universal

pedagogical settings
This chapter has examined a Japanese classroom in which sophisti-

cated English fiction was the main teaching material. I have attempted
to identify the range of issues that are to be dealt with in the English
literature classroom for EFL students and offer authentic reference data
useful for those wishing to use literature in the EFL classroom. The most
significant question to be addressed is what exclusive values literary
texts can provide to students. One concluding remark is that even if the
primary goal for EFL learners is to improve their practical English skills,
they should be exposed to and read authentic literary texts to gain the
benefits provided by literature; the first step to take toward this end is
to acquire a basic knowledge of literature, including the linguistic and
technical aspects of literary texts.
On the other hand, this study may lead readers to conclude (or confirm
the fact) that EFL students must overcome a variety of obstacles to be
able to read canonical literature in English. In fact, some students on the
course described above ‘compromised’ by reading translations of texts,
or by applying their new knowledge to the study of Japanese literature,
as well as familiar non-literary texts. What students learned from this,
however, should not be undervalued, because their experiences of reading
or even thinking about English literature encouraged them to recognize
universal aspects of literature and literary language and should contribute
to improvement in both English and Japanese proficiency in the long
run. As Aiko Saito suggests in Chapter 3 of this volume, both English as a
Foreign Language teaching practices and learners’ native language educa-
tion should collaborate to produce good (multilingual) communicators;
literature should play a significant role in accomplishing this.
Notes
1. Yasutaka Tsutui’s Dancing Vanityy (2008) is a prototypical Postmodernist novel
in this sense and, not surprisingly, several students attempted to identify
Postmodernist aspects of this novel in their essays.
2. For the relationship between literary modes of writing and the titles of the
novels, see Carter and McRae (2001).
3. For the issue of creativity in non-literary language, see Swann et al. (2011).
References
Boase-Beier, J. (2014) ‘Stylistics and Translation’, in M. Burke (ed.) The Routledge
Handbook of Stylistics, 393–407. London: Routledge.
Bradbury, M. and McFarlane, J. (1976) Modernism 1890–1930. London: Penguin.
Brooker, P. (ed.) (1992) Modernism/Postmodernism. London: Longman.
Carter, R. and McRae, J. (1996) Language, Literature and the Learner: Creative
Classroom Practice. London: Longman.
Carter, R. and McRae, J. (2001) The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain
and Irelandd (2nd edition). London: Routledge.
Childs, P. (2000) Modernism. London: Routledge.
Edmondson, W. (1997) ‘The Role of Literature in Foreign Language Learning and
Teaching: Some Valid Assumptions and Invalid Arguments’, AILA Review w 12:
42–55.
Gower, R. (1986) ‘Can Stylistic Analysis Help the EFL Learner to Read Literature?’,
ELT Journal 40 (2): 125–130.
James, H. (1999 [1880]) Washington Square, retold by Jane Rollason. Edinburgh:
Pearson Education.
James, H. (2007 [1880]) Washington Square. London: Penguin.
Krashen, S. D. (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Krashen, S. D. (2004) The Power of Reading: Insights from the Research. Westport:
Libraries Unlimited.
Labov, W. (1972) Language in the Inner City. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Lewis, B. (1998) ‘Postmodernism and Literature’, in S. Sim (ed.) The Routledge
Companion to Postmodernism, 121–133. London: Routledge.
Lodge, D. (1977) The Modes of Modern Writing. London: Edward Arnold.
Malpas, S. (2004) The Postmodern. London: Routledge.
Morris, P. (2003) Realism. London: Routledge.
Swann, J., Pope, R. and Carter, R. (eds) (2011) Creativity in Language and Literature:
The State of the Art. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Teranishi, M. (2008) Polyphony in Fiction: A Stylistic Analysis off Middlemarch,
Nostromo, and d Herzog. Oxford: Peter Lang.
12
Using Short Stories in University
Composition Classrooms
Kyoko Kuze
1 Introduction
Literature was once at the centre of English teaching in Japan, but over
the last few decades it has been marginalized.1 Even after literature came
back into language teaching in the United Kingdom and the United
States in the 1980s, it was not sufficiently reconsidered or re-evaluated in
Japan. One reason why using literature in EFL classrooms is challenging
may be due to the teaching methodology used. In Japan, literature
has traditionally been read in English classrooms using the Grammar-
Translation Method,2 which was believed to be the only possible method
of utilizing literature. This preconception has led many people to link
literature with this particular method, and thus to consider the use of
literature to be out-of-date and inefficient for fostering the development
of communication competence (Kuze, 2012).
To explore the potential of literature in language learning, this
chapter will focus on English composition classes using short stories at
a Japanese university over the course of four years. The classes used four
short stories: ‘Désirée’s Baby’ by Kate Chopin, ‘The Birds Poised to Fly’ by
Patricia Highsmith, ‘Eveline’ by James Joyce and ‘Lamb to the Slaughter’
by Roald Dahl, in conjunction with writing activities derived from the
field of pedagogical stylistics. Illustrating this project, the chapter will
give examples of literature-based activities that provide learners with
opportunities to write creatively in a foreign language, to read texts
actively as an impetus to that writing, and to enjoy interpreting texts on
their own, rather than simply accepting someone else’s interpretation.
The current study implements a qualitative analysis of teaching proce-
dures used with Japanese EFL students, their writings, and their percep-
tions and attitudes regarding literature-based writing. It is also inspired by
182
Using Short Stories in University Composition Classrooms 183
a growing interest in empirical studies on the role of literature in natural

classroom settings. The chapter first reviews the arguments concerning
the use of literature in L2 (second language) composition; then it gives a
practical report on classes that made use of the short stories mentioned
above. After introducing some pieces of student writing in response
to those stories, it analyses student perceptions towards these specific
literary materials and writing activities. Based on an examination of the
results, this chapter then discusses the value of literature in university
EFL composition classes.
2 Using literary texts in EFL compositions
Since the re-emergence of interest in the use of literary texts in language

classrooms, a variety of activities have been proposed in teaching resource
books to exploit literary materials. Although it is recognized that ‘some
teachers resist the idea that students of English as a second and foreign
language should write creatively in English’ (Carter and Long, 1991: 90),
activities such as creative writing, rewriting, paraphrasing and predic-
tion in conjunction with short stories have been introduced (e.g. Carter,
1996; Carter and Long, 1991; Collie and Slater, 1987; Hess, 2006; Lazar,
1993). These practices are claimed not only to develop learners’ reading
and interpretive skills and to promote sensitivity to different uses of
languages and different styles, but also to serve as a good basis for group
and classroom discussion. More recently, ‘transformative text analysis’
was proposed by Carter (2010) as a significant development for future
work in pedagogical stylistics. It focuses ‘on “textual transformations”
using comparative text analysis by means of processes of rewriting from
different angles and positions’ (Carter, 2010: 118), and assumes that this
process will lead the reader, who tends to be passive in close reading, to
more active engagement with the specific textuality.
On the other hand, in the field of L2 teaching, the role of literature
in composition has long been controversial (Belcher and Hirvela, 2000).
There are several reasons for the special complications of employing
literature in L2 composition teaching: literary texts in English can
prove daunting to read and write about for students who have not yet
achieved an advanced level of English language proficiency (Hirvela,
2005); teachers and researchers have been influenced by the powerful
lit/comp debates in the L1 (first language) domain; and composition
teaching at university level is closely related to the theories and practices
of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and EAP (English for Academic
Purposes) (Belcher and Hirvela, 2000). However, there are also many
184 Kyoko Kuze
L2 composition specialists who justify their use of literature from the

view that it is an effective means of promoting analytical thinking skills
and that it also exposes learners to narrative forms of discourse which are
not usually found in information-based texts. Hirvela (2004: 39) asserts
the importance of the reading–writing connection in academic literacy
and claims that ‘literature (especially fictional texts) is a valuable resource
for bringing reading and writing together’.
Over time, the arguments in this debate have become more practical;
the main issue nowadays is how w literary texts can actually be used appro-
priately and effectively in composition classrooms, rather than whether
literature can be used or not (Belcher and Hirvela, 2000; Hirvela, 2005).
Although various practices have been proposed, mainly from the perspec-
tive of pedagogical stylistics, as mentioned above, it appears to be neces-
sary to address the absence of empirical classroom-based research on this
matter (Carter, 2007). In other words, we need to accumulate research
that shows what teachers actually do in their classrooms in order to vali-
date ‘the claims that literature can contribute to language learning, that
learners are motivated and interested in it’ (Paran, 2008: 470).
Among past empirical studies, Hirvela (2005) uses Graham Greene’s
‘The Tenth Man’ in ESL composition courses to investigate student
attitudes toward literature-based writing, as well as their responses
to specific writing tasks. Chen (2006) also illustrates a project using
children’s literature to engage university EFL students in reading and
writing stories. Both studies conclude that literary texts can be a viable
means to develop ESL/EFL students’ language abilities. With respect to
poetry writing, Iida (2012: 1483) investigates the perceptions, attitudes
and emotions of Japanese EFL college students regarding haiku writing,
and argues that ‘writing haiku in English has the potential to expand
L2 linguistic knowledge, enhance ... understanding of voice and self-
expression, [foster] a greater awareness of writer–reader interaction, and
develop L2 literacy skills transferrable to other genre writing’.
3 Methods
3.1 Methodology
To examine the possibility of using short stories in compositions in
the context of Japanese university EFL classrooms, the current study
describes classroom procedures, evaluates student compositions and
analyses student attitudes toward these literary materials and related
activities. It is designed to use ‘several methods in triangulation to try
to get different perspectives and a fuller overall picture of the object of

research interest’ (Hall, 2005: 189).
The following two research questions are addressed in the study, to
add empirical depth to previous exploration of the role of literary texts
in L2 composition classrooms:
1. How do EFL students in composition classes respond to writing activ-

ities based on short stories?
2. What are these students’ perceptions of literature-based writing?
3.2 Participants
This study was conducted in four compulsory English composition
classes for second-year students at a private university in Tokyo over
four consecutive academic years, starting in 2010. Students enrolled
in a course on academic writing for one year participated in this
study in the last one or two sessions of the course. The course coor-
dinator in the university language centre had recommended that the
instructors of these classes implement some optional writing activities
besides academic writing, such as writing book reports or news articles.
Reading was another instruction area that was intended to be covered
in the course.
All of the students belonged to the university’s Department of
International Studies, and their first language was Japanese. Their
English proficiency level was intermediate, with scores of approxi-
mately 500–530 points on the TOEFL-ITP. The number of students in
the participating class was 20, 20, 16 and 19 in 2010, 2011, 2012 and
2013, respectively.
3.3 Materials
Kate Chopin’s ‘Désirée’s Baby’ (henceforth ‘Désirée’s’) was used in 2010,
Patricia Highsmith’s ‘The Birds Poised to Fly’ (‘Birds’) in 2011, James
Joyce’s ‘Eveline’ in 2012, and Roald Dahl’s ‘Lamb to the Slaughter’
(‘Lamb’) in 2013. Each story is ten pages or less, and each was chosen
by the instructor based on a subjective assessment of how it was not
too difficult but very engaging. The possibility of drawing personal
connections between the lives of the main characters and those of
the students was also considered an important factor because building
personal connections is believed to be linked to active engagement in
language learning (Kim, 2004; Kuze, 2011). In addition, the advice of
Carter (1996: 150) that ‘texts with a strong plot component, where the
next step in the action can be significant, do force readers to predict’
186 Kyoko Kuze
was taken, especially when the first two stories for prediction exercises
were chosen.
3.4 Data collection

In the first two years, the students were first provided with an incom-
plete story (with the last part removed), and were asked to read it as
homework. In the following class, the instructor explained the plot in
Japanese so that each student could fully understand the plot and char-
acters. After receiving the writing guidelines (see below), which were
established by the instructor, the students had 40 minutes to write their
predictions about the end of the story. They were told that the guide-
lines would be used as criteria when their compositions were evaluated,
because ensuring transparency of criteria is thought to be essential in
the assessment of creative writing (Paran, 2010; Spiro, 2010). When
the students had finished writing, they formed groups of three or four
and shared their compositions with other group members to get feed-
back. Finally, the instructor distributed the last part of the story. Student
writing was evaluated using the following guidelines:
G1: Plot is developed naturally from the preceding part of the story.
G2: Personality of each character is considered.
G3: Social and cultural backgrounds of the work are reflected.
G4: Writing style and mood are imitated.
G5: There are few grammatical or lexical errors.
In the second two years, students read the complete stories and rewrote
the texts from different perspectives. Students in the class of 2012 were
asked to read ‘Eveline’ before the class, and then completed some pre-
writing tasks for use with short stories, presented in Lazar (1993), before
writing a letter or a diary entry in class. In the task, students filled
in a table about the personalities of the characters and their relation
to Eveline by choosing the most appropriate statement from a set of
options, and thereby learned some expressions presented in the state-
ments describing the characters. In the fourth year of the study, 2013,
students read ‘Lamb’ and were asked to write a diary entry from the
perspective of the main character, Mary Maloney. For class management
reasons, the students were permitted to start writing before class and
keep writing for 40 minutes in class. For the ‘Eveline’ and ‘Lamb’ writing
activities, the following guidelines were given to the students and used
for subsequent evaluation:
G1: Thoughts and flow are well organized.

G2: Specific facts in the story are reflected.
G3: Personality and feelings of the main character are considered.
G4: The atmosphere, mood, and tone of the original story are
reflected.
G5: There are few grammatical or lexical errors.
3.5 Data analysis

Each piece of student writing was evaluated by a native speaker with
adequate teaching experience in literature and language, on a scale of
1 (worst) to 5 (best) using the criteria elaborated above. The composi-
tions were also examined by the researcher to see if the students were
sufficiently motivated and involved in literature-based writing.
In addition, the students were asked to complete a questionnaire
exploring their impressions and perceptions of the use of literary mate-
rials and related activities in English courses in general and, more specif-
ically, in composition classes.
4 Findings
In this section, the findings regarding two research questions are

described in turn. For the first question, ‘How do EFL students in compo-
sition classes respond to writing activities based on short stories?’, the
findings are examined via the evaluations of student writing, and
discussed from the researcher’s perspective, with some examples of
student compositions. For the second research question, ‘What are
these students’ perceptions of literature-based writing?’, all four classes’
responses to the questionnaires are analysed together to detect general
tendencies.
4.1 Student response to writing activities

The findings based on the compositions about the first two stories,
‘Désirée’s’ and ‘Birds’, are discussed together first; discussion of those for
the last two stories, ‘Eveline’ and ‘Lamb’, follows. Due to the different
natures of the prediction and rewriting activities, each of the two groups
had its own guidelines and grading criteria.
Prediction responses to ‘Désirée’s’ and ‘Birds’

Table 12.1 shows the average scores for each criterion and for overall
writing quality in the predictions in response to ‘Désirée’s’ and ‘Birds’.
188 Kyoko Kuze
Table 12.1 Evaluation of prediction: average scores on a scale from 1 (worst) to

5 (best)
G1: G2: G3: G4: G5:

Plot Personality Background Style and mood Few errors Overall
‘Désirée’s’ 3.92 3.43 3.58 3.22 3.56 3.40

‘Birds’ 4.01 3.94 3.97 3.67 3.51 3.70
Despite the fact that very similar instructions were provided to the two
groups and that they had the same amount of time, 40 minutes, for
writing, the average number of words in their writings was quite different
across the stories: they wrote 168 words on average for ‘Désirée’s’ and
247 for ‘Birds’. Across all criteria, scores are consistently higher in ‘Birds’,
with the exception of G5, which is only slightly higher in ‘Désirée’s’.
Thus, it is obvious that ‘Birds’ was able to engage the learners more in
the activities and motivate them to write longer compositions.
With regard to the scores for each criterion, students earned relatively
high scores in G1 in both stories, but the difference between ‘Désirée’s’
and ‘Birds’ becomes noticeable in G2 and G3. These results show that
these students are generally good at developing the plot naturally from
the part they have read, which proves, in a sense, that they are reading
the stories precisely enough to grasp the extent of the plots. However,
they had a harder time writing predictions for ‘Désirée’s’; this is perhaps
because of its different social and cultural setting, since it is based in
the 19th-century American South, as opposed to ‘Birds’, which is set in
modern New York City.
The following example is the latter half of one student prediction,
which earned more than 4 out of 5 points on each criterion. In addition,
this is one of only two compositions which scored 4.5 on G4. The eval-
uator commented that this response successfully imitated the writing
style of the original writer.
Don noticed the difference. He was sad when the letter didn’t come
from Rosalind. It was because he loved Rosalind, not Edith. He under-
stood how much he loved Rosalind.
He wrote a letter to Rosalind again. He wrote his real feelings for
her. He decided he would continue to write letters until Rosalind
answered. He loved her very much. It would not be long before his
love for her was realized.
[The total number of words was 257. Only crucial errors have been
corrected.]
Rewriting using ‘Eveline’ and ‘Lamb’

It appears that the limited writing time provided, combined with the
difficulty3 of the original text of ‘Eveline’, caused the learners to write
much shorter compositions, even though they had pre-writing work-
sheet activities; the average word count was 101 for ‘Eveline’, and 239
for ‘Lamb’. These results imply that writing activities based on a difficult
text may require more preparation and/or special assistance from the
teacher, and that otherwise those activities may demotivate students in
language learning.
Although students wrote much more for ‘Lamb’, their scores for both
stories were not so different in each criterion. Table 12.2 shows that ‘Lamb’
scores higher by more than 0.2 in G1 and G4, but it has only slightly higher
scores, or sometimes lower, in other criteria, including overall quality.
Among the criteria, relatively high scores were earned for G1 on both
stories, which might indicate a favourable effect of practices for organ-
izing one’s thoughts in academic writing courses. G2, in which the
students needed to reflect specific facts in their rewritten texts, scores
the lowest of the five items after G5, for both stories. This reveals that
it was hard for students to summarize or paraphrase the events in the
original texts using different words and expressions.
The following is a part of one of the best student writings; it earned
4.5 points on overall quality. This student wrote a diary entry from the
viewpoint of the main character in ‘Lamb’, reflecting certain specific
facts presented in the story. In it, Mary describes what happened on the
day she murdered her husband in the correct order, as per Dahl’s story,
but from a new perspective.
The most impressive thing I remember about that night is the feeling
of the chilly leg of lamb. At that time, I couldn’t think normally.
The next moment, I found he was lying on the floor with his head
bleeding. And then, suddenly, I came around. What I had to do was
to make a perfect alibi and destroy the murder weapon ...
[The total number of words was 188. Only crucial errors have been
corrected.]
Table 12.2 Evaluation of rewriting: average scores on a scale from 1 (worst) to

5 (best)
G1: G2: G3: G4: G5:

Organization Specific facts Personality Atmosphere Few errors Overall
‘Eveline’ 3.67 3.31 3.75 3.83 3.19 3.67

‘Lamb’ 3.89 3.47 3.74 4.11 3.21 3.84
190 Kyoko Kuze
4.2 Student perceptions

This section discusses student attitudes and perceptions regarding the
use of literary materials in English learning, and more specifically about
their experience of responding to the short stories in writing in compo-
sition class. Each year, after completing their compositions, the students
were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding how they perceived
the experience of reading and writing literary materials in English. The
results are discussed from three points of view: student impressions
of literary materials in English classes; perceptions of literature-based
writing in composition classes; and perceptions of the effects of litera-
ture-based writing on English ability.
Impressions of literary materials in English classes

According to students’ responses as presented in Table 12.3, 89.3 per
cent of the students had ‘positive’ or ‘fairly positive’ impressions of the
use of literary materials in their English classes, almost half of these
(89.3%) students affirming that the use of literary texts in English
classes was enjoyable and helpful to promote cultural understanding
and develop students’ language skills. There were eight responses that
highlighted ‘personal growth’ as a reason for this positive impression of
literature. Among the students who chose ‘other’, some wrote that they
had learned various new expressions from working with the texts and
had been exposed to different ways of thinking through placing them-
selves in the position of a character in the story. However, there were a
small number of students each year who did not have positive impres-
sions. Their given reasons were that reading literature was difficult, that
it was not motivating and that it was not useful in their daily lives.
Table 12.3 What do you think about the use of literary materials in English
classes? (n = 75)
Positive Fairly positive Fairly negative Negative

33.3% (25)* 56.0% (42) 10.7% (8) 0
(Reasons)** (Reasons)
Enjoyable (34) Difficult (4)
Helpful to promote cultural understanding (33) Not motivating (3)
Helpful to develop language skills (29) Not useful (3)
Good for personal growth (8) Not helpful to develop language
skills (0)
Other (6)
*Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of responses.

**Students were able to choose more than one reason from these multiple choices.
Perceptions of literature-based writing in composition classes

Table 12.4 shows the students’ perceptions of literature-based writing in
composition classes and the reasons for these responses.
Table 12.4 What do you think about the use of short stories in composition
classes? (n = 75)
Positive Fairly positive Fairly negative Negative No response
25.3% (19)* 61.3% (46) 10.7% (8) 0 2.7% (2)
Enjoyable, interesting (21) Not logically structured (2)
Different from materials for Reading was difficult (1)
academic writing (10)
Helpful to develop reading skills (3) Different in style from
academic writing (1)

**Reasons were put into groups of similar responses.
The number of ‘positive’ responses, 19, to this question is lower than

25 to the previous question, which asked students about their impres-
sions of literary texts in English classes in general. However, the great
majority of students, 86.6 per cent, still answered ‘positive’ or ‘fairly posi-
tive’. As for their reasons, 21 students stated that the use of short stories
motivated them because reading stories and writing creatively about
those stories were enjoyable and interesting, which is assumed to be a
reason for their deep involvement in the related activities. Furthermore,
ten students explained that they valued literary materials encountered
in composition classes because these materials were very different from
what they usually used in academic writing classes. It must also be noted
that several students over the four years indicated that they were ready
to accept writing tasks related to literature, but only if they were used
merely occasionally.
Whereas one student pointed out the difficulty of reading literary texts,
three students noticed the specific significance of reading for the tasks,
namely that short stories implemented in composition classes were helpful
for the development of students’ reading as well as writing skills, because
students needed to read these texts carefully and repeatedly in order to engage
in writing activities based on them, such as prediction and rewriting.
Perceptions of the effects of literature-based writing on English ability

The results presented in Table 12.5 show that 84 per cent of the respond-
ents thought that literature-based writing was ‘effective’ or ‘fairly
192 Kyoko Kuze
Table 12.5 What do you think about the effects of literature-based writing on
English ability? (n = 75)
Effective Fairly effective Fairly ineffective Ineffective
29.3% (22)* 54.7% (41) 16% (12) 0
Learning a wide variety of expressions (14) Unsuitable for practical use (1)
Learning to writing creatively (5) Not logically structured (1)
Practising both reading and writing (4) Rewriting someone’s work is
Motivating (4) difficult (1)

**Reasons were put into groups of similar responses.
effective’ to improve their English ability, though further 12 over the

course of the four years answered ‘fairly ineffective’.
The most common reason for ‘effective’ and ‘fairly effective’ responses
is that when students read and wrote about literary texts, they could
learn a variety of new expressions that they only rarely encountered in
their other, more academic, writing materials. Two students specifically
stated that they needed to search for suitable words and phrases and
to elaborately construct their written text when writing a diary entry
for ‘Lamb’. Additionally, five students considered opportunities for crea-
tive writing as effective in enhancing their English skills. In common
with the responses to the previous question, regarding perceptions of
literature-based writing, four students indicated the value of achieving
a connection between reading and writing, which is a distinguishing
feature of short stories used as tools in composition classes. These
students perceived that careful reading for literature-based writing could
contribute to the improvement of their overall English ability.
5 Discussion
The results of a close examination of the data show that writing about
short stories is a valuable activity for EFL students in university composi-
tion classes. On the basis of their writing and questionnaire responses,
there is no doubt that students became deeply involved in these activi-
ties. They needed to read the texts attentively as an impetus to writing,
and their predictions, letters and diary entries were sufficient in terms of
both quantity and quality. The students also acknowledged that reading
short stories and writing creatively about them were enjoyable activities
and had positive effects on their language learning.
The evaluation of the students’ compositions provides evidence that

second-year EFL students in this study were more proficient in devel-
oping plot and in organizing their thoughts than in reflecting on
cultural and social backgrounds and describing the personalities of the
main characters in English stories. This may be attributed to the fact
that they had been taught about concept building and essay structuring
using information-based texts in the course of their academic writing;
however, it will be advantageous if students are exposed to a wide variety
of text and task types to help them develop into all-round skilful writers
in their foreign language.
The responses to the questionnaires show that the majority of
respondents had positive views regarding the use of literary texts in
L2 writing instruction. Despite the fact that they were not enrolled
in English literature or linguistics courses, nearly 90 per cent of
students over the four years responded at least fairly positively to
literature-based writing in composition classes, and more than 80 per
cent agreed that literature-based writing is effective in the enhance-
ment of English skills. However, a few students stated that they were
not in favour of using literature in writing instruction all the time.
This connects with the view that literature-based writing would be
accepted by ESL students if it is used in moderation (Hirvela, 2005),
and confirms that the amount or frequency of usage needs to be
adjusted in each classroom, depending upon student needs and class
goals.
On the basis of the questionnaire results, there are two main reasons
for the students’ positive attitudes toward literature-based writing.
First, reading and writing about stories is enjoyable and motivating.
Some students pointed out that writing texts creatively to express
their own thoughts and interpretations was a pleasure that they
had not felt when working with other types of text. Second, short
stories are very different from the texts the students are exposed to
in academic writing. This means not only that the stories felt fresh
to the students, but also that they had opportunities to learn new
vocabulary, expressions and writing styles through the process of
reading and writing about them. The students themselves apparently
realized the importance of exposure to various text types in a foreign
language.
Practical implications of the findings include the point that texts should
be carefully selected and teaching procedures planned meticulously
so as to motivate students, especially when we use literary texts. This
study presented the results of the implementation of certain classroom
194 Kyoko Kuze
practices using four different stories and described how each of them was
incorporated. Although the possibility of drawing personal connections
was specially considered in selecting materials, it has become apparent
that primary emphasis should be put on selecting texts on the basis of
linguistic difficulty. Moreover, stories with unfamiliar social and cultural
settings were more challenging for students to write about than other
stories. Taking all of these factors into consideration, instructors should
plan suitable practices, including pre-writing activities, within the time-
frame of the class. It also might be of interest to investigate the influence
of media on students’ writings in this context, for example, by showing
a film or television adaptation of a story when one is available, as in the
case of ‘Lamb’.
On the whole, this study supports the conclusion of Hirvela (2005) that
literary texts, used as a complement to other text types, may provide ESL
students with a viable means of facilitating their writing development.
Furthermore, it shows that literature-based writing can be received posi-
tively in EFL composition classes, provided that careful consideration
is given to appropriate text and task selection and teaching procedures,
including how often literary texts should be used in class.
6 Conclusion
This chapter has discussed the potential of literary texts in univer-

sity EFL classrooms in Japan, focusing on composition classes using
short stories. It has described how students respond to literature-based
writing, and examined their attitudes toward literary materials and
tasks based on them.
Though the class activities were conducted during a limited timeframe
with only a small number of participants, the results show that students
became deeply involved in writing, which they regarded as enjoyable
and effective for language learning, especially for exposing them to
various types of texts and tasks in the target language. Thus, the study
indicates the viability of using literary texts as a meaningful component
of a university EFL composition course.
Notes
1. See also Chapter 2 in this volume.
2. In this method, literary texts are usually read in the students’ native language
along with grammatical exercises and vocabulary drills. See also Chapter 11 in
this volume.
3. Although ‘Eveline’ is frequently used by ESL teachers (Hess, 2006), some

students in this study suggested that they had had a hard time reading it.
One of the reasons for this difficulty could be that Joyce uses a ‘stream of
consciousness’ technique.
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13
Translation of Japanese Poems
into English: Literature in the
First Language as a Motive to
Communicate in a Second
Language
Kiyo Sakamoto
1 Introduction
There seems to be a long-standing frustration over Japanese people’s

inability to communicate sufficiently in English, which is shared by
learners and teachers. Japanese learners often show dissatisfaction with
the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction they have received,
wishing to be better at English communication. Although virtually
every Japanese studies English for at least six years before graduating
from high school, many college students seem unable to communicate
well in English. Anecdotal evidence of this abounds: not a few college
students may remain silent in ‘English Communication’ class, are at a
loss when asked to write in English, and start using Japanese too early
during a group discussion. It is understandable that the motivation of
EFL learners in Japan is attracting attention (for example, Apple et al.,
2013; Irie, 2003). Why can’t they, or won’t they, try to communicate
in English more? What could help Japanese EFL learners to take a
crucial step from ‘wish’ to ‘will’ (MacIntyre, 2007) in communicating
in English?
This chapter explores the role of literature – more specifically, litera-
ture in the learner’s first language – in encouraging students to commu-
nicate in a foreign language. It is a case study of a college class in which
Japanese students read traditional Japanese short poems, and freely
197
198 Kiyo Sakamoto
translated them into English, in order to share their interpretations

with non-native speakers of Japanese. In other words, this study inves-
tigates the potential for literature in the first language (L1) to stimulate
and encourage language learners to convey their personal experiences
and emotions in a second language (L2) through translation. While
Teranishi (in Chapter 11) stresses the potential for L2 literature to raise
students’ language awareness in L1, this study will focus on the role of
L1 literature in the EFL classroom as a means to raise learners’ language
awareness of both L1 and L2, and to help them participate in the L2
community more fully.
2 Factors that influence willingness to communicate in L2
The issue of L2 learning motivation has been extensively investigated

by researchers Gardner (2010) and Dörnyei (2009), among others.
Although there are some differences in emphasis between their motiva-
tion models, both authors stress the significance of psychological factors
and the learning environment of L2 learners. In their L2 motivation
development study, MacIntyre et al. (1998: 547) focus on the factors that
bring about L2 learners’ ‘willingness to communicate’ (WTC), whose
creation is ‘a proper objective for L2 education’, since ‘the ultimate goal
of the [language] learning process should be to engender in language
students the willingness to seek out communication opportunities and
the willingness actually to communicate in them’. The elements that
affect WTC are illustrated in the pyramid-shaped model with six layers.
(See Figure 13.1.)
Layer I at the top is actual ‘L2 Use’, supported by Layer II, ‘Willingness
to Communicate’. The following four layers each contain two or more
elements that contribute to a learner’s WTC. However, according to
MacIntyre et al., WTC is determined most directly by the elements on
Layer III, ‘Desire to Communicate with a Specific Person’ and ‘State
Communicative Self-Confidence’ (= the learner’s self-perceived compe-
tence and lack of anxiety in a specific situation).
This model offers intriguing insights into the present state of Japanese
EFL learners’ motivation. The two factors on Layer III seem either
lacking or inadequate in Japan. With regard to the first, it is rare for
Japanese EFL learners to experience actual interpersonal communica-
tion in English and it is therefore difficult for them to imagine a situ-
ation where they truly need or want to communicate using English.
With regard to the second, Japanese EFL learners’ lack of confidence in
their English competence has been supported by various studies. The
Translation of Japanese Poems into English 199
1
Communication
Layer I
L2 Use Behaviour
2
Behavioural
Layer II Willingness to Intention
Communicate
Desire to 3 4
Communicate State Situated
Layer III
with a Communicative Antecedents
Specific Person Self-Confidence
5 6 7
Interpersonal Intergroup L2 Motivational
Layer IV
Motivation Motivation Self-Confidence Propensities
8 9 10
Affective-Cognitive
Layer V Intergroup Social Communicative Context
Attitudes Situation Competence
11 12
Social and Individual
Layer VI
Intergroup Climate Personality Context
Figure 13.1 Heuristic model of variables influencing WTC

Source: MacIntyre et al. (1998).
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan

(MEXT, 2011) reports that about 30 per cent of the Year 10 students
say that they do not understand English lessons at school. According
to another piece of research conducted by a private research institute,
61.8 per cent of Year 9 students in public junior high schools (n=2,967)
think that they are either ‘a little weak’ (32.5%) or ‘terrible’ (29.3%) at
English (Benesse, 2009). It seems that quite a number of students lose
their confidence within a few years of English education.
On the other hand, Japanese EFL students’ communication style may
be another factor for their seeming lack of willingness to communicate.
Harumi (2011) analyses various studies on Japanese EFL learners’ silence
in classroom, and concludes that some of the studies ‘indicate positive
interpretations of the use of silence in Japanese EFL contexts’ (Harumi,
2011: 260), including one that interprets ‘attentive silence [of Japanese
learners] ... as acute listening, empathy for others, and awareness of
even the subtlest signs from a speaker’ (Harumi, 2011: 261). Harumi
thinks that the two main reasons for Japanese students’ silence are their
communication style and lack of confidence: Japanese learners often
avoid arguing against other students, and would rather be silent when
they are unsure about their answers.
200 Kiyo Sakamoto
Consequently, in order to help Japanese EFL learners communi-

cate in English more actively, it seems crucial to offer them a chance
to experience meaningful communication in English, to help them
to gain confidence in their communicative competence, and to take
their communication style, which values empathy over argument, into
consideration. This case study enquires into these issues by observing
and analysing students’ reaction to activities that centred on the transla-
tion of poetry from Japanese to English.
3 Use of poetry in the EFL classroom
Various researchers have pointed out the merits of using literature in L2

instruction, including its capacity to encourage students to express their
own feelings and thoughts; poetry seems especially useful for this purpose.
Collie and Slater (1987), for example, assert that literary texts can make
students personally involved in language learning; moreover, according to
them, poetry has value in its ‘themes of universal concern’, which focus on
common experiences and emotions beyond cultural or linguistic bounda-
ries (Collie and Slater, 1987: 226). Maley and Duff (1989: 8–10) argue for
two merits in the use of poetry: first, because there is ‘no single interpre-
tation’ of a poem, every student can personally respond to a poem and
feel the validity of his or her reaction; second, the ambiguity of poems
can provide ample opportunity for interaction among learners in sharing
their diverse reactions. These merits of poetry can be utilized in writing as
well. As Collie and Slater (1987: 226) point out, poems have the ability to
induce ‘freer, creative written expression’ from language learners.
Thus, the use of L2 poems has the potential to promote personal
involvement among L2 learners; yet, it has its demerits as well. As Lazar
(1993: 99) points out, language teachers sometimes oppose the idea of
using poems in the EFL classroom because of poetry’s ‘deviant language’
and its allusiveness. If you let students read a poem by themselves, they
may find it too hard to understand or it may make them feel uneasy;
on the other hand, if you try to explain the poem to students, you may
spoil its capacity to elicit students’ personal reactions and give students
the idea that their own interpretation is ‘wrong’.
Of course, many excellent methods have been proposed and practised
to avoid, or even exploit, these ‘problems’ of poetry in L2.1 In addi-
tion to these ideas, it may be possible to introduce poetry in the first
language of the learners, in order to exploit the advantages it offers.
Parkinson and Thomas (2000), for example, describe such an attempt
by Bulgarian teachers, who let their students discuss Bulgarian poems
in detail before they read and analysed Scottish poems. In this way, the
Bulgarian EFL learners had a chance to appreciate their own literary and
cultural tradition, were prepared to read poems in English, and could
appreciate the latter more deeply through comparison and contrast with
Bulgarian poems. In his ‘Preface to the Japanese Translation’ of Stylistics
and the Teaching of Literature, Widdowson (1989) suggests another activity
for Japanese EFL learners: he proposes comparison between a Japanese
haiku by Matsuo Basho and an English poem by Robert Frost as a way
for students to investigate the use of language in literature through the
translation and rewriting of these poems.
Inspired by these ideas, the following case study investigates whether
Japanese EFL students can be sufficiently motivated by traditional
Japanese poetry to engage in communicating their interpretation of
poems in English.
4 The class
4.1 Literature in L1: traditional Japanese poetry

The class to be discussed here was entitled ‘Poetry in Japanese Literature’,
focusing on traditional short poems with a fixed number of syllables.
Japanese poetry in its written form has a history of nearly 1,400 years.
Manyo-shu, completed in latter half of the eighth century, is a collection
of about 4,500 poems composed by both men and women of all ranks
and classes. Kokin-waka-shu was compiled in 905 and became the canon
of waka (= poems written in Japanese); it established the tradition of
poetic themes and expressions for the following thousand years. In the
17th century, Matsuo Basho initiated a genre that later became known
as haiku; it both inherited and revolutionized the tradition of waka.
This poetic tradition has several unique features. First, Japanese poems
are extraordinarily short. Although Manyo-shu included some longer
poems of excellent quality, 31 (5-7-5–7-7) syllables has become the
standard of waka since Kokin-waka-shu, and haiku is even shorter with
17 (5-7-5) syllables. Instead of developing and expanding a poetic idea,
managing to say it in a short and fixed form is the core of Japanese
poetics.2 Second, as a result, various techniques are employed to connect
multiple images in these poems: kake-kotoba (pivot word or pun), two
words that have the same sound but different meanings, allows two or
more different images to overlap each other in a poem;3 makura-kotoba
(pillow or epithet-like word or phrase conventionally fixed to some
words) invokes an image associated with the epithet to embellish the
poem;4 jo-kotoba (preface-like modifier) creates a certain image in the
202 Kiyo Sakamoto
first few lines and connects it to the main image or idea of the poem by
simile or the same sound.5 Third, these poems often use omission and
indirect expression, leaving the reader to find the missing piece of the
puzzle. For example, a poem may talk about plum blossoms in a spring
night and how the darkness cannot hide their scent, but the poem may
actually allude to a maiden jealously watched by her family, with whom
the poet is in love (the maiden is the plum blossom, which was thought
to be the most attractive of all flowers in those days, and her family is
the darkness that tries to conceal her from frivolous suitors). Finally,
images from nature are frequently used to express human feelings. This
poetic tradition has developed sensibility to natural features of the
seasons, such as flowers and blossoms, the migration of birds, names for
subtle differences in rain, snow, wind, and so on. Such features in nature
are suggestive of certain human sentiments: the singing of insects in
autumn reminds people of their mortality and loneliness, and the moon
on a summer night is both a relief from the heat of day and the symbol
of lovers’ brief encounters and transient dreams. This tradition of abun-
dant images of nature is found in haiku as well. These characteristics
of traditional Japanese poems make them unique and captivating, and
hence at the same time make their translation challenging.
Although these traditional poems have a 1,400-year history, they are a
living tradition with millions of active amateur poets. Their works cover
a whole page of national newspapers every week. Since the occurrence
of the Great East Japan Earthquake on 11 March 2011, and the following
nuclear disaster at Fukushima Daiichi, many people have found solace
in writing and reading waka and haiku on the tragedies. At school, chil-
dren are taught to recite famous waka, and to write haiku after school
excursions. Thus, the rhythm, images and techniques of traditional
Japanese poems are familiar to Japanese EFL students.
4.2 Class format and data for analysis

The course in this case study was an elective course offered to second-,
third- and fourth-year students at a private Japanese university. The
course was conducted in English, so that students could develop the
ability to communicate in English while studying Japanese literature.
Since English was used for lectures, discussions and assignments, the
course was similar to a ‘content-based instruction’ course in the college
EFL curriculum. Students met for a 90-minute class once a week for 15
weeks. Every week, students were assigned some texts to read before the
next class. After the class, students were asked to choose one of the poems
discussed in class, translate it into English, and submit their translation
to an e-learning site. At each class, students were given the chance to read
or listen to other students’ translations and comments, and share their
opinions about the poems in small-group discussions. As a term project,
students were to discuss a topic of their choice connected with poetry in
Japanese literature, translate some poems related to this topic and add a
short comment on their translation, explaining what they had done to
convey the meaning of the poems. At the end of the term, the students
were asked to fill in a questionnaire to reflect on their learning. Fifty-two
students submitted the end-of-term paper and completed the course,
including six foreign students enrolled at the university.
Three kinds of data were collected in the class: students’ translations
of poems (in the weekly assignments and the term paper), students’
reflections on the class at the end of the term, and students’ comments
on their chosen poems and their translations (written at the end of
each class and in the term paper). Some of the comments were written
in Japanese, in which case the quoted texts have been translated into
English by the author.
5 Results
5.1 Students’ translation of poems

Throughout the course, students were encouraged to translate poems not
literally; rather, they were encouraged to convey the idea of the poem
freely, so that the reader of the translation could appreciate the original
better. There were two reasons for this instruction. First, it is not easy
for students to convey the full meaning of a Japanese poem in a short
form with their limited English vocabulary. Second, such an instruction
was likely to let students react to the poems as freely as possible, thus
promoting their self-expression in a foreign language.
As a result, students produced a variety of translations or re-writings of
poems. Here are two examples of students’ translations of a waka by an
eighth-century poet called Ohtomo-no Sakanoue-no Iratsume:
Original Japanese Literal translation

natsu-no no-no In the field of summer,
shigemi-ni sakeru Blooming in the tall grass,
himeyuri-no Is a star lily;
shiraenu kohi-wa Concealed yearning [of the lily/of
myself]
kurushiki mono-so Is such a painful one.6
204 Kiyo Sakamoto
One student translated it into a monologue:
I was taking a walk in a beautiful green field in summer evening.

Then, I found a star lily in bloom little far from other flowers. It may
not be noticed by anybody. It seems as if she felt lonely. My love also
will not be noticed like that star lily. It is painful for me to tell my true
love to someone very dear to me.
Another student translated it as follows:
No one knows how much I love her.

I keep it a secret like no one can find a lily of the field.
And you, also like a lily, lower your eyes and don’t look at me.
The two translations show great diversity, which both surprised and
pleased the students. Every week, they were given some of their peers’
translation as a handout, discussed them in a small group and wrote
their comments. As will be seen from their comments below, it was a
quite popular activity for the students.
5.2 Students’ reflections on the class

The reflection sheet was given out in the last week of term. Forty-five
students filled in the questionnaire. The questions were open-ended, so
multiple answers were possible. The following are the answers in order
of descending frequency.
Q1: What has made this class interesting for you, if anything? (n=45;
free writing)
1. Translation of Japanese literature into English (10)

2. Studying Japanese literature in English (9)
3. Reading peer students’ translations and comments (8)
4. Learning various poems and interesting waka/haiku (8)
5. Becoming interested in / appreciating again / learning more about
traditional poetry (8)
6. Group discussion (8)
7. Chance to use English in class (3)
8. Emotions of the poets conveyed by the waka and haiku (2)
9. Chance to discuss with foreign students (2)
10. Interest in things Japanese, such as history (1)
11. Better understanding of the materials because of English (1)
Although the course was primarily on Japanese literature, 32 affirma-

tive responses in total were about the activities in English (answers 1, 3,
6, 7, 9 and 11). Meanwhile, 28 responses were related to the contents of

the original Japanese poems (answers 2, 4, 5, 8 and 10).
Q2: How did you feel about translating Japanese waka and haiku into
English? (n=45)
1. It was difficult (26 in total)

Because of differences in language (13)
Because of some characteristics in the original works (12)
> the unique techniques and expressions of traditional poetry (5)
> the need to understand the whole poem (4)
> expressions which reflect Japanese sensitivities (3)
Because of the need to devise expression in translation (3)
> the balance between own imagination and poet’s intended meaning (2)
> the balance between clarity and suggestiveness (1)
No specific reason stated (7)
Twenty-six respondents (58%) found translation difficult. However,

the reasons for the difficulty encountered by these students show that
they did not attribute it to their lack of English competence; their
answers rather show a deeper awareness of differences between English
and Japanese, of the poetic techniques used in Japanese traditional
poems or of the need to seek various expressions in English.
At the same time, 24 respondents (53%) thought the activity was fun:
2. It was fun (24 in total)

Because it was challenging (11)
Because it was free translation (7)
No specific reason stated (6)
Here again, the enjoyment was not due to the activity’s simplicity, but
rather the fact that it posed a challenge or the possibility of free inter-
pretation. In fact, ten students’ answers overlapped: seven answered ‘it
was difficult but fun’, two said ‘it was difficult and fun’ and one wrote
‘it was fun but difficult’.
Some students made reflective comments on the activity:
3. Other (14 in total)

It helped me to understand the Japanese language/Japanese poetry better. (9)
It required knowledge about culture/classical Japanese. (2)
It was a good way to develop my English. (2)
Poems should not be translated into another language. (1)
206 Kiyo Sakamoto
It is interesting that nine respondents (or 20% of the students) said

that the activity improved their comprehension of Japanese. Also, two
respondents felt that the translation of waka and haiku helped develop
their English, although the class was not an EFL class and there was no
explicit instruction or emphasis on English learning.
5.3 Students’ comments on the use of poetry and translation

Finally, below are some of the students’ comments, grouped into four
categories: on their own translations, on their peers’ translations, on
understanding traditional Japanese poems, and on understanding the
Japanese and English languages.
On their own translations

● It was good that I could translate Japanese waka as I interpreted it,
instead of making a literal translation. In this way, I had a chance to
rethink the meaning of waka by myself. Also, it was fun to express
the meaning as I liked.
● Although it was hard, it was also interesting to figure out how to
translate the poems so that [the meaning of the poem] could be
conveyed better to foreigners.
● It was fun to translate waka as homework, so I hope every homework
is like the last homework.
On their peers’ translations

● So many people, so many translations. A poem has only 17 sylla-
bles, but it makes us image a magnificent world in our mind. It’s so
interesting.
● Reading other people’s translations, I found it really interesting that
each person translates differently with various expressions and addi-
tional words to convey the meaning.
On understanding Japanese poetry

● Texts of classical Japanese literature are often difficult to understand
because they use words we do not use any more. However, I have real-
ized that I can empathize with the texts when I translate them into
English. It’s a pity that I did not think of this method in junior and
senior high school [when I studied classical Japanese literature]!
● I was surprised that I could see something new by translating [the
poems] into another language.
● I never thought I could convey the meaning of makurakotoba and
jokotoba in English. I learned these words when I was a high school
student, but I couldn’t understand them then.
On understanding the Japanese and English languages

● When I translated [the poems] into English, I realized the richness
and expressive power of the Japanese language.
● I was made to think again that both English and Japanese have their
respective great points. I am glad to be born Japanese.
6 Discussion
According to students’ reactions through the reflection sheets and

written comments, the translation of Japanese traditional poems
into English was well received. The students positively evaluated the
communicative activities in English: they seemed to enjoy self-expres-
sion in English, gladly sharing their writing with others and appre-
ciating the variety of interpretations by their peers. Also, translation
activities allowed the students to appreciate the differences between
English and Japanese more consciously. Students’ comments show that
in spite of the challenging nature of the activity, they were pleased
to discover that translation was a way to communicate their indi-
vidual interpretations and that it prompted them to read the original
text more deliberately. In other words, they seemed to recognize the
capacity of both Japanese and English to express their own thoughts
and feelings.
This study set out to enquire into Japanese students’ willingness to
communicate in English. Did this translation activity offer students a
chance for meaningful communication in English, and enable them to
gain confidence in their communicative competence?
There were some episodes in the classroom that may have inter-
esting implications for students’ willingness to communicate. One day,
a student came to the instructor after the class, and a little bashfully
asked if his translation would be included on the handout next time.
Another student, in her comment on the class, thanked the instructor
for including her translation on the handout. One student wrote on a
comment sheet, ‘I wanna [sic] c show us my report (=assignment) because
I wrote it very hard every time! But I’m not satisfied with my report,
so I will write harder, please check it’. Another wrote: ‘today, for the
first time, my report was on the handout! It was difficult to translate a
haiku into English, but it was fun because I used my imagination’. In my
experience, Japanese college students, especially in a large class, rarely
volunteer to share their reactions with the whole class. It was a pleasant
surprise to find that students do want to share their individual thoughts
and feelings, even in a foreign language, as long as they have something
they are eager to express.
208 Kiyo Sakamoto
Some students also wanted their translations to be read by non-

native speakers of Japanese, showing interest in their reception: ‘I
would like foreign people to read the poems I translated and ask for
their comments’; ‘because of the letters – Chinese character, hiragana
and katakana [=three kinds of writing system used simultaneously in
Japanese language], Japanese poems are interesting. Each of them makes
a different impression on us, but that kind of impression is difficult to
understand for non-Japanese speakers (writers). I wonder how I can
tell them’; ‘as I am going to study abroad from this summer, I want to
become able to properly explain waka in English, so that I can spread
Japanese culture overseas’.
Thus, it may be assumable that students’ willingness to communicate
was enhanced by the translation of L1 poems, because they felt that they
were engaged in meaningful communication with English users. They
were communicating in English so that they could convey the nuances
of the Japanese language and their knowledge of Japanese poetry; it was
something only they could do. Their knowledge of and affinity with
waka and haiku may have supported their communicative confidence,
which helped them actively communicate in English as well.
Reading and reacting to the peer students’ writing in English seemed
quite beneficial as well. In the Japanese environment, sharing commu-
nication activities in English with classmates may be indispensable for
students’ confidence-building and realization of their ability to commu-
nicate. Also, the free translation of Japanese haiku into English seems
to liberate Japanese students from worrying about the ‘correctness’ or
‘quality’ of their writing. Such learning experiences, which bring about
a feeling of self-efficacy, can be useful for Japanese EFL students, who
often lack experience of successful communication in English.
Did the activities fit the Japanese students’ empathy-based communi-
cation style? It was interesting that many students enjoyed their small-
group discussions, in which each of them read his or her translation,
while others listened to him/her attentively with reassuring nodding
and short affirmative comments. This may not be a typical ‘discussion’
from the Western point of view, but it still seemed to be a satisfac-
tory communicative activity in English for the students. One student
wrote, ‘today’s class was very interesting ... Many ideas from my friends
were interesting. Sharing ideas is important to think deeply. I tried to
explain my feelings to friends.’ Another wrote, ‘during the discussion,
I felt happy to find someone who had focused on the same point as
I did, and got surprised and fascinated by others who had a totally
different view. I realized it is very interesting and important to share
opinions about a literary work with several other people to enrich our
sensitivity.’ Here, empathy-driven communication appears to be one of
the keys to encouraging Japanese students to experience interaction in
English.
Finally, this case study was limited in several ways. The sample size
was not large enough to generalize the results. Also, since the class was
not a regular EFL class, the attitude and motivation of the students may
have been somewhat different from those found in the L2 classroom. As
is discussed in Chapter 9 by Ishihara and Ono, more research is required
to develop methods to investigate the significance of L1 literary texts in
the L2 classroom, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Further experi-
mental investigation is needed to estimate the effects of such materials
on learners’ willingness to communicate in a foreign language and on
the development of their language awareness.
7 Conclusion
This study suggests that literary texts in L1 can stimulate students to

communicate in L2. Through activities built around the translation of
poems in L1, Japanese students experienced meaningful communica-
tion in English and became positively involved in L2 communication
through writing, reading, speaking and listening. The students also
became more aware of both the Japanese and English languages, realizing
the challenge and fun of bridging the linguistic and cultural differences.
The translation of L1 literary texts seems to have at least two potentiali-
ties for L2 learner motivation. First, familiarity with literary texts in L1
creates confidence in each learner’s own interpretation, which is likely
to facilitate their willingness to communicate the interpretation in L2.
Second, since literature, especially poetry, allows a wide range of inter-
pretations, it is relatively easy to find a personal connection to the text.
This means that every student can contribute to the class by sharing his/
her reading of the poem, which would encourage him/her to express
his/her ideas without worrying about the ‘correct’ reading.
The results of this study also indicate that it is worthwhile consid-
ering the students’ first language and communication style in order to
discover what will encourage or discourage them to communicate in
the EFL classroom. The translation of traditional Japanese poetry into
English is one of the ways for a Japanese EFL learner to participate in
the language and culture of English users, while appreciating their
native language and culture as well. As Ushioda (2009: 223) states, it
is necessary for language teachers to seek ‘pedagogical practices which
210 Kiyo Sakamoto
encourage students to develop and express their own identities through

the language they are learning—that is, to be and become themselves’.
As the findings of this study suggest, by translating literary works from
L1 to L2 and by sharing their personal experiences and sensitivities,
students can recognize ‘who they are and who they are not, and who
they might be becoming as they participate in this new language’ (Hall,
2005: 77).
Notes
1. Lazar (1993: 101–113), for example, offers two tasks that underline the
‘unusual language features’ of a poem, which could let students become more
aware of the conventions of English as well.
2. See Kawamoto (2000 [1991]) for a clear and comprehensive discussion on the
poetics of traditional Japanese poetry.
3. Since the Japanese language has relied heavily on numerous kanji (Chinese
characters) to increase and develop its vocabulary, and yet has kept its rather
simple sound system, there are a great number of words with identical sounds
in Japanese, hence innumerable puns available. For example, nagame can mean
both ‘a long spell of rainy weather’ and ‘to look pensively’, thus conveying the
feeling of a woman vacantly and vainly waiting for a visit by her lover.
4. Chihayaburu (powerful and fierce) is the pillow word for kami (gods), for
example.
5. For example, the first half of a waka may create the image of a long, drooping
tail of a pheasant living deep in a mountain, which is transferred in the second
half of the poem to the image of a man who spends a long and lonely night all
by himself.
6. The first three lines are jokotoba, whose purpose is to introduce the idea
‘concealed’ in the fourth line, and at the same time, to set the whole atmos-
phere of the poem: the rampant growth of summer grass (and human youth),
the bright orange of the star lily (and intense love), and so on.
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14
Literary Reading Circles and
Short Essay Activities for English
Learning among Medical Students
Yuka Kusanagi
1 Introduction
This chapter presents a study of the implementation of certain

approaches (literary reading circles and essay activities) to general
English as a foreign language (EFL) education for medical students at a
Japanese university. The primary purposes of this study are to share the
researcher’s teaching experience as a teacher integrating literary work
into language education and to provide a platform for discussion of the
effectiveness of the approaches implemented and the challenges they
involve. In pursuit of these goals, this chapter first reviews research on
the liberal arts education needs of medical students, the use of literature
in language instruction, and the role of narrative in achieving learning
in the areas of reading and writing in a second language. It then explores
the participating students’ learning outcomes through the analysis of
short essays and a questionnaire, and presents the pedagogical implica-
tions of the findings. English as a second language (ESL) and EFL prac-
titioners considering ways to incorporate literature into their language
education practice may refer to this study as an example.
2 Required competences for medical students
In Japan, medical schools operate a six-year programme. In the first

year, students primarily receive a liberal arts education. At the university
where I teach, medical school students take liberal arts English courses as
part of their first-year requirements. However, no national, school-wide
or department-wide curriculum guidelines exist for liberal arts English
212
Reading Circles and Essay Activities for Medical Students 213
education for medical students. Thus, prior to teaching the course, I

found it necessary to conduct research on what competences should be
integrated into the course by examining various educational guidelines
and reports.
Tomorrow’s Doctors (GMC, 2009) divides its guidelines for the outcomes
expected of medical students at the time of graduation into three categories:
the doctor as a scientist and scholar, as a practitioner, and as a professional.
The guidelines notably emphasize the importance of communicative
competence as well as academically related competences. As practitioners,
doctors must ‘communicate effectively with patients and colleagues in a
medical context’ (GMC, 2009: 21). Effective communication includes the
ability to ‘elicit patients’ questions, their understanding of their condi-
tion and treatment options, and their views, concerns, values, and pref-
erences’ and to ‘provide explanation, advice, reassurance, and support’
(GMC, 2009: 21). Graduates are also expected to behave professionally
according to recognized legal and ethical principles, commit to lifelong
learning through reflection, and work effectively and flexibly within a
multi-professional team to achieve their career goals.
The competences required of doctors in Japan are similar to those set
out by the GMC. The survey by Hayashi et al. (2005) reports the most
important competences: communicative competence, literacy, human
understanding, ability to cooperate, ability to make judgements and
logical thinking.
3 Why use literature?
On the basis of the general education needs of medical students identi-

fied above, I decided to offer English lessons geared towards developing
language skills and communicative competence. Generally speaking,
my experience is that Japanese freshmen majoring in medicine have
basic English knowledge but are rather hesitant to communicate orally
in English. They need to be provided with opportunities to actually
use English rather than just study it, that is, to become ‘active’ rather
than ‘passive’ English users. On the basis of this insight, I implemented
literary English texts. Not only do these texts provide rich linguistic
input, they also maximize learners’ output and motivation (Lazar, 1993),
facilitating language acquisition when these conditions are fulfilled: (1)
the genre and theme are relevant and interesting to learners; (2) the text
is at an appropriate linguistic level for learners; (3) the length of the text
is appropriate; (4) the text style and cultural context are familiar to the
learners (Hall, 2005; Lazar, 1993).
214 Yuka Kusanagi
Literature may also help medical students become aware of an impor-

tant issue for their future careers that is the matter of communication.
In a general sense, doctors must be capable of building a rapport and
conversing with patients. In their work, they need not only numerical
data but also the ability to extract information what is being said, and
they must have the language skills to combine all this information into
a diagnosis. Commonly, spoken discourse is disorganized in comparison
with written discourse, and medical counselling conversation is no excep-
tion. Patients’ oral reports of their symptoms and lives will often be in
the form of ‘narratives’ and doctors thus need to experience a variety of
narratives in order to become good medical ‘interviewers’. Furthermore,
as Hall (2005) states, exposure to different types of narrative can enhance
students’ development in communication. It is worthwhile including
literature in an English course because it can provide medical students
with opportunities to read and interpret a variety of narratives.
I believe that foreign language education can play an important role
in fostering communicative competence among doctors and that the
use of literature has significant usefulness in such education. In fact,
literary texts are often narratives that introduce events, characters’ feel-
ings and ideas. This aspect of literature enables readers to have ‘quasi-
experiences’ or to place themselves in other peoples’ positions, which
may help future doctors to develop the ability to build a rapport with
patients.
4 The narrative mode of speaking, reading, writing and

thinking
Narrative, considered in this chapter to be synonymous with ‘story-

telling’, is an everyday practice that people engage in without being
aware of it. Nevertheless, their conscious reality is shaped by stories
they tell, hear or read. This universal human ritual makes it possible
to create meaning out of past events and experiences (Bruner, 1986;
1990; Polkinghorne, 1988; Riessman, 1993). In everyday life, people
encounter myriad events and experiences that appear to be disordered
and irrelevant to one another and the connections between these events
and experiences and the meanings that can arise from those connec-
tions may go unrealized without narrativization and discovery of the
‘plots’ implicit in oral or written narratives. By discovering the plot
through the application of perspectives relevant to one’s own life, one
can find connections between events scattered in time and space. In this
way, a comprehensive personal meaning emerges from the underlying
text. This process of semiotic construction moves natural ‘events’ into

the human sphere of values. Finally, narrative is mediated by language,
which in turn plays a critical role in the thinking process. To develop
their thinking as in a foreign language, EFL learners need some ‘scaf-
folding’ as support due to the difficulties of bilingual cognition.
5 Statement of purpose
This is a case study that aims to explore students’ learning outcomes

and seek pedagogical implications rather than positing research ques-
tions per se. The primary aim of this exploration is to identify what
the participating students experienced, realized and reflected on during
the instruction period from the perspective of meaning construction.
Students’ construction of meaning was examined by observing their
voices expressed through written narratives. In this chapter, I consider
their voices expressed in their comments and book reports narratives.
6 Methodology
6.1 The course and participants

The class was taught by the author in the second term (16 weeks) of
2011. It consisted of 29 freshmen (15 male and 14 female) majoring
in medicine at a Japanese university. The class met once a week for 90
minutes. Students were at the independent-learner level (average TOEIC
score 640/CEFR B1 to B2).1 They were fairly confident of their receptive
skills in English, but not their productive skills, particularly speaking.
Therefore, I decided to offer a skill-integrated course to maximize
students’ opportunities to act as creative language users and thinkers. In
order to help students to develop their productive English skills as well
as communicative competence, the course goals and objectives were set
as follows.
Through reading and appreciation of short stories and a novel,
students will be able to
1. construct and express their own ideas in discussion and an essay;

2. deepen their understanding of human beings and society;
3. deepen their understanding of bioethics.
The teaching approach was one of ‘reading for general comprehension’,

the most common reading purpose for fluent readers (Grabe, 2009). In
Paran’s (2008) classification scheme (see Chapter 20 in this volume), this
216 Yuka Kusanagi
approach implies little or no focus on literary values, knowledge or skills

by such reading.
6.2 Reading circles

Reading circles are small reading group activities in which students
discuss literary texts. In a reading circle, an individual student plays a
certain discussion role (Furr, 2007a; 2007b). This teaching method origi-
nated from the literature circles practised in first language (L1) English
classes in the USA (Daniels, 2001). When literature circles are adapted
to EFL classrooms, students need some strategies to perform the discus-
sion tasks successfully. To meet this requirement, Furr (2007a; 2007b)
has developed six reader roles: discussion leader, summarizer, connector,
word master, passage person and culture collector. Each student reads
the story from the given perspective, or role. Then students meet in a
group to exchange information and their interpretations (Furr, 2007a;
2007b). One of the advantages of Reading Circles is that assigned roles
make a discussion more accessible to EFL learners. The integration of the
two types of learning allows students to internalize what they read (see
also Chapters16 and 18 in this volume).
6.3 Instruction
The course was divided into two phases. First, a ‘warm-up phase’ involving
a short lecture in the first session on the competences tomorrow’s doctors
will need and on types of communication and discourse (including narra-
tive), followed in subsequent sessions by instruction using four simpli-
fied short stories2 from Bookworms Club Diamond: Stories for Reading
Circles (Furr, 2009). The themes of the stories are not directly relevant to
bioethical questions; however, they introduce different types of narrative
expressing various perspectives or feelings (Goals 1 and 2). A total of eight
lessons were used for this purpose. These linguistically controlled stories
were chosen to prepare students to read the novel Never Let Me Go by
Kazuo Ishiguro (2005) during the second phase (see below).
Two lessons were devoted to each story. On the first day, a short lecture
and several pre-reading activities were devoted to each story (covering its
theme and socio-cultural context, a biography of the author, etc.). The
activities required students to answer questions, read short texts, watch
part of a film,3 write notes and check new vocabulary. Then students
read the story, and prepared for a reading circle. On the following lesson
day, students participated in a reading circle, during which I circulated to
help groups promote discussion if necessary. The reading circle sessions
ended with my feedback and students’ self- and peer reflection. Students
were occasionally asked to write a short essay on a topic relevant to the

story in question.
In the second phase, Never Let Me Go was read and discussed in the
reading circles. Never Let Me Go is narrated by Kathy who was grown at
Hailsham, a seemingly ‘perfect’ English boarding school where pupils
were raised (cloned) to be donors for transplant. This novel addresses
controversial issues related to bioethics as well as universal themes:
growing up, love, friendship, memory and death. This novel is a good
resource for students to deepen their understanding of human beings
and society as well as bioethics, via discussion and essay-writing (Goals
1, 2 and 3). Seven lessons were spent on the novel. For most students,
it was their first time reading an English-language novel in English.
For this reason, supplementary materials and activities were offered to
support students’ understanding, that is, to build schemata of the topics
or contents of the novel (e.g. original glossary sheets, contextual infor-
mation on social and cultural aspects, an audio version of the book,4
important scenes from the film version5). Some students read the book
in translation after reading the original, for a comprehension check.
Given the length of the story, students were asked to read three of four
chapters and prepare, by making notes on a role sheet, for the reading
circle outside the classroom. The first half of each lesson was spent on
reading circles and reflection; essay-writing assignments were occasion-
ally given afterwards. The second half of each lesson was spent on sche-
ma-building activities as mentioned above for the next chapters. The
last lesson was spent writing book reports as a final course assignment.
6.4 Data
The data, which was collected at the end of the term, consisted of three
types of written narrative: (1) open-ended reflective comments on Never
Let Me Go; (2) short book reports (200–250 words) on Never Let Me Go;
and (3) a student questionnaire. Book reports were written in English
and comments in either English or Japanese according to students’
preference. Questionnaire questions and instructions were written in
Japanese to avoid any misunderstanding.
Content analysis (Dörnyei, 2003) was conducted on the reflective
comments and book reports. Distinct content elements were identi-
fied within the comments, categorized into themes, and counted. If
a student claimed two (or more) different learning experiences (e.g.
‘interesting’/‘difficult’), two content elements were extracted from that
single account. To illustrate students’ learning experiences, some repre-
sentative or significant excerpts are presented below.
218 Yuka Kusanagi
The questionnaire consisted of (1) six yes/no questions on experiences

during reading and discussion, and (2) 24 questions on a five-point Likert
scale (1=disagree, 2=fairly disagree, 3=no opinion, 4=fairly agree, 5=agree)
covering perceptions of the lessons and the students’ English abilities
(developed by the author). Respondents marked only one choice for each
question. In order to facilitate multiple-angled analysis, classroom obser-
vational accounts will also be presented. All students gave their consent
for their data to be used for educational and research purposes.
7 Findings
7.1 Teacher observation

Unexpectedly, many students had difficulty reading the short stories
selected from Bookworms Club Diamond. They knew most of the words,
but found the stories demanding, because they were unfamiliar with
narrative or literary reading. They were also inexperienced at connecting
what they read with their lives or society, and formulating their ideas
and conveying them to others orally. Therefore, the first reading circles
were done in L1 in order to familiarize them with the activity itself. Over
time, students became more comfortable with the process so that by the
time they began Never Let Me Go they knew how the discussion activities
worked. In contrast to their lack of oral skills, the students were posi-
tively engaged in their essay-writing and were able to produce a short
essay within a fairly short time.
7.2 Students’ comments on Never Let Me Go

In all, 29 students gave comments on the open-ended question, ‘How
did you like Never Let Me Go? Was it interesting?’ (see Table 14.1).
A majority (n=26) stated that the novel was ‘very interesting and marvel-
lous’. The following quotes have received minor editing for clarity.
I loved Never Let Me Go. I do not think this kind of transplanting system
would exist in the real world. Believing so, I never thought [about
what would happen] if such a system existed or thought about donors’
feelings, education and so forth. Some donors appeared in this story.
Nobody had the same ideas or feelings. Although I have a lack of imagi-
nation by nature, I could imagine the donors’ feelings as real. This book
is not only good for learning English but is also good for learning about
medical ethics. We future doctors will certainly face problems due to a
shortage of organs and donors. Thinking over the issue before being a
doctor will be beneficial. (Student 1) (Translated by the author)
Table 14.1 Students’ perceptions of Never Let Me Go
Themes Instances
Interesting/Marvellous 26
Made me think deeply 9
Difficult but worthwhile reading 5
Got absorbed in the story 5
Read it more than once 4
Want to watch the film 3
Fired my imagination 2
Brought new insights 2
Liked the narrative 2
Want to read it again 2
Bought the translation/DVD 2
Want to read other works by Ishiguro 1
Read another work by Ishiguro 1
Want to read more books 1
Felt that something was missing 1
Some students (n=5) said the novel was challenging but worthwhile.
The story itself was interesting but it was much harder to read it in
English than in Japanese because of the difficult themes; however,
the story was a medical science-fiction. So it made me think. For
this reason, the story raised my motivation to read English. (Student
2) (Translated by the author)
Several students (n=9) said that the story made them consider the issues
it explored.
I could not understand the situation while reading. I had many ques-
tions, like, ‘Who is a donor?’, ‘Organ donation? It can’t be true.’ I
could not stop reading. ... This book made me read it again and again
because the desire to make an observation from Tommy’s or Ruth’s
points of view emerged into my mind. I did not like the story so
much when reading it the first time, but I really appreciate your
giving me a chance to read the story now. It is a thought-provoking
book. (Student 3) (Translated by the author)
Several students (n=5) got absorbed in the story and could not stop
reading it. The story lingered in students’ minds: some students (n=4)
reread the story, and three others bought the book in translation or
a DVD of the film, or read another work by Ishiguro. A few students
220 Yuka Kusanagi
(n=2) showed interest in reading the story again, and another student
expressed her desire to read another book by Ishiguro.
Only one student commented that he felt something was missing at
the end of the story because he was expecting some kind of explanation
of key points. Nevertheless, he also responded that eventually he was
drawn into the story thanks to its nature; an interpretation is unfolded
to readers.
7.3 Students’ book reports on Never Let Me Go

Twenty-nine students wrote a book report in English in the last lesson as an
end-of-term assignment. They identified various themes (see Table 14.2).
The following quotes have received minor editing for clarity.
The most frequently discussed theme was cloning and transplants
(n=12). Many students connected the story with the real world, particu-
larly regarding the current situation on transplants.
In this story, they [Kathy, Ruth, Tommy] were treated as if they were
objects. However, they have minds and a right to live as people.
Everyone must know this but they never face their knowledge. That’s
because everyone wants to live longer. If they are suffering from a
serious illness, they are sure to receive a transplant from donors. It is a
great thing. Today in Japan, transplantation is very rare. Many people
have died waiting for a donor. Transplantation without waiting for
a donor is a great thing. However, we must not kill people to get
donors. Student 4)
Table 14.2 Themes and responses identified by students in

Never Let Me Go
Themes/Headings Instances
Cloning/transplant 12
Love 10
Emotions 7
Mystery/horror 6
Friendship 6
If I were ... 4
Medical ethics 2
Life/death 1
Mind and body 1
Identity 1
Sex 1
Bullying 1
Socialization/Education 1
I also think that not only human cloning but also all the other tech-
nologies that seem to show human arrogance are dangerous. I knew
that most of the technologies are designed to improve human lives,
not to destroy others’ lives, but is that really so? (Student 5)
Related topics such as medical ethics (n=2) and life and death (n=1) were
also identified.
In relation to cloning, some students reacted to the horrific aspect of
the narrative (n=6).
At first, I couldn’t guess what the genre of this story is. However, I
began to realize the terror of this story as I read the book. In this story,
Hailsham is a symbolic place. A lot of readers must feel like fearing or
avoiding the world. However, let’s try to think about it from a different
point of view. Why did Ishiguro use the idea of Hailsham? ... Aren’t
we in Hailsham? Hailsham is closed and that is similar to our world.
Hailsham is not so far from our world. (Student 6)
Several students reacted to some universal and common themes

contained in the novel – particularly those related to youth, such as
love (n=10) and friendship (n=6). The excerpts below were found in two
other students’ essays.
I think that the characters in the novel are metaphors for us. Though
they are fated to die by donating their organs, we are also fated to die
anyway. In the limited time before death, they try to express their
love and friendship, the significance of their existence, and so on.
Our lives are the same as these things they try to do. ... We may be
able to prolong our lives by medical treatment. In the novel, the char-
acters are sacrificed for someone else’s life. I think we must recognize
that we are living at the cost of someone else’s sacrifice. I [also] think
that a love triangle and friendship between Kathy, Ruth, and Tommy
may be the kind of thing that happens every day. We will have to
think about these general ideas during our lives. (Student 7)
The readers identified a variety of themes in the novel and for some felt
that it was confusing (n=5).
A lot of questions occupied my mind and they were not resolved [for]
a long time ... . After I read it once, I wanted to read it once more to
know the situation and I read it again. For the first reading, I didn’t
222 Yuka Kusanagi
care about Kathy, Tommy, and Ruth much because I was interested in
the situation of the story. So the second reading gave me a lot of feel-
ings. Anyway, this story is a hopeless and painful story. (Student 8)
Some students placed themselves in the situation of other characters,

both those present in the book and ‘imaginary’ characters, notably
including people in their future role of doctors, and asking ‘if’ (n=4).
If I were a doctor in this situation, how should I behave as a doctor?

I hope I am not a doctor who thinks cloned people are just a tool for
organ donation that they haven’t got a heart. (Student 9)
7.4 Questionnaire results

Table 14.3 shows students’ reading and discussion experiences.
The results revealed that students did not feel that they had developed
good reading habits in secondary education (Q1: 65% answered ‘No’).
As for discussion, 65% (Q3) and 38% (Q4) of the students had experi-
enced discussion in Japanese and English, respectively, prior to univer-
sity entrance. However, 85% (Q5) said they felt insecure or indifferent to
such discussion, even in Japanese.
Table 14.4 shows students’ perceptions of the lessons and self-per-
ceived English abilities.
Students perceived lesson materials and activities as interesting
(Q3=3.8, Q23=3.9), and the level of the materials and activities as fairly
appropriate (Q2=3.5). They favoured the use of supplementary materials
for better understanding (Q4=4.2). They showed a desire to improve their
English (Q5=3.5, Q6=4.0), and lacked confidence in English, especially
Table 14.3 Reading and discussion experiences
Questions n Yes (%) No (%)
1 I often used to read books in Japanese 26 9 (35%) 17 (65%)

before entering university.
2 I often used to read books in English 26 2 (8%) 24 (92%)
3 I had experienced discussions in 26 17 (65%) 9 (35%)
Japanese before entering university.
4 I had experienced discussions in English 26 10 (38%) 16 (62%)
5 I’m good at discussion in Japanese. 26 4 (15%) 22 (85%)
6 Engaging in discussion in Japanese is 26 4 (15%) 22 (85%)
interesting.
Table 14.4 Perceptions of the lessons and self-perceived English abilities
Questions n Mean
1 I worked actively in the class with good preparation. 26 3.4

2 The level of the texts, learning materials and activities 26 3.5
was appropriate.
3 The texts, learning materials and activities were 26 3.8
interesting.
4 Audio books, films or Japanese translations helped my 26 4.2
understanding.
5 I am willing to learn English. 26 3.5
6 I want to use English more and improve my English. 26 4.0
7 I’m confident reading in English. 22 2.3
8 I enjoy reading in English. 22 3.0
9 I’m confident speaking in English. 22 2.2
10 I can speak English fluently. 22 1.9
11 I enjoy speaking in English. 22 2.6
12 I try to speak in English. 22 2.6
13 I can tell a story in English. 22 2.1
14 I can communicate in English (convey my intentions, 22 2.5
ideas and emotions).
15 I can talk about the lesson topics (exchange 22 2.5
information and ideas, and discuss).
16 I can identify points related to the lessons. 22 2.9
17 I can analyse, interpret and think deeply about the 22 2.9
lesson topics.
18 I can think about the lesson topics critically. 22 3.0
19 I can think about the lesson topics creatively. 22 2.9
20 I can connect the lesson topics with my experience or 22 3.0
observation.
21 I have more interest in society and humans after 22 3.1
taking this course.
22 The short stories I read in this course were interesting. 22 3.4
23 The novel Never Let Me Go was interesting. 22 3.9
24 Things I learned in this course will be helpful for my 22 3.5
future studies and profession.
Note: 1 disagree, 2 fairly disagree, 3 no opinion, 4 fairly agree, 5 disagree.
reading and speaking (Q7=2.3, Q9=2.2, Q10=1.9, Q13=2.1, Q14=2.5,

Q15=2.5). Their enjoyment was fairly low in reading (Q8=3.0) and partic-
ularly low in speaking (Q11=2.6). Due to their lack of confidence, they
rarely attempted to speak English (Q12=2.6). For narrative and cogni-
tive competences, the results were higher than those on English abili-
ties but still moderate (Q16=2.9, Q17=2.9, Q18=3.0, Q19=2.9, Q20=3.0,
Q21=3.1). In conclusion, students’ participation in and perception of
the usefulness of the lessons were moderate (Q1=3.4, Q24=3.5).6
224 Yuka Kusanagi
8 Discussion and educational implications
The questionnaire results revealed some challenges for me and for my

students in terms of our achievement of the course goals (Section 6.1).
Regarding Goal 1 and Goal 2, students felt it difficult to express their
ideas orally in the reading circles. The results may suggest that students
could have performed more successfully if they had had more positive
attitudes towards reading and discussion. Their reluctant attitudes may
derive from a lack of confidence or from poor reading habits. Reading
survey results show that Japanese university students spend only 26.9
minutes a day reading on average and 40.5 per cent of them do not
read at all (National Federation of University Co-operative Associations,
2014). A survey on university students’ learning (Benesse, 2012) reports
that 83.3 per cent of Japanese students prefer lectures in which a teacher
transmits knowledge and skills, and only 16.3 per cent of them prefer
workshop-type classes requiring students to research and present. The
students’ self-perceptions or self-evaluation seem rather rigid because
they have high expectation for their self-image of want-to-be self in
terms of achievement.
Reading circles seem to be ineffective in terms of students’ percep-
tions. However, reading circle discussions seem to be a good prepara-
tion for constructing and expressing ideas in essay-writing. In general,
Japanese first-year students are capable at handling knowledge and
skills. Experiencing meaning-making through both interpersonal and
intrapersonal activities (i.e. reading circles and essay-writing) may
give students a chance to make a transition to more diverse views of
learning. Mezirow (1991) takes the view that learning emerges from
meaning-making, leading to the transformation of the learners, and
that ‘a crucial dimension of adult learning involves ... justifying or vali-
dating communicated ideas and the presuppositions of prior learning’
(Mezirow, 1991: 5).
For their academic and career learning, university students must be
able to select and manipulate the most appropriate types of thinking
(logical or narrative modes of thinking) and other skills. Medical students,
for example, must be familiar with not only instrumental or deductive
thinking but also inductive or reflective thinking to make connections
between what is learned academically and experiences formed in life.
The qualitative analysis of the students’ written narratives in this
study suggests that the students show strong interest in humans, society
and bioethics. They were able to express their own ideas on the themes
of human beings, society, and bioethics. The themes they identified
correspond with the results on ‘distinct perceptions of enjoyable litera-

ture’ reported by Carroli (2008: 36): ‘A trigger for reflection, a trigger
of affect, a source of stimulation, a source of personal development, a
source of entertainment, and a window on culture and society’.
As shown by the identified themes, students communicated with
the texts and constructed meanings in various ways. ‘Different readers
perceive different intertexts based on [their] differing experiences’ (Hall,
2005: 91). These findings are thus good examples of ‘reader response’
(Rosenblatt, 1995 [1938]).
In an interview, Ishiguro said, ‘I want my books to be entertaining ... I’m
also trying to have a serious conversation with my readers’ (Matthews,
2009: 116). Interestingly, a few students’ reactions to Never Let Me Go
reflect this goal. One student wrote:
… in this story, they [the characters] do not seek a way to escape from
their fate (to die) after discovering that there is no hope. I found it
interesting, although I thought it was scary. What is horrifying in this
story is that everyone questions the circumstances but accepts their
doom. This is the reason I feel this way [horrified]. We tend to remain
silent even though we feel something is wrong. I thought that if the
condition of transplant were driven to its extreme, the world would
become like the one described in the story. (Student 10) (Translated
by the author)
Another student attempted to interpret Ishiguro’s message to readers.
My interpretation is that ‘the clones are us’ and ‘Hailsham is modern

society’. I think students as clones at Hailsham were afraid of the
outside world and accepted their destiny. They never tried to escape.
We may be the same. Thinking of the social structure, we may be
walking on a rail someone has built in reality, although we believe
that we run on a road built by ourselves. Then what should we do?
We must assert ourselves and relate to others. This is something
the students at Hailsham could not do, but we can do. (Student
11) (Translated by the author)
Echoing these interpretations, Ishiguro states as follows:
I suppose the big thing about Never Let Me Go is that they never rebel,
they don’t do the thing you want them to do. They passively accept
the programme in which they are butchered for their organs. I wanted
226 Yuka Kusanagi
a very strong image like that for the way most of us are, in many ways
we are inclined to be passive, we accept our fate. ... I suppose ulti-
mately, I wanted to write a book about how people accept that we are
mortal and we can’t get away from this ... . (Matthews, 2009: 124)
The mixed results of this study indicate that my students were in the
process of learning how to employ literary texts for learning. If a literary
text matches students’ interests, it triggers motivation to learn, provides
exposure to authentic English and expands their knowledge of English
(Lazar, 1993). However, their strong interests may also draw impres-
sionistic responses from students without necessarily engaging their
linguistic knowledge (Lazar, 1993). Balanced instruction is needed for
success, and I therefore suggest that educators should follow the text
selection criteria recommended by Lazar (1993: 52–55): students’ cultural
background, linguistic proficiency, literary background, length of text,
exploitability and fit with the course syllabus. Using literary texts in this
way will help students to transfer from ‘learning to use the language’ to
‘using the language to learn’.
9 Conclusion
This chapter sought to illustrate one way of integrating literature into EFL
education for Japanese medical students. The findings cannot be gener-
alized wholesale into other classroom or cultural contexts. However,
this case study suggests that language educators may usefully adopt
similar approaches, particularly when the educational goal has untest-
able elements. Literature is a resource that helps students’ transition from
teacher-directed learning to student-directed learning. Such learning
experience promises improvements in language fluency and communi-
cative competence, and raises awareness of other people and society.
Notes
1. The average TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) scores
of Japanese first-year undergraduate and graduate students in 2012 were 412
and 496, respectively (Institute for International Business Communication,
2013).
2. Millie and Her First Ball by Katherine Mansfield, Men and Women by Claire
Keegan, and Mr Sing My Heart’s Delightt by Brian Friel. These short stories were
graded for learners at Oxford Bookworms Stage 5 (1,800 headwords).
3. Pride and Prejudice (2009, DVD, directed by Joe Wright, Tokyo: Geneon
Universal Entertainment) was used to introduce the concept of a ball for Her
First Ball, and Waking Ned

d (2000, Video, directed by Kirk Jones, Tokyo: TPO)
was used to introduce Ireland for Mr Sing My Heart’s Delight.
4. Ishiguro, K. (2010) Never Let Me Go [audiobook]. New York: Random House
Audio.
5. Romanex, M. (Director). (2010) Watashi o Hanasanaide [Never Let Me Go]
(DVD). Tokyo: Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment Japan.
6. Twenty-six students responded to the questionnaire but four students failed to
answer questions 7 to 24.
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Language Association.
15
The Role of Literature in Foreign
Language Learning
Masako Nasu
1 Introduction
This chapter examines the role of literature in foreign language acquisi-

tion by engaging in a qualitative analysis of the oral histories of successful
foreign language learners. First, by reviewing some recent studies on
past ‘masters’ of the English language, I will attempt to reconstruct how
Japanese professionals of the past acquired advanced levels of English
proficiency. In tracing the learning experiences of some ‘Eigo Tatsujin’,1
or Japanese masters of English, such as Inazo Nitobe (1862–1933),
Tenshin Okakura (1862–1913) and Hidesaburo Saito (1866–1929), I will
discuss how reading literature intensively and extensively contributed
to their successful learning. Second, I will analyse my own interviews
with successful learners of English, Chinese and Japanese as a foreign
language to identify the role of literature in their language learning.
The oral histories of advanced-level foreign language learners will be
used, not as hard evidence, but as reference data to discern the extent
to which literature can help individuals to become competent bilin-
guals capable of using more than one language practically, skilfully and
strategically.
2 Background
As explained comprehensively by Takahashi in Chapter 2 and elsewhere

in this volume, the acquisition of practical English language skills is
considered a priority by many EFL learners in the business field, in addi-
tion to some English teachers, scholars and educationalists. Curricula,
teaching methods and materials have been updated to meet their needs.
In this global and local trend, Yoshifumi Saito’s (2000; 2003) arguments
229
230 Masako Nasu
in his extensive studies on the history of English education in Japan

are noteworthy. For example, he investigates biographical and historical
documents describing ten Japanese masters of English who worked inter-
nationally during the Meiji era (1868–1912), the Taisho era (1912–1926)
and the early Showa era (1926–1989). Such individuals had also thrived
under the isolationist policies of the Edo era (1603–1868), demon-
strating their achievement of exceptionally high English proficiency
(at least when compared with many Japanese EFL learners who, despite
long-term learning experience, cannot use the language adequately)
even without studying abroad. The achievements that Saito’s study
revealed were surprising to many Japanese EFL teachers and students,
who believed that the Japanese are poor at mastering foreign languages.
The following are some examples of what three masters of English –
Inazo Nitobe, Tenshin Okakura and Hidesaburo Saito – are said to have
achieved.
Inazo Nitobe delivered English lectures in various countries on behalf
of the League of Nations as an Under Secretary-General for the organi-
zation’s Secretary-General, who hailed from the United Kingdom.
According to Saito’s (2000; 2003) findings, in order to acquire an excel-
lent command of English, Nitobe read extensively. He entered Tokyo
Gaikokugo Gakkô (Tokyo School of Foreign Languages) at the age of 11,
and wrote a book in English within just a few days. While at Sapporo
Novak (Sapporo Agricultural College), which he entered at the age of 15,
Nitobe frequented the library with the intention of reading every book.
It was at the age of 18 that Nitobe read Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle
in its entirety, an extremely difficult task for a Japanese English learner.
Then, when he was 21, Nitobe entered the University of Tokyo. During
his stay in the United States 16 years later, Nitobe took only a year to
write Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1900).
Tenshin Okakura, author of The Book of Tea (1906), endeavoured to
highlight the significance of Japanese art alongside Ernest Fenollosa, an
American art historian and critic of Japanese art. When Okakura was
19, his eldest son was born. Okakura summarized an English novel in
Japanese specifically to read it to his child each night at bedtime, which
is a testament to the author’s devotion to language learning.
Hidesaburo Saito, an editor of several English–Japanese dictionaries,
entered Miyagi Gaikokugo Gakkô (Miyagi School of Foreign Languages)
when he was eight; at the school, he listened to English five hours
each day. At the age of 14, Saito entered Kôbu Daigakkô (the College of
Engineering), where he read with such fervour that he had read every
book in the library’s English section in just three years.
The Role of Literature in Foreign Language Learning 231
Based on his detailed research, Saito (2003) stresses that reading exten-
sively is crucial to mastering English:
Those Japanese masters of English unexceptionally have had rich

reading experience in English sometime and somewhere during their
learning period; to put it the other way round, it can be said that
such reading experience must be a vital condition to develop one’s
English to an expert level. (Saito, 2003: 88, translated from Japanese
into English by Saito himself)
He pays special attention to the fact that Japanese masters of English read
numerous works of English literature, arguing that this enabled them
to use sophisticated English, comparable to that of a native speaker.2
This assumption is supported by Erikawa’s (2012) research, in which he
examined 59 ‘masters of English’ in the Meiji and Taisho eras, providing
statistical evidence that extensive reading was the most frequently prac-
tised English learning strategy (see also Chapter 17 in this volume).
Given the great differences between the two languages, Japanese
learners of English in Japan must make a great deal of effort to become
skilful bilingual communicators. This coincides with the fact that only a
few native speakers of English residing in Japan ever manage to master
Japanese. Considering that the English learning environment in the
Meiji and Taisho eras was inferior to the present one, being plagued by
a lack of quality dictionaries, studying devices, learning materials and
opportunities to meet native speakers, the achievements of people like
Nitobe and Okakura were all the more remarkable. In parallel, it can be
inferred that reading, both intensively and extensively, is an efficient
and effective means of acquiring a high degree of English proficiency for
both practical and academic purposes.
3 The aim of the study
The primary aim of this study is to examine the applicability of Saito’s

(2000; 2003) findings concerning past Japanese masters of English (i.e.
that extensive reading of authentic literary texts written in the target
language was an effective means for them to learn it) to contemporary
foreign language learners. Thus, by examining interviews conducted
with successful foreign language learners, whose target languages are
English, Japanese and Chinese, I will attempt to clarify the role of litera-
ture in their mastery of these foreign languages. Moreover, this chapter
also reflects on differences in learning styles and materials between
232 Masako Nasu
the past and the present, such as how the popularization of English
learning, changes in lifestyles and the advancement of technology have
influenced students’ styles of studying, learning and self-motivation.
It is hoped that the careful examination of some successful learners’
language learning processes will provide useful reference data for EFL/
ESL teachers and students.
4 Methodology: the definition of oral history and

its merit for research into foreign language education
In this study, the actual experiences of highly successful foreign language

learners are examined in detail through a series of interviews. This type
of qualitative study is often termed ‘oral history’, and entails listening to
and questioning those involved in historical events; it has been widely
used in the field of history to unearth accurate information and indi-
viduals’ detailed, complex and delicate feelings (see Thompson, 1978).
Despite its obvious shortcomings, such as small subject numbers and
the inherent limitations of human memory, the oral history method
has several advantages. For example, it enables researchers to discover
facts that have not been recorded in formal documents. It also helps
to contextualize significant historical events or decisions. The results
triggered by specific policies are often given precedence over the proc-
esses that led to their introduction, which in many cases is more impor-
tant. Furthermore, while great events are often prioritized by those in
power, the viewpoints of ordinary people can be easily overlooked. In
recognition of oral history’s contributions to the field of history, this
research method has recently been employed in other fields, such as
politics, medicine, nursing and education (Charon, 2008; Johnson and
Golombek, 2002).
Applying oral history to English education can help to describe, in a
more detailed manner, how students acquired their target languages.
While questionnaires and statistical analyses are suitable for grasping the
general characteristics of a multitude of informants, oral history allows
researchers to delve deeply into specific topics. Indeed, those who have
achieved proficiency equal to that of a native speaker are a minority;
such voices may never receive due attention in typical questionnaires in
comparison with those of the majority of ‘average’ informants, whose
experiences are often irrelevant to becoming a successful learner. As
Plummer (2001) argues, a study of specific informants familiar with
a given subject (foreign language acquisition in the present case) will
produce far more convincing results than a survey targeting a group of
1,000 individuals who lack that specific information. Consequently, the

investigation of a small number of successful students may reveal more
reliable pedagogical information concerning the mastery of a target
language and recommendable teaching and learning approaches.
Another motivation for collecting successful language learners’ oral
histories is that they can outline the evolution of their learning process.
The data analysis techniques commonly used in EFL studies, such as
the quantitative analysis of language proficiency test results, tend to
focus on the short-term pedagogical effects of specific teaching methods
and/or materials. However, the method adopted in this chapter exam-
ines individuals’ long-term learning experiences, including where they
were born and raised, to explore the effect these may have had on their
learning process.
5 Seminal works
The number of instances where the oral history method has been applied
to foreign language studies is not large, although several pieces of research
are worth noting as they involve Japanese EFL learners. Torikai (2007),
for instance, interviewed five leading interpreters with work experience
in international settings in order to collect detailed biographical infor-
mation regarding their acquisition of high English proficiency. Although
the number of participants is limited, they are professional interpreters,
and the training they underwent should have some pedagogical impli-
cations for foreign language learners – particularly Japanese EFL learners.
However, it is uncertain whether data collected in a specific field such
as interpretation is applicable to EFL learners in general. In my study,
the interviewees’ specializations vary; they include interpreters, busi-
nesspersons, researchers and students.
Takeuchi (2007; 2010) interviewed 18 ‘masters’ of English. Involving
a comparison between results of the interview analysis with those of a
questionnaire administrated to a larger number of subjects (including
the aforementioned 18), his study is methodical enough for the inter-
viewees’ testimonies to be deemed reliable both qualitatively and quan-
titatively. However, the role of literature is not specifically dealt with in
the study, which therefore provides limited insight into the validity of
Saito’s findings or the current chapter’s assumption.
From a global point of view, Benson and Nunan’s (2005) collection
of nine original studies is a seminal work in this field, which analysed
the narratives and biographies of EFL/ESL learners to identify individual
differences in language learning. The researchers clarified how learning
234 Masako Nasu
a language is influenced by a variety of factors, such as motivation,

emotion, age, learning strategies and beliefs, identity and studying, and
learning environments. They also investigated different learning experi-
ences, and selected participants from Australia, Bahrain, China, Taiwan,
Thailand, New Zealand and Peru. Umino (2005) is among the authors
included in Benson and Nunan’s collection; in her study, she analyses
Japanese students’ long-term learning experiences, which is particularly
relevant to the study in this chapter. However, Umino’s study is limited
to the pedagogical effects of broadcast materials such as English radio
and TV programmes in Japan, and differs significantly from this chapter
in that the present study deals with much broader learning experiences
(cf. Kramsch, 2009, for an analysis of second/foreign language learners’
actual language use from a learner-centred perspective).
6 Interviews
Interviews with ‘Tatsujin’ or masters and highly successful learners –

that is, working adults and students proficient in English, Japanese
or Chinese as a foreign language – began in March 2011. This section
explains how the interviewees were selected.
6.1 The definition of a foreign language expert

Takeuchi (2007) stipulates restrictions for a Japanese foreign language
expert:
1. They were born in a place where the foreign language learned was not
spoken on a daily basis.
2. They commenced regular and formal lessons of the language at the
age of 12 or older.
3. They learned the language primarily in Japan; if the individual lived
abroad, the period of time and circumstances surrounding it should
be insufficient to practically master the target language.
4. They do not speak the foreign language domestically on a daily
basis.
5. They are currently employed in an occupation requiring the acquired
foreign language’s use.
6. They can be objectively considered highly competent in the target
language.
Takeuchi stresses that a Japanese language expert should meet

each of these six conditions. Considering today’s English learning
environment, however, the definition of an ‘expert’ should be more

flexible. This is because an increasing number of Japanese people have
experience staying abroad at a young age or following graduation, and
many make contact with native speakers domestically. Furthermore,
those who begin learning a foreign language at a young age or have
experience abroad do not necessarily become experts in the target
language. In Takeuchi’s case, although he also deals with contempo-
rary EFL learners, those who made a conscious effort to learn English
domestically are primarily targeted. Therefore, the individuals consid-
ered Japanese experts of foreign languages (namely, English and
Chinese) who were interviewed in this study were selected on the
basis of two guidelines:
1. That their mother tongue is Japanese.

2. That they have reached an advanced level in the target language
through a conscious learning experience (either domestically or
abroad).
According to these guidelines, interviewees should be employed in an

occupation where a strong command of English is necessary.
Young students with high prospects of becoming ‘masters of English’
are also included in this study, such as university or high school students
who obtained full marks (990) on the TOEIC, or achieved Grade 1 in the
EIKEN Test in Practical English Proficiency.
Other students should be designated ‘apprentice masters’ due to
their proficiency and experience using English. The incidental (but
significant) advantage of including this demographic is because
such students are more likely than adult learners to retain a clear
memory of their approach to learning the language, and can provide
a very detailed and reliable account of their ongoing learning experi-
ences. Furthermore, this study includes Japanese students and profes-
sionals who have maintained advanced levels of foreign language
proficiency after returning to Japan from abroad. Since all returning
students cannot successfully maintain an excellent command of a
foreign language, their success stories should have some pedagogical
implications as well.
This study also analyses the narratives of non-Japanese learners of
Japanese, since their conditions are theoretically equivalent to those of
Japanese EFL learners. In other words, through an analysis of how non-
native speakers of Japanese learn, Japanese (and hopefully other EFL and
ESL learners) should be able to gain greater pedagogical insights.
236 Masako Nasu
6.2 Subjects and interview style

A series of interviews were conducted between March 2011 and April
2014. A total of 35 people were interviewed: 31 Japanese EFL learners
(one also learned Chinese); one Thai high school EFL student; one
American and one Chinese learner of Japanese, both of whom resided
in Japan for many years; and one Korean learner of Japanese as a foreign
language.
The 31 Japanese interviewees comprised eight businessmen and
women, 18 university students (five post-graduate), a high school
student and four junior high school students. 18 of them had spent a
year or more abroad.
On average, interviews lasted approximately an hour, although they
occasionally exceeded two hours. The interviews were conducted prima-
rily in Japanese, the interviewer’s and most interviewees’ native language;
all participants, however, were bi- or trilingual speakers who used their
target foreign language when necessary. The interviewees were asked to
relate their learning experiences chronologically, including details such as
how they had spent their childhood and how long they had studied the
targeted foreign language. After that, the participants explained how they
had improved their reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. The
questions also concerned their motivation to learn the targeted foreign
language, and examples of success and failure throughout their learning.
Each interview was tape-recorded and transcribed by the author.
7 The importance of reading literature:

qualitative analysis of seven oral histories
Only a small number of interviewees were positive about the role of

authentic English literary texts as study materials: among the 35
interviewees, only seven referenced the educational effects of reading
authentic literature. Table 15.1 provides a summary of their backgrounds
and achievements.
Considering that literary texts are rarely used in contemporary
English classrooms in Japan, the fact that only seven of the interviewees
responded positively about literature is unsurprising. Furthermore,
participants who did not emphasize the role of literature in their inter-
views might still have used it in their learning. Of the seven interviewees,
five use the target foreign language for their jobs and in the case of
Mari, it is quite rare that a junior high school student passes Grade 1
in the EIKEN Test. It is worth mentioning that although the number is
small, the majority of interviewees who had acquired highly advanced
Table 15.1 Background of interviewees
Reference Name and position Mother Target Target language proficiency Overseas experience
tongue language
Oral history 1 MITANIHARA Masako Japanese English TOEIC score of 990 Stayed in the USA for five
(instructor at an English years (studied at a community
conversation school) college for four years and
worked for a company a year)
Oral history 2 HIRAI Mari (Japanese Japanese English Grade 1 in the EIKEN Test in Resided in the USA from age
high school student) Practical English Proficiency3 six to eleven
Oral history 3 *Japanese scholar of Japanese English Grade 1 in the EIKEN Test in Studied at a British university
English Practical English Proficiency for two years
with distinction; has published
books and papers in English
Oral history 4 *Japanese translator Japanese English Works as a professional English Studied at a British university
to Japanese translator for one year
Oral history 5 KATO Ayano (fourth Japanese English TOEIC score of 780 None
year university student)
Oral history 6 Tom Gally (Professor at English Japanese Has published papers and books Resided in Japan for more
the University of Tokyo) in Japanese; communicates in than 30 years, beginning at
idiomatic Japanese the age of 26
Oral history 7 KAWAI Tomohiro Japanese Chinese Uses Chinese and English for Studied at an Australian
(Japanese master of the business university for three years
Chinese language)
*These two interviewees agreed to disclose their oral histories on condition of anonymity.
238 Masako Nasu
levels of foreign language proficiency referenced the educational effects

of literature. This may suggest that reading a certain amount of literary
work is effective for ‘apprentice’ masters (i.e. successful intermediate to
advanced Japanese learners of English) to become ‘authentic masters’
who can use their target foreign language skilfully.
I will now analyse the narratives of the seven interviewees who
explicitly referred to the role that authentic literary texts played in their
learning of the target language.
7.1 EFL learners

Oral history 1: MITANIHARA Masako
The first example is Masako, an instructor at an English conversation
school in Japan. Her testimony suggests that although she tends to
attribute her high level of English proficiency to her stay in the USA,
that is not in fact the case.
Testimony A
I like reading so I read books both in Japanese and in English very
often. While staying in the United States, and also after I returned to
Japan, I read a large amount of paperbacks including authentic litera-
ture written in English. I read a few books a month, and I felt that
my English knowledge and skills were firmly established as a result of
such extensive reading. (Translated into English by the author)
Although some of her Japanese colleagues also lived abroad for long
periods, Masako’s English proficiency is superior, according to her
colleagues who are native English speakers.
Oral history 2: HIRAI Mari

The second example is Mari, a first-year high school student, who
also stresses the effectiveness of reading authentic English books. She
achieved Grade 1 in the EIKEN Test in Practical English Proficiency while
still a third-year junior high school student. Although she stayed in the
USA between the ages of six and eleven, this experience was generally
unhelpful when she attempted to complete one of the most difficult
English proficiency tests. She emphasizes the importance of reading.
Testimony B
While living in the United States, I was deeply impressed by picture
books that I found at my local primary school library, which
motivated me to read books. After I returned to Japan I continued to

read English paperbacks (including both English and American litera-
ture) to improve my English. (Translated into English by the author)
At eight years old, Mari read for 15 minutes each day at school, where
she encountered many interesting books. At the time of the interview,
she was reading A Tale of Two Cities and Romeo and Juliett with a private
native-speaking English tutor. Although there are several interviewees
who have lived overseas for five years or more, Mari is the only indi-
vidual to have acquired such an advanced level of English proficiency.
Oral history 3: A Japanese scholar of English

The third interviewee is a Japanese scholar of English. He obtained Grade
1 (with distinction) in the EIKEN Test in Practical English Proficiency
and has published books and articles in English. He began his study of
English in junior high school like many other Japanese students, and
first spoke with a native English speaker as an undergraduate. He studied
abroad while in his twenties, but emphasized that his prior intensive
English studies contributed greatly to his skills. Specifically, he read a
variety of materials both intensively and extensively before travelling.
Testimony C
As a third-year university student, I began to seriously consider stud-
ying abroad. It was at that time I started to learn English in earnest.
My English reading began with English newspapers because I didn’t
like literature so much, even in Japanese. I was good at grammar, but I
needed a larger vocabulary to read authentic English texts; I consulted
a dictionary almost every time unknown words appeared, which
worked very well for me. After I became accustomed to authentic
English, I began reading classic British and American novels. One of
the most impressive books I encountered was A. S. Byatt’s Possession,
which I read as a postgraduate student just before studying at a
British university. Although it was a difficult book, requiring literary
knowledge, I felt a sense of accomplishment after completing the
original version of a long English novel. My experience of reading
English literature made me realize the pleasure of reading literature.
(Translated into English by the author)
The respondent’s testimony suggests that literary texts can be effective

even with those who do not initially like literature immensely or read it
in their native language.
240 Masako Nasu
Another potentially significant finding from this interview involves

the usefulness of dictionaries. Good quality dictionaries are now avail-
able for Japanese EFL learners, including cutting-edge electronic diction-
aries that provide sample pronunciations recorded by native English
speakers. Additionally, prestigious dictionaries are available, such as
the Genius Japanese–English Dictionary, Kenkyusha’s New Japanese–English
Dictionaryy and English–English dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary.
Oral history 4: A Japanese translator

Another interviewee, a Japanese translator, stresses the importance of
reading both literature and English language philosophy books in order
to become an internationally minded person.
Testimony D
I found literature and philosophy very interesting to read because they
have profundity in content and meet my intellectual and academic
needs. As for the advantages of reading literature and philosophy,
they can be useful for those who need to write in English. Reading
many books written in English provides not only an opportunity to
learn grammar and vocabulary, but also a way of thinking unique to
English. Since I wanted to write English in a more refined manner, I
realized that I needed to produce material that is written in a charac-
teristically English way. Furthermore, the writers of classics generally
choose words and expressions carefully to represent their ideas. In
that sense, reading masterpieces while learning English as a foreign
language is a good practice that facilitates the development of a
keen sense of language, and the ability to identify delicate shades of
meaning. (Translated into English by the author)
She also emphasized that acquiring philosophical and religious knowl-

edge through reading is essential to actually using the targeted foreign
language for communication. A better understanding of the culture and
customs of a language’s country of origin will help one avoid uncom-
fortable misunderstandings.
Oral history 5: KATO Ayano

This project includes some students who are successful learners but have
limited experience of using the target language skilfully in commu-
nication. It is worth noting that many of these students emphasize
the significance of extensively reading Graded Readers (GRs), a series
of books written in a simplified form for language learners.4 Many

students at high schools and universities consider GRs an excellent
learning resource. The following testimony is from Ayano, a fourth-
year university student who has never lived abroad. She attributes her
improved TOEIC scores, which increased from 615 (L325: R290) in
the spring of 2010 to 780 (L410: R370) in May the following year, to
her use of GRs. It is noteworthy that scores exceeding 750 are classi-
fied as advanced for a Japanese university student with no experience
abroad.
Testimony E
For me, extensive reading is the best learning method I have ever
utilized. So far, I have read many books written in simple English,
including simplified versions of British and American literature. The
total number of words I have read exceeds a million. Usually I spend
three hours reading daily, and I did this in the five months leading up
to March 2011. Generally, I chose books with around 10,000 words
so that I could finish them in one day. When I read a book in English
on the train, silently, it provided me with no practice for speaking
English. However, thanks to my extensive reading practice, I can now
respond in English automatically. In fact, I found it easier to speak
English than I expected since I had accumulated numerous phrases
and sentences through extensive reading. Furthermore, I can now
read English more efficiently than before, and my listening skills
have also improved. (Translated into English by the author)
Ayano emphasizes that learning written vocabulary contributed to her

acquisition of spoken words. Her testimony suggests that reading exten-
sively improves fluency in both written and spoken communication, as
has been widely reported in Japan. The next step that students at her
proficiency level should take to become experts of English is to increase
their quality of reading by integrating authentic reading materials into
their learning.
7.2 Other foreign language learners

The current study also targeted learners of other foreign languages, such
as Japanese and Chinese, since significant differences between their
native and target languages may resemble conditions faced by Japanese
EFL learners. This section focuses on two interviewees: an American
learner of Japanese and a Japanese learner of Chinese.
242 Masako Nasu
Oral history 6: Tom Gally

This section begins with Tom Gally’s recollection of his experience in
acquiring a foreign language. Professor Gally authored a book in Japanese
entitled Eigo no Aya (Figures of English) with virtually no assistance from
native Japanese speakers, thus establishing that he is indeed proficient
in the target language. By discussing not only his language learning
experience, but also the importance of cross-cultural understanding, he
provides the most extensive and specific explanation of the effect of
reading authentic literary texts.
He realized the effectiveness of reading literary works while studying
his first foreign language, Russian. When his teacher in college informed
him that extensive reading had helped her immensely in learning a
foreign language, he began reading Russian literary works. At first, he
attempted to read Russian books with the aid of a dictionary, but this
practice usually consumed half an hour or more per page. Therefore,
after heeding his teacher’s advice, he ceased using a dictionary and
instead began studying vocabulary independently by creating flash
cards to memorize unfamiliar words. These two activities (extensive
reading of authentic Russian literature and focused vocabulary building)
reinforced each other, and after just one year, his reading proficiency in
Russian increased from a beginner’s to advanced level, which enabled
him to read War and Peace by Tolstoy and other classic works of the
19th century. According to him, this experience was extremely benefi-
cial when he began studying Japanese later.
Professor Gally began learning Japanese upon arriving in Japan at the
age of 26. After a few years of study, he began reading modern Japanese
classics written by authors of the Meiji era, such as Soseki Natsume.
Although he is not certain he would agree with the assertion that reading
literature is the best way to learn a foreign language, he acknowledges
the positive effects of doing so based on his own experience of reading
Russian, Chinese and Japanese literature. For him, it was an enjoy-
able experience and an excellent opportunity to acquaint himself with
conversational Japanese and other language styles, while also exposing
himself to a wide range of new vocabulary.
Testimony F
A novel provides the reader with room for the imagination to roam,
and it makes the process of reading fun. A literary work also contains
a wider range of vocabulary than other types of reading materials.
In a newspaper, for example, there is almost no spoken language or
other informal expressions used in daily conversation. In literature,

though, there is virtually no limit on the use of language.
He also emphasizes the significance of reading literature to gain an

improved understanding of people’s values and views in different coun-
tries or cultures.
Reading literary works also helps you understand the cultural back-
ground of the language you are reading. Although my Japanese
reached a higher level and I was able to understand the Japanese
language itself better than before, I still had difficulty in under-
standing what and how Japanese people thought. For example,
if their aged parents became ill and needed care, how would they
cope? If you find that situation described in a Japanese novel or short
story, you can get some idea of how Japanese people think about
such problems. In a literary work, a novelist can present the idea of
‘death’ through the experiences and thoughts of the characters, while
in daily life topics such as death and nursing care for older people
are often too personal to talk about with someone you don’t know
very well. Such delicate topics are for close friends only. In this sense,
reading Japanese literature, especially modern works, really helped
me get a better understanding of how Japanese people think about
such sensitive situations.
Professor Gally has lived in Japan for more than 30 years, and although
there are many foreigners who have lived in Japan for a long time like
him, most have become proficient in daily conversation at best. As an
interviewer, I realize that his idiomatic Japanese is underpinned by his
understanding of Japanese culture and people, which he cultivated
through his reading of Japanese literature.
Oral history 7: KAWAI Tomohiro

Tomohiro is a successful Japanese learner of Chinese and English. Among
the seven individuals who refer to literature in their interviews, he is
the only person working in a business environment to stress the signifi-
cance of literature in foreign language learning. Although Japanese and
Chinese languages share some (but not all) Chinese characters, the two
languages are completely different in their syntax, pronunciation and
even emotional expression. Moreover, most Japanese do not study the
Chinese language in junior and senior high school, making it more diffi-
cult for them to acquire than English.
244 Masako Nasu
Tomohiro learned Chinese from his Chinese roommate during a stay

in Australia. He described his Chinese learning by focusing on yoji-
jukugo, which roughly translates as ‘four-Chinese-character idioms’ or
‘four-character idiomatic compounds’. Yoji-jukugo mostly originate in
Buddhist literature, folklore and classical literature.
Testimony G
I don’t think I am really able to speak a high standard of educated
Chinese when I have meetings with inspection parties from the
central government of China. It is customary among Chinese people
to use many yoji-jukugo, especially when speaking in a refined and
educated manner. From early childhood, Chinese people learn idio-
matic compounds and are taught how to use them in either formal or
informal speech. In general, they prefer to express themselves using
these idiomatic compounds. A person who is quite familiar with clas-
sical Chinese literature uses four-character idioms in their speech
more frequently. That is the sort of style that they [Chinese people]
believe characterizes well educated speech. As for me, I’ve had no
formal instruction in Chinese, but learned the language through
conversations with native speakers. I feel embarrassed that I lack a
formal education in Chinese, although my proficiency is sufficient
to conduct business with Chinese speakers both overseas and in
Southeast Asia. However, if one wants to associate with high-level
officials in the Chinese government and educated people like profes-
sors or governmental officers, it is mandatory to speak Chinese in a
cultured manner. Those socially respected people, especially govern-
ment officials, are well grounded in classical Chinese literature and
philosophy. Accordingly, possessing knowledge of classical Chinese
literature is a requirement for speaking Chinese in a more refined
way. (Translated into English by the author)
Admitting that he should have studied classics with more vigour to

improve his Chinese, Tomohiro recommends that foreign language
learners develop an appreciation of literature written in their
targeted language. This is ironic considering that businesspeople in
Japan (specifically in the EFL context) strongly oppose the idea of
(re)introducing literature into foreign language education. In this
sense, Tomohiro’s oral history should be considered so that literary
texts might come to play a proper role in foreign language education
in Japan.
8 Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to examine the validity of the assumption

inferred from Saito’s (2000; 2003) and Erikawa’s (2012) findings that
reading literature plays a significant role in one’s acquisition of a foreign
language. In this study, the stories of some advanced learners suggest
that reading a wide range of materials may be an effective means of
improving foreign language proficiency. Specifically, reading literature
in its original language should be encouraged not only to achieve the
most advanced level of foreign language proficiency, but also to promote
cross-cultural understanding in an increasingly globalized society.
Biographies of successful foreign language learners in both the past and
the present reiterate that reading literary works extensively and inten-
sively can contribute to producing worldly individuals, such as Nitobe,
Okakura and some of the interviewees who use foreign languages skil-
fully and have a deep understanding of different cultures.
On the other hand, considering the fact that the interviewees who
emphasize the role of authentic literary texts in their learning belong
to a minority, it should be stressed that the educational approach of
successful learners has changed in the past 150 years. In fact, although
this has not been fully dealt with here for want of space, many inter-
viewees have adopted a variety of learning styles and materials (e.g. the
extensive use of technology such as the internet, DVDs and electronic
dictionaries). A significant finding regarding this change in learning
style concerns the variety of reading materials that have become avail-
able to EFL/ESL learners (e.g. GRs) due to the popularization of English
language learning. Many successful learners have utilized these materials
to improve their language proficiency, although similar resources are
not always available to learners of other foreign languages. As far as EFL/
ESL is concerned, teachers need to examine how GRs and other student-
centred English reading materials can be employed to motivate students
to read authentic literary works. This is also the question pursued by
Fukaya (Chapter 17) and Sheehan (Chapter 18) in this volume.
Another significant finding is that overseas experience (e.g. studying
abroad in English-speaking countries) helps today’s foreign language
learners. Unlike the ‘masters’ of the past, however, the successful
learners profiled in this study are not part of an elite whose formal
Japanese education was conducted in English. As Masako’s and Mari’s
testimonies suggest, while overseas experiences triggered them to learn
English in earnest by providing them with various advantages, studying
abroad alone did not mould them into English experts. Hence, reading
246 Masako Nasu
authentic literature may be one of the best ways to further improve one’s
targeted language regardless of time or place.
Notes
1. Since Saito (2000) used this term in his Japanese book ‘Eigo Tatsujin’ (which
literally translates as ‘Masters/Experts of English’), it has been commonly used
by Japanese scholars and teachers of English.
2. Saito (2003) also argues that, along with extensive reading, reading aloud and
grammatical analysis of quality English passages are essential for Japanese EFL
learners who wish to become masters of English (see also Spolsky’s (1989)
conditions for second language learning).
3. Although it is difficult to compare English proficiency tests, Grade 1 of the
EIKEN Test in Practical English Proficiency is comparable to a TOEFL score of
91–120 or 104–110 (see http://www.eigodejuken.com/level.html and http://
eq-g.com/article/exam/exam-hikaku/, respectively).
4. For references to reports on the effectiveness of extensive reading in Japan, see
http://jera-tadoku.jp/papers/index.html (accessed 5 March 2014).
References
Benson, P. and Nunan, D. (2005) Learners’ Stories: Difference and Diversity in
Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Charon, R. (2008) Narrative Medicine: Honoring the Stories of Illness. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Erikawa, H. (2012) ‘Nihon Jin no Eigo Gakushū Shi Kara Manabu [Learning from
the History of Japanese English Learning]’, available at: http://blogs.yahoo.
co.jp/gibson_erich_man/30573583.html, accessed on 17 March 2014.
Johnson K. E. and Golombek P. R. (eds.) (2002) Teachers’ Narrative Inquiry as
Professional Development. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Education.
Kramsch, C. (2009) The Multilingual Subject: What Foreign Language Learners Say
about Their Experience and Why It Matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Plummer, K. (2001) Documents of Life 2: An Invitation to a Critical Humanism.
London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage.
Saito, Y. (2000) Eigo Tatsujin Retsuden [Stories of the Japanese Masters of English].
Tokyo: Chukoshinsho.
Saito, Y. (2003) The English Masters’ Self-Study School (published in Japanese).
Tokyo: Chuokoron-Shinsha.
Spolsky, B. (1989) Conditions for Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Takeuchi, O. (2007) ‘Tatsujin’ no Eigo Gakushû-hô [The Methods of Masters’
Learning of English]. Tokyo: Soshisha.
Takeuchi, O. (2010 [2003]) Yoriyoi Gaikokugo Gakushu-hô wo Motomete:Gaikokugo
Seikô-sha no Kenkyû [Looking for a Better Learning of Foreign Language: The
Studies of Successful Learners]. Tokyo: Shohakusha.
Thompson, P. (1978) The Voice of the Past: Oral Historyy (3rd edition). Oxford:
Torikai, K. (2007) Tsûyaku-sha to Sengo Nichibei-Gaikô [Interpreters and the

Diplomacy of Japan and the US after the War]. Tokyo: Misuzushobo.
Umino, T. (2005) ‘Learning a Second Language with Broadcast Materials at
Home: Japanese Students’ Long-term Experience’, in P. Benson and D. Nunan
(eds) Learners’ Stories: Difference and Diversity in Language Learningg, 134–149.
16
The First Step towards a Critical
Perspective: The Practice of
Evidence-Based Explanation of a
Literary Text in Book Clubs
Hiroko Sugimura
1 Introduction
Reading today is popularly perceived as an individual and personal activity

for pleasure. It is an independent process in the sense that one can read
what one wants to according to interests, needs, etc. Yet, it has also been
regarded as an opportunity to share one text with others; and it works as
collaborative reading in the context of the classroom, where students help
each other to read and understand a given text in depth. The point here
is student-centred learning, which is a significant factor in motivating
students. Unlike traditional teacher-directed instruction, discussion facili-
tated by the students themselves can help them to develop their own
ideas without any intervention by a pedagogical authority.
Thus, as well as the function of book clubs as one of variations of this
learning technique style, this chapter explores the use of literary texts in
terms of the development of thinking skills by analysing and describing
the outcomes of reading sessions in the book club in my university. In
the process of reading a literary work, students should experience the
circle of ‘linguistic observation’ and ‘literary insights’ (Leech and Short,
2007 [1981]: 12) in forming an opinion; and in discussion, students
have an opportunity to examine their own views ‘in the light of others’
opinions’ (Rosenblatt, 1995: 104). This twofold scrutiny of their own
views enables them to gradually cultivate a critical perspective, which
this pilot study (its sample size is quite small) was designed to empiri-
cally demonstrate.
248
The First Step towards a Critical Perspective 249
Regarding methodology, the concept of the book club is based on

learner autonomy. However, the student members of my university
book club do not choose the texts that are read, which are selected on
the basis of focus points deriving from narratology or stylistics, because
most of them are novice readers and have not had any instruction in
textual analysis. In the book club sessions, students practise expressing
an opinion based on textual evidence. Although the discussion will be
mainly concerned with the foundation and implementation of a book
club at a public university in Japan, the ideas and findings presented
here should benefit teachers in other contexts who are interested in
equivalent activities for beginners.
2 Problems identified and possible solutions
As was made clear by the results of the 2003 PISA (the Program for
International Student Assessment), Japanese pupils in compulsory
education have a low level of reading literacy, which implies that
they have little reading experience. It can also be argued that Japanese
university students in general have not had enough exposure to written
texts. Furthermore, more and more university students consider reading
or studying literature to be of almost no use for their future careers.
There also seems to be a growing tendency for the younger generation
to eschew classical works of literature, which deprives the students of
opportunities to learn from the literary legacy. It goes without saying
that reading affects cognitive function, meaning that students on
liberal arts courses generally have not had sufficient opportunities to
develop cognition and a critical perspective. I have found all these prob-
lems among the students in my university when tutoring and helping
students to complete graduation theses. They are good at obtaining
information from articles they read and summarizing it, but they cannot
read critically to identify a problem in a text, develop an original point
of view on it, or state their views logically. Therefore, most of them have
great difficulty in the discussion section of their theses. Sometimes the
students only respond to a given problem subjectively, and cannot give
any evidence-based explanation.
In the face of current issues in higher education in Japan, the Minister
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, in a 2008 report
entitled ‘Higher Education in Japan’, claims that the university puts
much stress on the liberal arts, and also demands that ‘logical thinking
and problem solving skills’ should be cultivated in undergraduate study.1
These skills should be honed through reflection on one’s own thinking
250 Hiroko Sugimura
processes. Reflection here means ‘assessing the grounds [justifications]

of one’s beliefs’ (Dewey, 1933: 9)2 or ‘intellectual and affective activi-
ties in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order
to lead to new understandings and appreciation’ (Boud et al., 1985: 3).
Literature as a material for ‘the training of critical thinking’ (Kramsch
and Kramsch, 2000: 567) is important in that it stimulates the process
of reflection. Therefore, reading and discussing a literary text in a book
club seems to be a promising solution to the above-mentioned issues.
3 Preliminary survey on reading
Before launching the book club, I conducted a survey on reading, which

I gave to the 158 first-year students in my university in the spring term
of the 2009/2010 school year.3 Figure 16.1 shows that more students read
books than expected: more than 50 per cent of the students answered
‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ to the question, ‘Do you think you read much?’
Most of them, however, spend most of their reading time on the books
related to their course, with almost no time to appreciate literary texts or
to deepen their thoughts about them. Nevertheless, over 80 per cent of
the students are interested in reading novels (see Figure 16.2); and when
I examined the 34 per cent who had answered ‘disagree’ to the above
question, I found that although these students do not have reading
habits, nearly 80 per cent of them prefer novels as reading material
(see Figure 16.3). This is because they find it interesting that there are
set characters in a story and that these fictional people move the story
forward, which makes them feel emotions such as happiness, or sadness
or excitement. As for the other genres, poetry seems to be particularly
challenging because poems tend to have fewer words than a novel. This
makes it more difficult for students to build a context; or else they think
they cannot appreciate them well if they do not know the specific rules
needed to understand works in this genre. Thus, I found that novels
could be an incentive for students to join a book club, and that it might
be the best genre to use in this situation.
4 Texts and educational model
As stated above, there are two aspects to this study: the reading of literary
texts, and discussion using evidence-based explanation. For the former,
my reading community is presented with nothing other than 19th-cen-
tury and early 20th-century British and American literature. The first
reason for choosing such texts was that students are unlikely to choose
9% 32%
Strongly Strongly
disagree agree
34%
Disagree
25%
Agree
Figure 16.1 Do you think you read much? <1> (n = 158)
7%
Strongly
disagree
32%
9% Strongly
Disagree agree
52%
Agree
Figure 16.2 Are you interested in reading novels? <2> (n = 158)
10%
Strongly
disagree 15%
Strongly
agree
11%
Disagree
64%
Agree
Figure 16.3 Are you interested in reading novels? <3> (n = 54)

252 Hiroko Sugimura
Table 16.1 Examples of literary texts
Focus Literary text
Function of proper name or Faulkner, W. ‘A Rose for Emily’ (1930)

pronoun Hemingway, E. ‘Cat in the Rain’ (1925)
Hemingway, E. ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ (1927)
Sansom, W. ‘Difficulty with a Bouquet’ (1944)
Symbolic word or phrase Hemingway, E. ‘Cat in the Rain’ (1925)
Hemingway, E. ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ (1927)
Sansom, W. ‘Difficulty with a Bouquet’ (1944)
Reliability of narrator Maugham, S. ‘Louise’ (1936)
Mode of presentation Joyce, J. ‘Eveline’ (1914)
Joyce, J. ‘A Painful Case’ (1914)
Point of view or focalization Faulkner, W. ‘A Rose for Emily’ (1930)
Wolfe, V. ‘Kew Gardens’ (1921)
them themselves. Although students should be able to choose their texts

in the interests of learner autonomy and motivation (the results of the
preliminary survey found that students prefer contemporary Japanese
novels), foreign literature provides the opportunity for them to realize
that ‘we all share many basic human experiences’ (Gajdusek, 1988: 232).
Moreover, a literary text is not data to be researched and acquired,4 but
a body of signs to be explored with the potential to multiply meanings.
The ‘richness’ of its language ‘makes meaning unstable, uncertain, and
in the last analysis, elusive’ (Verdonk, 2002: 78). It is this polysemy –
and consequently re-readability – that characterizes a classic piece of
work. Another uniqueness of a literary text is the lack of ‘relevant phys-
ical context and explicit contextualization’ (Gajdusek, 1988: 230, based
on Widdowson, 1982), which requires students to connect one piece of
information (word, phrase, etc.) with another to build a definite context.
Therefore, every text is discussed in terms of context. Table 16.1 shows
some of the stories that I have chosen for the reading sessions according
to the focus points for analysis, such as speech presentation, reliability
of a narrator, shift of perspectives and figures of speech.5
I structured the educational model of reading in a book club in accord-
ance with the three moments that lead the reader to ‘literary awareness’:
‘reaction’, ‘awareness’ and ‘interpretation’ (Zyngier and Fialho, 2010:
15).6 The students are provided a copy of a text as a topic of discus-
sion in advance, so at the beginning of each session, the participants
discuss a storyline to ensure they understand it well enough to continue
a discussion of what they think is important in the story. The next stage
is expressing the impressions they got from reading, which corresponds

to the first moment, ‘reaction’. The next stage, ‘awareness’, is the one on
which the most emphasis is put in the book club. Here they are required
to analyse what causes them to get the impressions they have described
and to explain this logically by referring to some word, phrase, sentence
or passage in the text as evidence. Finally the third moment ‘interpreta-
tion’ should come, where they review their discussion so far to create a
coherence of the text.
5 The background details
As of 2011, the book club comprised about 15 university students

specialising in Health Science or Information Science, who ranged from
first to fourth year. They responded voluntarily to my advertisement
for participants in the club. They had the option of quitting sessions
whenever they wanted to because it was not a regular class, and some
of them drifted away from the reading project because they gradually
became busy with subject-related experiments or homework. We had
about one session a month. Before each session, in advance, students
were given a Japanese translation of a British or American short story,
not an original text. Because of their low proficiency in English, their
attention would be exclusively turned to English sentence construction
without deepening their understanding of the content of the story as
a whole if I required them to read an original text. However, any trans-
lation, even if it seems almost perfect, can sometimes cause difficul-
ties in understanding (see Chapter 11 in this volume). Then, in every
session, the corresponding English text was given to the participants as
a reference.
Most of the members did not have regular reading habits; one of them
said that he read only one book a year. Some students were likely to
believe that reading novels, poetry or drama would only lead to what
they were required to do in elementary school, and junior or senior
high school: mostly giving a brief plot summary and impressions of it,
or sometimes learning morals or life lessons from it, the latter of which
they were not good at.7 It could be said that the latter is more important
than the other items in writing book reports in the school setting in
Japan; therefore, they had a biased view of this kind of reading activity.
They also believed that there was only one right way of reading or inter-
preting a text, because in their high school days they were trained to
read ‘correctly’ to pass entrance exams for university.
254 Hiroko Sugimura
6 Findings and discussion
6.1 ‘Hills Like White Elephants’

This section describes one of the book club sessions, in late 2011, in which
we read ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ by Ernest Hemingway. This text was
challenging to them, although the students had recently had some expo-
sure in the reading sessions to Hemingway’s writing (‘Cat in the Rain’ and
‘The Killers’) and therefore had some understanding of the nature of his
work and the peculiarities of his writing style. In his stories the feelings of
the characters are not directly described, which sometimes makes it much
more difficult to understand each character’s emotional state. As in ‘Cat
in the Rain’, ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ begins with a description of the
setting; then a conversation takes place between the two Americans, a
man and a woman, which implies the onset of discord.
Every session started with the question by me as a facilitator, ‘Are
there any parts you found difficult to understand?’ On this occasion, in
answer to this question, one of the members started a discussion:
Near the end of the story, the American woman repeats ‘please’ seven
times, which sounds to me as if she had gone mad, and says madly
‘I’ll scream’ after the man’s words ‘I don’t care anything about it’. But
she seems to pull herself together soon and to smile at both the man
and the bar woman. I did not understand why she would change her
mood so quickly.8
This comment shows that the student had failed to identify some clues
to the sudden change of Jig’s emotional state in the text because the
clues to meaning are often implicit in this story. Therefore, it was also
difficult for the students to explicate the arguments over the ending
of the story: how the couple will end up. In fact, this problem was not
explored enough by the students. Another student said, concerning the
difficulty of the text, ‘There are many pronouns in the text, for example
‘It’ in ‘It’s really an awfully simple operation, Jig’ (52). It sounds ambig-
uous, so I did not understand what operation they meant’. Thus, for the
first half of the session the following point was focused on: what kind
of operation the woman is persuaded to have. One of the male students
mentioned the possibility of Jig’s pregnancy, against which one female
student said, ‘The woman drinks a lot at the bar. Usually a pregnant
woman avoids drinking. That’s why I did not think that she was having
a baby’. The male student answered that alcohol was significant because
the very strong absinthe might have caused Jig’s accidental pregnancy.
The contrast between what is described and what is not is noted by

another student:
I think there is a strange gap between these two lines: ‘Yes, with water.’
[by the man to the bar woman] (51) and ‘It tastes like licorice’ [by the
woman to the man] (51). The narrator depicts the exchanges between
the man, the woman and the bar woman before the couple put in
their drinks order, Anis del Toro. And then, abruptly, the woman
states her impression of Anis del Toro, immediately after ‘Yes, with
water’.
One of the participants pointed out that the words by the bar woman
‘Four reales’ (51) were also significant in relation to what was described
and what was not: ‘If the author intentionally chooses what is needed
for his writing, then “Four reales” should be there in spite of being not
apparently loaded with meaning. But I do not know why’. This why-
question kindled the exchange of ideas on ‘Four reales’ as follows:
Student A:
Examining the connection of the words ‘Four reales’ with the
guy’s ‘Listen’, I think that the former prevents a natural flow of
conversation.
Student B:
From their conversation we know the guy wants to order drinks, and
regard his word ‘Listen’ as a gesture of that. But the bar woman, out of
this context, understands the man’s ‘Listen’ as his asking for a bill.
Student C:
So the words ‘Four reales’ symbolize ‘misunderstanding’ or ‘disagree-
ment’. It would work as a predominant principle over the text, or it
might prefigure the trouble that the American couple have.
This reading may not hold water. However, the important thing is that
the students tried to formulate interpretations based on evidence, refer-
ring to the ‘textual gap’ in the story, as can be observed in the above
thread of the discussion.
6.2 The students’ growth as readers

Here may be observed the students’ improvement as readers of a literary
text. A survey on reading improvement was conducted in 2011. Although
the sample size is small (n=10; response rate 10 out of 12), it can still
256 Hiroko Sugimura
provide some insight into the educational benefits of this project. The
survey consisted of the following questions:
Through the reading sessions, have you come to consider
(a) point of view?

(b) reliability of narrator?
(c) naming of characters and places?
(d) portrayal of landscapes?
(e) character dialogue?
(f) symbolism of words and phrases?
Students evaluated their performance on each item on a four-point scale:

1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=disagree, 4=strongly disagree. Table 16.2
shows the results of the survey.
The analysis item ‘point of view’ in (a) is what I told the students to
be most careful about at the very first reading session, when we used
the text ‘Eveline’. Most of the students had learned to consider who
sees or who narrates in the story. With regard to items (d) and (f), the
participants were also asked to provide feedback on classic British and
American literary texts. The following represents a somewhat negative
response:
At first I felt tired of reading detailed descriptions of scenery, which

are often found in texts such as Hemingway’s. I sometimes wanted
to skip through them because I did not think that these descriptions
had any significant messages that might influence my reading.
However, most of the members were gradually getting to know that

symbolic words could be identified in such passages. For example, in
the session on ‘Difficulty with a Bouquet’, the students understood that
the protagonist’s name ‘Seal’ worked as a symbol, as the name suggests,
which seems to have lingered in their minds. From this session on, most
Table 16.2 Survey results (n = 10 except (b) n = 9)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Strongly agree 0 2 3 3 4 4
Agree 8 3 4 4 5 4
Disagree 2 3 2 3 0 2
Strongly disagree 0 1 1 0 1 0
understood that there might be an implication of a proper name used in

a story; on the other hand, three of them answered ‘Disagree’ or ‘Strongly
disagree’ to item (c) because they did not join the session on ‘Difficulty
with a Bouquet’. The result of item (e) shows that all the members but
one were trying to explore the implications of a character’s speech or
thought. One made a comment on this by referring to ‘Eveline’:
I thought that I should concentrate on Eveline’s speech or thought

to know the reason why the sudden change of her feelings could be
observed near the end of the story. So I read the passage over and
over, only to discover that there was no explicit reason stated in the
text.
Most students came to realize that they need to read dialogue carefully
to understand characters’ behaviour or feelings. Question (b) might
have been a complicated item for the student who did not answer. One
student, who might have been the one who gave no answer to (b), said
that he had not discussed literary texts in terms of the reliability of
the narrator before. In the reading session on ‘Louise’, I asked if they
thought the narrator ‘I’ told everything about Louise objectively. In fact,
the narrator has a bias against Louise, which may have an influence on
the way she is observed and described. However, the students did not
perceive this view of the narrator, and it was quite difficult for them to
know whether the narrator was reliable or unreliable. The choice of texts
that I made for this analysis item might have been inappropriate.
7 Conclusion
This study found that most of the students in the book club are achieving
my primary educational goals: to form an opinion on a literary text and
then identify textual evidence to explain it; to review and reconsider
that opinion through discussion with peers; and to modify it if needed.
Students now seem to keep in mind the analytical items when reading,
gradually moving away from only following the story. Although their
discussion is not always to the point, the club members seem to have
acquired the skill of giving some evidence whenever they state their
views on a shared literary text. Despite some problems – such as the fact
that one reader sometimes interrupts another or dominates the discus-
sion and then modest ones take back what they have said or don’t say
what they were going to say – group discussion does provide an oppor-
tunity to learn from the views of others. Thus, reading literary texts in
258 Hiroko Sugimura
book clubs provides novice readers with a twofold reflection process:

reviewing their own opinions by themselves and judging from others’
opinions on them. The repetition of this two-fold reflection will gradu-
ally cultivate a critical perspective.
Notes
1. For the report ‘Higher Education in Japan’, see the following website: http://
www.mext.go.jp/english/highered/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2012/06/19/
1302653_1.pdf, accessed in May 2014.
2. According to Fischer (2011: 2), Dewey uses ‘reflective thinking’ as synonymous
with critical perspective, and considers it as ‘an “active” process’ in contrast
to ‘the kind of thinking in which you just receive ideas and information from
someone else’.
3. The purpose and design of the questionnaire are simple: a four-point Likert-
style scale with an open-ended question such as ‘What kind of books do you
read?’ following the question ‘Do you think you read much?’ The purpose is
to know the students’ interests in reading and what genres they read.
4. This is almost what Rosenblatt calls ‘efferent reading’, which focuses on ‘what
will remain as the residue afterr the reading’ or ‘the information to be acquired’
(Rosenblatt, 1978: 23).
5. These focus points are mainly based on Hawthorn (1985), and also on New
Criticism for symbol and image and on narratological theories, such as reli-
ability of narrator (e.g. Booth, 1983), perspectives (e.g. Fowler, 1977) and
focalization (e.g. Bal, 2010; Genette, 1980; Rimmon-Kenan, 1983).
6. Although the Zyngier and Fialho model has ‘creation’ in it, the students are
exempted from creative writing because it is not directly related to my primary
objective of this study.
7. Almost all the pupils or students in elementary school or junior high school
are required to read one book and to write a book report on it as homework
in summer holidays. Some schools select several books to read, from among
which the students choose. In Japan writing a book report is usually consid-
ered as kind of subjective writing: writing one’s impression in particular,
which should not always be supported by any textual evidence.
8. All the discussions were in Japanese; comments have been summarized and
translated into English by the author.
References
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of Toronto Press.
Booth, W. C. (1983) The Rhetoric of Fiction. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Boud, D., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (eds) (1985) Reflection: Turning Experience into
Learning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think. rpt. Chicago: Regnery.
Fischer, A. (2011) Critical Thinking: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Fowler, R. (1977) Linguistics and the Novel. Methuen. rpt., London and New York:
Routledge.
Gajdusek, L. (1988) ‘Toward Wider Use of Literature in ESL: Why and How’.
TESOL Quarterlyy 22 (2): 227–257.
Genette, G. (1980) Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. E. Lewin. New
York: Cornell University Press.
Hawthorn, J. (1985) Studying the Novel: An Introduction. London: Edward Arnold.
Study’, The Modern Language Journal 84 (4): 553–573.
Leech, G. and Short, M. (1981) Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English
Fictional Prose. 2nd ed. (2007) Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education.
Rimmon-Kenan, S. (1983) Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. London:
Routledge.
Rosenblatt, M. L. (1978) The Reader, the Text, the Poem: The Transactional Theory
of the Literary Work. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University
Press.
Rosenblatt, M. L. (1995) Literature as Exploration. 5th ed. New York: The Modern
Language Association.
Verdonk, P. (2002) Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Widdowson, H. G. (1982) ‘The Use of Literature’. On TESOL ’81: 203–214.
Zyngier, S. and Fialho, O. (2010) ‘Pedagogical Stylistics, Literary Awareness and
Empowerment: A Critical Perspective.’ Language and Literature 19 (1): 13–33.
17
The Use of a Literary Text in an
Extensive Reading Programme:
Reading Murakami’s ‘Super-Frog
Saves Tokyo’ in the World Café
Motoko Fukaya
1 Introduction
Language teachers both inside and outside Japan who believe in the
pedagogical effectiveness of reading literature share a serious problem:
fewer and fewer young people read books, especially literature. Bruns
(2011: 2) offers an example of a college student who called literature
‘crap’ and ‘contended that all the literature he’d read in school was just
a waste of time’. She continues:
The much-discussed National Endowment for the Arts report, Reading

at Risk, which showed a marked decline in the reading of fiction and
poetry among American adults, suggests that this student’s experi-
ences with literature in school are likely more typical than mine.
Responsibility for the public’s reading habits rests largely on schools
and universities as the primary locations where these practices are
shaped. (Bruns, 2011: 2–3)
The Survey of Public Participation in the Arts conducted by the US Census

Bureau in 2002, presented in Reading at Risk, revealed that the percentage
of adults American reading literature has dropped from 56.9 in 1982
to 46.7 in 2002 and that the decline in literature reading paralleled a
decline in total book reading (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004).
An annual survey of Japanese reading habits conducted by the Agency
for Cultural Affairs, Government of Japan, showed even more pessimistic
260
The Use of a Literary Text in an ER Programme 261
results: the percentage of Japanese people not reading a single book per
month has increased from 37.6 in 2002 to 47.5 in 2013. Moreover, 44.7
per cent of the respondents who answered that they had not read a book
per month also indicated they would not like to increase the number of
books they read (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2014).
In this context, the survey results released in 2013 by the National
Institution of Youth Education (NIYE) in Japan encourage teachers of
language and literature to ‘hang in there’ for a little while. The NIYE
conducted a national survey and research (among 21,168 junior and
senior high school students and 5,258 adults in their twenties to sixties)
on the state of L1 reading activities during respondents’ childhood and
their impacts and effects on their later lives. Respondents were asked to
indicate the number of books they read per month, the amount of time
per day they spent on reading, their current attitudes towards reading,
and the reading activities they had experienced during childhood (NIYE,
2013). One noteworthy finding from the survey results is that there is
a correlation between respondents’ childhood experience of L1 reading
and their reading amount and reading time in L1 at the time of the
survey. The results for both (junior and senior) high school students and
adults showed that the more reading activities they had experienced
in childhood (reading chapter books/picture books/comics, borrowing
books from the library, doing research at the library, listening to folk
tales/stories read by parents/librarians/teachers), the more books they
were reading per month and the more hours per day they were spending
on reading at the time of the survey. The results also showed that both
high school students and adults who had ever encountered an unfor-
gettable book were reading more books per month and spending more
hours per day on reading than respondents who answered that they did
not have any unforgettable book. Given that this correlation might be
applied to EFL reading as well, it might be assumed that EFL readers read
longer and more if they have an unforgettable book in EFL.
Smith (1985: 129) argues that ‘[t]he implicit knowledge of how to read
that experienced readers have acquired has been developed through
reading, and not through exercises or drills.’ Grabe (2009: 328) further
states that ‘for programs that expect students to develop reasonably
advanced academic reading abilities, there is no escaping the simple
fact that one learns to read by reading (and by reading a lot)’. Previous
empirical studies on extensive reading (henceforth ER) have shown that
reading extensively in an L2/FL improves learners’ attitudes towards
reading in the L2/FL (for example, Cho and Krashen, 1994; Fukaya,
2011; 2012; Takase, 2007) and has positive effects on the development
262 Motoko Fukaya
of language proficiency (for example, Elley and Mangubhai, 1983; Hafiz

and Tudor, 1989; Kobayashi et al., 2010; Nishizawa et al., 2006).
On the basis of these findings and arguments, it can be said that L2/
FL learners should read extensively in the L2/FL in order to learn to read
in it. However, it is also true that handling large volumes of written text
is the biggest hurdle L2/FL readers face even when they engage in free
voluntary reading (Krashen, 2004). Especially in the Japanese context,
where few learners have enough exposure to English in EFL environ-
ment, learners’ enthusiasm for reading in the FL often wanes over time,
as Furukawa (2010), Kobayashi (2012) and Sakai and Kanda (2005)
point out. In order to foster continued ER in FL teaching, awareness of
its effects is not enough: the NIYE survey suggests that the easiest and
most reliable way to encourage learners to read more and longer is to
allow them to experience a variety of reading activities and to encounter
an unforgettable book in the FL. Fukaya (2011; 2012) and Yoshimura
et al. (2013) show that English literary texts introduced in the EFL class-
room left a strong impression on students and stimulated their interest
in reading literature in English. It is reasonable to assume, therefore,
that the reading of a literary text in EFL increases the opportunity for
students to encounter an unforgettable book in English.
Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to introduce an activity which
offers participants the opportunity to encounter an unforgettable book
in EFL through an ER programme. It involves the use of ‘Super-Frog
Saves Tokyo’, a story written by Haruki Murakami (translated into
English by Jay Rubin), and the World Café, which is known as ‘a simple
yet powerful conversational process for fostering constructive dialogue,
accessing collective intelligence, and creating innovative possibilities for
action’ (Brown et al., 2005: 3).
2 ER studies in the Japanese context
ER has a long history in English education in Japan. As discussed in

Chapter 15, Saito (2003) points out that in the Meiji era, Japanese
‘masters of English’ acquired a high degree of English proficiency by
reading extensively. Erikawa (2012) conducted thorough research on
59 ‘masters of English’ in the Meiji and Taisho eras and shows that the
most frequently used strategy of learning English among them was
extensive reading.
It must be noted, however, that the texts these ‘masters’ read exten-
sively did not consist of easy materials such as graded readers (henceforth
GR), but of unabridged original English books. Sōseki Natsume (1906), the
well known novelist and a teacher of English and literature, also recom-
mended reading English books extensively without using a dictionary, but
what he meant by ‘English books’ was no doubt unabridged originals.
On the contrary, Kobayashi (2012) argues that the recent popularity
of ER in Japan comes from its practicability in EFL classrooms. One of
the biggest sources of momentum for the popularization of ER in Japan
has been the ‘Three Golden Rules for achieving the goal of reading one
million words’ advocated by Sakai (2002) and the SSS (Start with Simple
Stories) Extensive Reading Group (2004): (1) no dictionaries while
reading; (2) skip over difficult words and phrases; (3) quit reading when
the book is difficult or boring. While these three rules partly overlap with
the ten characteristics of successful ER programmes (Day and Bamford,
1998), the crucial difference between them is that the ‘Three Golden
Rules’ are generated on the basis of the common belief that Japanese
English learners have a habit of translating English into Japanese and
that this hinders them from reading fluently or enjoying reading in
English (Sakai, 2002; Takase, 2010).
The SSS method is another pillar of ER in Japan (SSS Extensive Reading
Study Group, 2004; Furukawa, 2010). The basis of the SSS method is quite
similar to Krashen’s (2004: 37) input hypothesis: ‘we acquire language in
only one way: by understanding messages, or “obtaining comprehensible
input” in a low-anxiety situation’; however, it also aims to free Japanese
learners from ‘English-phobia’, caused by the habit of word-by-word
translation and the pressure to memorize all the unknown words encoun-
tered in order to get a good score on tests or to pass the entrance exami-
nations of Japanese universities. With the SSS method, learners are told
first to extensively read simple stories written in easy English. As a result
of obtaining a large amount of ‘comprehensible input’ using these easy
books, they learn to read English without translating it into Japanese.
Over the last decade, a number of empirical studies on ER using the
‘Three Golden Rules’ and the SSS method have reported that these
approaches are effective in motivating Japanese students to read more
and enjoy reading more in English (for example, Kobayashi et al., 2010;
Nishizawa et al., 2010; Takase, 2008). It must be noted that not a few
of these studies targeted unmotivated, reluctant learners at Japanese
universities. For example, Takase and Otsuki (2012: 91) conducted
research among 81 remedial students ‘with various levels of English
ability (their TOEIC scores range between 190 and 625)’ and concluded
that ‘learners who ha[d] negative experience in studying English could
not only develop their English proficiency through ER but also enjoy
reading English extensively’.
264 Motoko Fukaya
Sustained Silent Reading (henceforth SSR) is the third key concept

valued highly by the ER studies mentioned above. In SSR, students
read self-selected materials silently and uninterrupted for some time in
school without after-reading requirements (Pilgreen, 2000). The effec-
tiveness of SSR on learners’ motivation to read English has been reported
both within and outside Japan (for example, Elley and Mangubhai,
1983; Robb and Susser, 1989; Kobayashi et al., 2010; Krashen, 2004;
Takase, 2012; Takase and Otsuki, 2012). However, many institutions in
Japan also adopt ER outside the classroom, using quizzes on Moodle
Reader.1
3 What is reading?
In this section, I would like to revisit the fundamental question under-

lying the ER field: what is reading? As stated above, the focus of previous
researchers and practitioners of ER in Japan has been to free Japanese
English learners from the perceived need for word-by-word translation
and rote memorization of all the unknown English words. Consequently,
they encouraged learners to read simple stories written in compre-
hensible English through to the end in a short time without using a
dictionary. Rapid reading and comprehension was their priority.
However, what about other aspects of reading, such as the process
by which a reader ‘crystallizes out from the stuff of memory, thought,
and feeling a new order, a new experience, which he sees as the poem’
(Rosenblatt, 1978: 12)? Or what about reading books as reflections or
distillations of ‘long successions of other books whose covers you may
never see and whose authors you may never know but which echo in the
one you now hold in your hand’ (Manguel, 1996: 266)? In the light of
these definitions of reading, it is obvious that reading in ER programmes
with the ‘Three Golden Rules’ and the SSS method covers only a part of
the realm of ‘reading a book’.
Grabe (2009: 14–16) states that ‘reading is understood as a complex
combination of processes’ and points out ten processes used by fluent
readers:
1. a rapid process,
2. an efficient process,
3. a comprehending process,
4. an interactive process,
5. a strategic process,
6. a flexible process,
7. a purposeful process,
8. an evaluative process,
9. a learning process, and
10. a linguistic process.
In the Japanese context, as stated above, the focus of ER programmes

has been on encouraging students to learn to read quickly (the rapid
process) with automatic word recognition (the linguistic process) and
understanding of the content (the comprehending process), while a crit-
ical evaluation or interpretation of a text (the evaluative process), which
may lead them to ‘crystallization of a new order’ or distillation of ‘long
successions of other books’, has been overlooked. Grabe (2009) defines
the evaluative process as follows:
Evaluation also occurs when we decide how we should respond to a

text. Do we like what the author says? Do we have an interest in the
information? Do we agree with the author? Do we like the attitude
and perspective of the author? Do we want to learn more? Do we
want to continue reading? This pattern of evaluation of the text calls
up our own attitudes and emotional responses to the text and the
topic, and it requires a strong set of inferencing processes and the use
of background knowledge. (Grabe, 2009: 15–16)
As the NIYE survey shows, exposure to a variety of reading experiences

affords learners more opportunities to encounter an unforgettable book
and accordingly encourages them to continue reading. It is thus possible
to assume that going through an evaluative process of reading as well
as rapid, linguistic and comprehending processes while reading as part
of an ER programme can help to expand the opportunities to encounter
an unforgettable book in an FL, improve learners’ attitudes towards EFL
reading, and lead to increases in the amount they read.
On the basis of the above discussion, the following research questions
are investigated in this study:
1. Does the implementation of a reading activity which promotes an

evaluative process of reading affect learners’ attitudes towards reading
in an ER programme?
2. Does the implementation of a reading activity which promotes an
evaluative process of reading in an ER programme increase the oppor-
tunity to encounter an unforgettable book and, accordingly, moti-
vate learners to read more?
266 Motoko Fukaya
4 The present study
The purpose of the present study is to explore the effects of a reading

activity which focuses on the evaluative process of reading within the
context of an ER programme. In order to encourage participants to expe-
rience the evaluative process of reading as well as the rapid, linguistic
and comprehending processes, a reading activity using a literary text
was implemented into my ER programme in 2013.
4.1 Participants
The participants in the present study were 56 first-year non-English-
major students (35 male, 21 female) in two EFL classes at a university in
Japan. They participated in an ER course titled ‘Active Reading: Enjoy
Reading Books in English’ for two terms. At the beginning of the course,
they took a placement test developed by the Edinburgh Project for
Extensive Reading (EPER) (Hill, 1992), which determined their English
level to be upper-elementary to upper-intermediate.
4.2 SSR sessions

The classes met for 14 weekly sessions each term (28 sessions in total).
The participants took the EPER placement test in the first session and
a progress test in the last. In most sessions, they engaged in SSR for 45
minutes and participated in reading-related activities (for example, book
recommendation, timed reading, translation exercises, making infer-
ences) for the other 45 minutes, except on three days per term, when
the instructor allowed the class a whole hour for SSR.2 All the partici-
pants started reading at their own starting level, as determined by the
EPER test, and were encouraged to move up to higher levels. They kept
a reading log and reported the amount they had read to the instructor
at the end of each term.
The classroom library for the programme consisted of two types
of reading material, amounting to more than 900 books. The first
was GR (simplified materials) from several sources (for example,
the Foundation Reading Library by Cengage, Macmillan Readers by
Macmillan, Penguin Readers by Pearson Longman). The other type
was books for native English readers (authentic materials): picture
books for children, young adult fiction, biographies, mysteries, self-
help books, canonical literature and English translations of Japanese
literature.
4.3 Reading ‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’ in the World Café

As an intervention into the SSR process using easy materials, an inten-
sive reading of a short, unabridged literary text at home, followed by
discussion of the text among peers in the classroom, was introduced.
4.3.1 The use of a literary text in an ER programme

Widdowson (1975: 33, 83) makes a distinction between ‘signification’,
a kind of meaning ‘which inheres in linguistic items as elements of the
code’, and ‘value’, another meaning ‘which linguistic items assume
when they appear in contexts of use’. He goes on to point out that ‘it
is common to find considerable divergence between signification and
value in literary discourse, most obviously in the use of metaphor’. In
the light of his argument, it can be assumed that literary discourse urges
its readers to engage in a reasoning process to allow them to develop an
original interpretation of a word/phrase/sentence/paragraph appearing
in the text. This reasoning process is analogous to Grabe’s (2009:
13) evaluative process, which considers ‘how we should respond to a
text.’ Fukaya (2010; 2011; 2012) also found that the use of literary texts
for reading activities in ER programmes improved learners’ attitudes
towards reading, even though the reading was all in an FL. On the basis
of these insights, it seems reasonable to assume that the introduction
of an English literary text into an ER programme for EFL learners will
increase the opportunity for learners to engage in evaluative reading
and find enjoyment in it. (See Section 2.1 in Chapter 9.)
The literary text selected for this research was ‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’
(2000) (henceforth SF), a story written by Haruki Murakami. The partici-
pants read it in an English translation. The reasons for this selection
are as follows. First, SF is full of unique metaphors. At the opening of
the story, a six-foot-tall frog visits a middle-aged man and asks him for
help to save Tokyo from a big earthquake that is likely to be caused
by a gigantic earthworm. What is the frog and the earthworm? What
does the earthquake stand for? These questions fire the readers’ imagi-
nations and promote an evaluative process of reading in them. Second,
the students knew Murakami by name and were interested in his works,
but very few of them had read any of them, much less in an English
translation. It was expected that their curiosity about the internation-
ally respected Japanese author would motivate them to read his story
carefully. Although choosing a text translated from the students’ L1 is
268 Motoko Fukaya
an issue to be considered, the prime emphasis in the present study was

placed on their motivation to read a literary text. In my ER programmes
of 2011 and 2012, I used SF for group discussion, which confirmed that
it enhanced students’ motivation to read a literary text in English. I also
observed that the students had read SF as if it were originally written in
English because they had not read the Japanese original before.
4.3.2 The World Café

The World Café, a form of cooperative learning, was implemented along-
side Murakami’s story to enhance the students’ motivation to read the
literary text carefully and to promote an evaluative process of reading.
Jacobs and Gallo (2002: 8) discuss the possible benefits of adding a group
element to ER and conclude that
when ER is supplemented with cooperative learning, peers may be

able [to] enhance ER by modelling enthusiasm for reading, acting
as resources for finding reading materials, creating more reading
materials, facilitating comprehension, and serving as an audience for
sharing what has been read. (Jacobs and Gallo, 2002: 8)
Fukaya (2011) and Mizuno (2005) similarly show that adding a group
activity to the solitary task of ER has a positive effect on learners’ attitudes
towards reading. Tanaka et al. (2011) also indicate that inferential questions
on a literary text discussed in groups could increase learners’ interest in EFL
reading as well as foster understanding of the text. (See Chapter 16.)
The World Café is a unique approach to group discussion developed
by Brown et al. (2005). Its seven principles – (1) set the context, (2)
create hospitable space, (3) explore questions that matter, (4) encourage
everyone’s contribution, (5) cross-pollinate and connect diverse perspec-
tives, (6) listen together for patterns, insights and deeper questions, and
(7) harvest and share collective discoveries – plainly demonstrate that
the purpose of the World Café is to foster open conversation between
participants with different backgrounds and ideas in order to exploit
collective intelligence. If SF is combined with a World Café model of
cooperative reading/learning activity, students should be able to share
their reactions to the story with their peers in a relaxed manner, encour-
aging comprehension and critical evaluation/interpretation of the text.
According to Brown et al. (2005), the procedure employed by the
World Café is as follows. Participants form into groups of four or five and
sit at tables in their groups. They engage in three rounds of conversation.
After the first round, at their ‘home’ table, they move to any other table
in order to talk to new people; one person stays at the original table as
a host to welcome new guests from the other tables. The key point is to
make notes on big sheets of paper spread on the tables, so that the guests
can see what has been previously discussed at their new table. Round 1
is devoted to raising relevant issues, and round 2 is for linking, cross-
pollinating and building on these ideas. For round 3, participants return
to their home table, ‘sharing the ways their original thinking has been
enriched by their learning visits and considering the linkages between
their ideas and those of other teams’ (Brown et al., 2005: 119).
In the present study, the participants were required to prepare several
materials at home: specifically, they were asked to compose two infer-
ential questions that they wanted to ask their peers, identify the most
impressive passage they found in the text, and outline their evaluation
of the text. Then, in the World Café, they were expected to start a casual
conversation on these ideas and to enrich their thinking by learning
new ideas from their peers. These interactions with the text and with
peers can be a key to enhancing the evaluative process of reading. The
discussion was done in their L1 in order not to disturb their free conver-
sation in a relaxed mood.
4.4 Data collection procedures

Four reading activities were implemented during the first five weeks of
the second term (see Figure 17.1). In the first week, the students were
told to read ten short, easy GR outside the classroom over a period of
two weeks. The point of this activity was for students to rapidly and
extensively read simple stories written in easy English, following the SSS
method.
In the third week, after the students had finished reading these ten
easy books, they were given the text of SF and told to read it by the next
session. In contrast to the previous activity, it was suggested that they
read this text intensively with the help of a dictionary.
After engaging in this intensive reading at home, the students partici-
pated in the World Café, where they discussed the text with their peers.
In the session following the World Café discussion, they read SF again,
individually, in the classroom.
Post-activity questionnaires using a five-point Likert-type scale
(1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=not decided, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree)
were administered three times: after reading the ten GR in two weeks
(questionnaire 1, henceforth QN1), after intensive reading of SF at home
(questionnaire 2, henceforth QN2), and after the World Café discussion
and re-reading of SF (questionnaire 3, henceforth QN3) (see Figure 17.1).
270 Motoko Fukaya
Activities Questionnaires
1 Reading ten easy GR in two weeks QN1

2 Intensive reading of SF at home QN2
3 Discussion in the World Café
4 Reading SF again in the classroom QN3 and comments on the World Cafe
Post-course QN pertaining to the

unforgettable book they read during the
whole programme
Figure 17.1 Reading activities and questionnaires implemented
The questionnaires included the same 15 statements pertaining to the

rapid, linguistic, comprehending and evaluative processes of reading and
the participants’ attitudes towards reading (see Figure 17.2). They were
based on Grabe’s (2009) definitions of reading processes and the question-
naire used in Tanaka et al. (2011). In the third questionnaire, the respond-
ents were also asked to provide comments on the World Café.
At the end of the whole programme, the participants rated one more
statement using a five-point Likert-type scale: they found a text/texts
they read for the activities mentioned above unforgettable. They also
named the most impressive book they had read during the whole
programme and gave a reason.
Questionnaire statements and instructions were written in Japanese
to avoid any misunderstanding. Students’ comments were originally
written in Japanese and translated by the author.
5 Results and discussion
5.1 Post-activity questionnaires

The 15 statements used in the post-activity questionnaires are shown in
Figure 17.2 and their results in Table 17.1.
The first five statements pertain to the rapid, linguistic and compre-
hending processes of reading, the next six to the evaluative process, and
the last four to participants’ attitudes towards reading. Figures 17.3, 17.4
and 17.5 respectively show the mean scores for Questions 1 to 5 (lines
1–5), Questions 6 to 11 (lines 6–11) and Questions 12 to 15 (lines 12–15)
(that is, for each of the three questionnaires).
As can be seen from Figure 17.3, the mean scores in lines 1, 4 and 5
drop from QN1 to QN2, while those in lines 2 and 3 increase, with statis-
tical significance. This indicates that the participants read the short,
easy GR more rapidly than they did SF and that they found the English
1. I could read the text(s) rapidly.

2. The English used in the text(s) was difficult.
3. The content of the text(s) was difficult to understand.
4. I could understand the English used in the text(s).
5. I could understand the content of the text(s).
6. I thought about the author(s) while reading the text(s).
7. I thought about the theme(s) of the text(s) while reading it.
8. I read the text(s) with great care and interest.
9. The text(s) had an impact on my worldview.
10. I will continue thinking about the text(s).
11. I liked or disliked the perspective of the author(s) of the text(s).
12. I was interested in the text(s).
13. The text(s) increased my interest in reading.
14. I learned something from reading the text(s).
15. Reading the text(s) encouraged me to read more English books.
Figure 17.2 Questionnaire items used in QN1, 2, and 3
Table 17.1 Participants’ responses to the post-activity questionnaires
QN1 QN2
2 QN3
Mean Mean Mean (M1 – M2) (M1 – M3) (M2 – M3)

no. (M1) SD (M2) SD (M3) SD t t t
1. 3.27 0.90 2.43 0.95 2.98 1.10 5.16 ** 1.50 –3.32 **

2. 2.20 0.86 3.41 0.99 3.20 0.90 –7.29 ** –6.63** 1.76
3. 2.02 0.82 3.59 1.16 3.18 0.94 –8.82 ** –7.72** 2.86 **
4. 3.98 0.73 3.32 0.79 3.48 0.81 5.76 ** 4.50** –1.64
5. 4.14 0.59 3.43 0.81 3.77 0.63 5.88 ** 3.62** –2.89 **
6. 2.05 0.94 3.50 1.21 3.57 1.09 –8.38 ** –10.70** –0.43
7. 2.95 1.14 4.09 0.98 4.14 0.77 –6.81 ** –8.38** –0.47
8. 2.79 0.97 3.38 0.96 3.95 0.67 –4.04 ** –7.84** –4.59 **
9. 2.41 0.85 3.04 0.97 3.25 1.01 –4.85 ** –6.04** –1.76
10. 2.21 0.87 3.23 1.10 3.14 1.03 –6.71 ** –6.78** 0.80
11. 2.96 1.03 3.45 0.81 3.64 0.82 –3.35 ** –5.21** –1.80
12. 3.43 0.85 3.98 0.80 4.02 0.67 –4.44 ** –5.34** –0.44
13. 3.48 0.74 3.61 0.93 3.63 0.96 –1.22 –1.24 –0.17
14. 3.55 0.81 3.66 0.88 3.63 0.89 –0.74 –0.44 0.39
15. 3.80 0.75 3.36 0.92 3.54 1.01 4.03 ** 2.67* –1.69
Note: n=56, *p<.05 **p

* <.01.
level and the content of the GR easier to understand than those of SF.
Then, between QN2 and QN3, scores increase in lines 1 and 5 and drop
in line 3, with statistical significance. This implies that the World Café
discussion improved the participants’ reading speed and understanding
of the content of SF.
272 Motoko Fukaya
4.5
3.5
3
1
2.5 2
Means
2 3
4
1.5
5
1
0.5
0
QN1 QN2 QN3
Figure 17.3 Mean scores for Questions 1 to 5
4.5
3.5
3 6
2.5 7
Means
8
2
9
1.5 10
1 11
0.5
0
QN1 QN2 QN3
Mean scores for Questions 6 to 11
In Figure 17.4, the six lines move in the same pattern: scores improve
from QN1 to QN2, with statistical significance, and remain steady
between QN2 and QN3. This clearly shows that intensive reading of
SF and the discussion in the World Café enhanced evaluative reading.
The participants’ responses to Q6 to Q11 on QN2 and QN3 were all
positive (that is, the means were more than 3.00). This implies that
4.2
3.8
12
Means
3.6 13
14
15
3.4
3.2
3
QN1 QN2 QN3
Figure 17.5 Mean scores for Questions 12 to 15
both reading and group discussion of SF encouraged the participants to

interact deeply with the text, so that they could call up insightful and
emotional responses.
However, Figure 17.5 tells us that extensive reading of the GR was no
less important in the ER programme than intensive reading of SF. The
score in line 12 increases from QN1 to QN2, with statistical significance.
This suggests that the participants’ interest was stronger in SF than in
GR. However, the scores in lines 13 and 14 remain unchanged at around
3.60, which is not a low score. This means that the participants valued
their reading of GR as highly as that of SF. Moreover, the score in line
15 was highest for QN1 and dropped for QN2 and QN3, with statis-
tical significance. This shows that reading of GR encouraged learners
to continue reading in English more than intensive reading of SF or
engagement in the World Café did.
Finally, the participants’ comments on the World Café in QN3 show
that 84 per cent of them focused on the diversity of reactions to SF they
found among their peers and the effects of those diverse ideas on their
own evaluations and interpretations of the text. It must be noted that
22 per cent stated that this diversity of evaluations and interpretations
emerged from the ambiguous and elusive quality of the text, and that
they valued it. It can be said that one-fifth of the participants registered
as a virtue of reading a literary text the aspect of bridging the ‘consider-
able divergence between signification and value in literary discourse’
274 Motoko Fukaya
(Widdowson, 1975: 83). ‘SF offered us a wide variety of interpretations’,

one of the participants wrote; ‘That’s why I discovered a new perspective
and enjoyed reading the story.’ Further, 16 per cent commented that the
World Café discussion was successful because the text was ambiguous.
One of them wrote; ‘We had no right answer, but it was possible to make
our interpretations clearer through the discussion in the World Café.’
(See section 7.2 in Chapter 14.)
In sum, the results of the post-activity questionnaires reveal that inten-
sive reading of SF and engagement in the World Café were effective in
promoting an evaluative process of reading in EFL among the partici-
pants. The results also show that extensive reading of GR was more effec-
tive in promoting reading for speed and comprehension than was reading
of SF or engagement in the World Café. GR, SF and the World Café all
increased participants’ interest in reading and promoted their learning,
although participants found GR most helpful in terms of motivating them
to continue EFL reading. In addition, they found new pleasure in sharing
their perspectives in the World Café. Not a few of them also felt that the
ambiguity inherent in SF made the World Café more rewarding. These
findings suggest that integrating reading activities using a literary text into
SSR in an ER programme can enable learners to undergo a variety of read-
ing-related experiences that can improve their interest in EFL reading.
5.2 Post-course questionnaire

The results of the post-course questionnaire are shown in Tables 17.2
and 17.3.
Mean scores for the two items in Table 17.2 show significant differ-
ences between results for SF and GR. This suggests that the participants
found SF more unforgettable than GR, an interpretation supported by
the results in Table 17.3, which show that 22 per cent of the participants
(the largest group) chose SF as the most impressive book they had read
over the course of the programme. Out of the 12 respondents who chose
SF as the most impressive book, seven commented that it was impressive
because it had led them to engage in careful, critical reading, while two
others mentioned the multifaceted perspective presented by the text as
their reason for preferring it.
Contrary to the positive reactions from the participants stated above,
correlations of their rating scores to the statement ‘I found SF unforget-
table’ with their total reading amount and with difference between EPER
pre- and post-test scores were not found (Table 17.4).
Table 17.2 I found the following texts unforgettable
Mean SD t
Graded readers read for ‘Reading ten books in 2.45 0.76

two weeks’ –16.64 **
‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’ 4.54 0.60
Note: n=56, **p

* <.01.
Table 17.3 The most impressive text read in the whole programme
Book title No. of responses %
‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’ (unsimplified) 12 22%

Books by Haruki Murakami (unsimplified) 6 11%
Books by William Shakespeare (graded readers) 5 9%
Books by Roald Dahl (unsimplified) 4 8%
Forrest Gump (graded reader) 3 6%
Books from the Sherlock Holmes series (graded readers) 2 4%
Books from the Darren Shan series (unsimplified) 2 4%
Books from the Frog and Toad series (unsimplified) 2 4%
The Great Gatsbyy (graded reader) 2 4%
Other books chosen by individual respondents 18 33%
Note: n=56.
Table 17.4 Correlations of post-course questionnaire scores with participants’

reading amount and results of EPER tests
GR SF RA EPER Mean SD
GRs are unforgettable (GR) – .06 –.01 .04 2.45 0.76

SF is unforgettable (SF) – .23 –.16 4.54 0.60
Reading amount (RA) – –.15 456264.61 223075.11
Difference between EPER pre- – 6.79 10.01
and post-test scores (EPER)
Note: n=56.
This indicates that the participants’ particular interest in SF had an

impact neither on the total number of words (books) they read during
the programme nor on the improvement of their test scores. Likewise, it
is shown that the participants’ relatively negative opinion regarding the
276 Motoko Fukaya
unforgettableness of GR had no negative effect on their reading amount

or their test scores. One possible explanation for these results is that
the participants considered reading for quantity and reading for quality
separately. If so, however, this does not mean that they set one of these
above the other. Instead, as the three graphs presented in section 5.1
suggest, the participants valued both kinds of reading to the same degree;
they read simple stories for speed and comprehension, and literary text
for the deeper insights and knowledge it could yield.
It can be said that it takes time for these two types of reading to inform
each other; according to the NIYE survey, it was in their later lives that
meeting with an unforgettable book affected the respondents’ reading
amount. In other words, ‘time’ should be taken into consideration as a
crucial variable. In the present study, there were only ten weeks between
the implementation of SF and the last session, when the post-course
questionnaire was administered. It can be assumed that this was too
short to verify the impact of an unforgettable book on the reader. To
examine it, further research on such a long-time basis, like that reported
by Teranishi in Chapter 11, is necessary.
6 Conclusion
My first research question addressed the impact of an evaluative process

of reading on learners’ attitudes towards reading in an ER programme.
The results presented in section 5.1 show that the experience of evalu-
ative reading using a literary text and the World Café led learners to
appreciate the value of the text and enjoy it more. It seems reasonable
to conclude that activities promoting an evaluative process of reading
improved learners’ attitudes towards EFL reading. Moreover, integrating
evaluative reading activities into SSR as part of an ER programme enabled
learners to experience a variety of the reading processes that, according
to Grabe (2009), must be mastered in order to become a fluent reader.
This shows the pedagogical effectiveness of using a literary text in an ER
programme.
The second research question concerned the relationships between an
evaluative process of reading, the opportunity to encounter an unforget-
table book in English, and learners’ motivation for EFL reading in an ER
programme. The results presented in section 5.2 show that evaluative
reading of ‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’ enticed many learners to rank the
story as unforgettable, but that the strong impression they received from
this particular story did not immediately affect their motivation to read
English books. These findings show that the use of a literary text in EFL
does not have an immediate effect on learners’ motivation to read, the

amount they read or their reading proficiency in EFL. In other words,
extensive reading of GR has more potential to improve students’ reading
over the short term. Thus, to examine the effects on learners of reading
an unforgettable book in EFL in an ER programme, we need to imple-
ment a longer-term research design.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deepest appreciation for the help received

from Maria Kanetake with the SPSS analysis. Without her professional
assistance, my study would not have materialized. Needless to say, any
errors found in the analysis would be my responsibility alone.
Notes
1. See ‘M-Reader’ available at http://mreader.org/mreaderadmin/s/html/about.
html, accessed on 3 December 2014, for details on Moodle Reader.
2. Although most of the Japanese researchers mentioned in this chapter did
not introduce reading-related activities in their ER programmes (for example,
Furukawa, 2010; Sakai, 2002; Takase, 2010), Fukaya (2010; 2011; 2012) and
Kobayashi et al. (2010) show that they are effective in improving learners’
attitudes towards EFL reading.
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18
Increasing Motivation and
Building Bridges to Content
with Graded Readers
Mark D. Sheehan
1 Introduction
This chapter will show different ways that graded readers, hereafter
referred to as GR, can be used to increase English language learning moti-
vation, deepen knowledge of specialized content and refine discussion
skills among higher-level learners. The benefits of using graded reading
to provide input to second language learners may be well known to
language educators and researchers in various fields. ‘Language acquisi-
tion comes from input, not output; from comprehension, not produc-
tion’ (Krashen, 2004: 136). Furthermore, upper-intermediate books from
GR series can be used to provide motivated higher-level learners with
background information and contexts in the form of challenging and
interesting content that can facilitate deeper thinking and discussions
about culture, history and literature, i.e. the very types of exchange that
literature students take part in.
This study focuses on three approaches to the use of GR, which were
adopted in three courses at a Japanese university; its central purpose is
to examine how the use of such texts can motivate learners, build confi-
dence, foster positive feelings towards reading and act as a bridge to the
study of authentic texts and critical thinking about language use and
literary materials. The two higher-level courses discussed in this study
are attempts to teach students challenging content, but not without
second language support. This practice is viewed by Hammond (2006)
as a valuable means to support linguistically diverse learners.
Much has been written about the successful use of graded reading in
various settings to support lower-level learners in compulsory courses
280
Increasing Motivation with Graded Readers 281
(Day and Bamford, 1998; 2000; Grabe, 2009; Helgesen, 1997); the focus
of this study will be on first-year university students in compulsory
English communication courses, and second-, third-, and fourth-year
students in more challenging elective English courses. While the courses
that this study discusses are taught at a Japanese university to English as
a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, the rationale, methodology and ideas
used to implement the course plans and activities are by no means exclu-
sive to Japanese tertiary-level teaching contexts; language and literature
instructors with students at various levels from around the globe, and in
any number of academic settings, may find inspiration from the ideas
presented in this study. For ease of reference, Table 18.2 below lists the
graded reader assignments, materials, aims and methodologies used in
each course discussed in this study.
2 Research questions and methodologies
What follows is a more detailed description of the three courses

mentioned above. I have taught these courses at the same Japanese
university since 2009. The cohorts of students discussed in this study
were taught in the spring term of 2013. Surveys were conducted at
the end of each course to answer a number of research questions (see
Table 18.1). Data was gathered on items specific to each course and the
course goals; more general data was gathered by posing identical survey
questions to students from all three groups. In the first course in the
study, a first-year English Oral Communication course, I sought to find
out how graded reading assignments changed student views towards
English language study in general and improved student motivation and
confidence in particular. The second course in the study is a survey of
British Literature; students were surveyed to examine (a) how GR have
changed student views toward the study of literature and their view of
it as a subject worth studying, and (b) how student motivation to read
literature has been facilitated through the use of GR as course texts. The
study of the third course attempts to understand how exposure to GR
can improve higher-level student speaking skills, confidence and moti-
vation, and provide students with opportunities to read literary texts
more critically. Finally, survey questions common to all three groups
were given to measure students’ attitudes towards reading and to under-
stand student views on reading as a means to achieve academic success
and personal growth.
Following descriptions of the specific course formats and teaching
goals, and analyses of survey data, a more general reflection is given on
282 Mark D. Sheehan
some central ideas pertinent to all three courses, as well as other courses
in which promoting literature and language education are goals. The
instruments used in this study include: (1) a survey for each group of
students on each course that examines the specific benefits of GR in
relation to the course content and goals; (2) a survey for all students
that collected information about general perceptions of reading and its
role in education and life; (3) post-lecture and post-term student inter-
views about learning experiences as well as student perceptions of their
own academic and personal growth. With a limited number of student
responses, this study is by no means definitive; however, it is hoped
that this representative sample will provide insights into the impact
that activities related to the use of GR in various language courses can
have on students in similar contexts, as well as in other learning envi-
ronments. For ease of reference, a table listing the courses and research
questions has been provided below (see Table 18.1); the last three items
in the table are the common questions posed to all students. To provide
information about student English levels in each of the courses, student
scores from standardized tests have been entered in the last section of
the table.
3 Reading and English communication
3.1 Contents of the English Oral Communication course

The first course discussed in this chapter is an example of perhaps the
most conventional use of GR, which will be familiar to those in the field
of teaching English as a second or foreign language. Nonetheless, it can
serve as a good entry point into how and why teachers can and should use
graded reading materials to supplement English communication course
materials, build confidence and increase student motivation. Although
the university at which this course is taught does not have an official
Extensive Reading (ER) programme, students are required to read a set
number of words per term from GR housed in the university’s library.
The library has a large stock of readers from major publishers; the levels
of the books range from starter to upper-intermediate. Students must
read at least 15,000 words (about three to four books, depending on the
level) during the spring term and keep a record of their progress on a
reading scorecard. This assignment is part of the final course evaluation
and instructors are responsible for monitoring and evaluating student
progress. As a result, all students enrolled in the course under discussion
successfully completed the assignment.
Table 18.1 Courses, research questions and student English levels
English Oral Communication Survey of British Literature course English Diploma course
course (reading circles)
Have graded reading assignments Have GR assignments changed Have graded reading assignments
improved student confidence? students’ views on the study of improved student confidence?
[see Table 18.3] literature and their view of it as a [see Table 18.12]
subject worth studying?
[see Table 18.6]
Have GR assignments motivated Has student motivation to read more Was student enjoyment of reading
students to study English? literature been facilitated through fostered as a result of the
[see Table 18.4] the use of GR as course texts? assignments; did students enjoy the
[see Tables 18.7 and 18.8] GR assigned?
[see Tables 18.10 and 18.11]
Do students view GR as a means to Will students continue to study Have graded reading assignments
develop speaking skills? literature after the course ends? motivated students to study
[see Table 18.5] [see Tables 18.7 and 18.8] English?
[see Table 18.13]
Do students view GR as a means to
develop speaking skills?
[see Table 18.14]
Do students think reading is Do students think reading is Do students think reading is
important for academic growth? important for academic growth? important for academic growth?
[see Table 18.15] [see Table 18.15] [see Table 18.15]
Do students think reading is Do students think reading is Do students think reading is
important for personal growth? important for personal growth? important for personal growth?
Continued
Table 18.1 Continued
English Oral Communication Survey of British Literature course English Diploma course
course (reading circles)
Have student attitudes toward Have student attitudes toward Have student attitudes toward
reading improved as result of the reading improved as result of the reading improved as result of the
graded reading assignments? graded reading assignments? graded reading assignments?
Student TOEIC Bridge scores from April TOEIC scores by students on the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test
averages for 2013 [n = 26*] course from 2012 to 2013 [n = 56*] scores from January 2013 [n = 17*]
each course high: 144 points high: 845 speaking high: 140
based on low: 124 points low: 345 [CEFR level B1]
standardized (scores in comparison with the average: 591 speaking low: 80
test scores TOEIC test = approximately *two students did not have TOEIC scores [CEFR level A1]
and CEFR 310 to 400 points) writing high: 160
mapping *two students did not have TOEIC [CEFR level B2]
Bridge scores writing low: 100
[CEFR B1]
*one student did not have a TOEIC
Speaking and Writing test score
In addition to keeping word count scorecards, students occasionally

took part in sustained silent reading (SR) activities in class, and also
participated in other activities that used the readers as a focal point
of discussion and vocabulary-building activities. The graded reading
assignments and related activities were intended to supplement
language learning and were done in addition to activities targeted
towards the overall course goals of improving English communication
skills such as listening and speaking. Twenty-six Japanese students
aged 18 and 19 were enrolled in the course. I measured student experi-
ences throughout the term by observation and through student inter-
views. See Table 18.2 for more information about the assignments and
materials.
At the end of the term, students reported on their learning experi-
ences by taking an anonymous survey. The survey results are presented
below, followed by commentary on students’ responses.
3.2 Survey results

Table 18.3 shows student responses related to confidence, which is an
essential element in language learning (Yashima, 2002). Over 60 per cent
of the students surveyed reported that they had developed more confi-
dence as a result of the assignments and activities (Table 18.3). These
results are encouraging, since a number of students initially responded
that reading an English book would be an impossible assignment, as
they had never done so before. The increase in confidence also seems
to have influenced student motivation, another important aspect in
language learning (Dörnyei, 2003). Having had positive and successful
experiences in completing the reading assignments and talking
about the books in lessons, over 50 per cent of the students surveyed
responded positively and reported that their motivation had increased
(Table 18.4). Finally, perhaps the most challenging item to measure
in the survey was whether or not students perceived an improvement
in their speaking proficiency. This area of inquiry is rather subjective,
and Japanese students, who are known to be somewhat modest and
passive and sometimes have anxiety in EFL contexts (Ohata, 2005),
may not fully notice or appreciate improvements in their language
output skills. Nonetheless, over 50 per cent of the students surveyed
responded favourably (Table 18.5). These responses, coupled with the
observations by the instructor, are encouraging and show that there is
a place in the English communication curriculum for graded reading
assignments.
Table 18.2 Assignments, materials, aims and methodologies
English Oral Communication Survey of British Literature English Diploma Course

course lecture course (reading circles)
Assignment Students read at least 15,000 words Students read four GR over 15 weeks. The Students read three GR over 15 weeks.
in the spring term (first term of the reader levels were intermediate and upper The reader levels were intermediate
academic year) and at least 20,000 intermediate. Students answered survey and upper intermediate. Students read
words in the autumn term (second questions related to their understanding a section of each book and prepare a
term of the academic year) from of the texts. Students prepared worksheets role sheet that requires them to act
the GR library at the university. to be used for group discussions. as discussion leader, or to present on
passages, vocabulary, cultural issues or a
summary of the reading assignment.
Materials Simplified versions of novels Four simplified versions of novels lectured Three simplified versions of novels
and works of non-fiction from on in the course. The books are purchased lectured on in the course. The books
Level 1 to 6: beginner to upper- by students as required course texts. are purchased by students as required
intermediate. Students borrow the course texts.
books from the university library.
Assignment aims To increase students’ motivation to To help students understand the stories and To introduce students to different literary
read and learn English through content discussed in the course. To make genres, Western culture and popular
exposure to ‘comprehensible British Literature more accessible. To fiction. To promote academic discussion
input’ (Krashen, 2004). To improve encourage students to read more literature of literary works. To develop higher-
reading fluency. To encourage and discuss literary works using literary level discussion skills.
reading for pleasure. terms.
Methodologies Students practise sustained silent Students read simplified novels for Students learn academic discussion
reading, write short reflections homework while also receiving lectures etiquette. Students complete different
on the books they read, keep a that provide background and details role worksheets each week that promote
vocabulary journal and complete about the novels and writers. Students vocabulary learning strategies, instruct
worksheets to stimulate discussion complete worksheets and take part in them in how to make cross-cultural
of the books. discussion activities about the writers and connections and help them to perform
novels. Students learn literary terms and close readings of passages.
ways to discuss literary works.
Table 18.3 Reading books in this course has helped to

build my confidence to use English (n = 26)
strongly agree 11.54%

agree 50%
undecided 34.62%
disagree 0%
strongly disagree 3.85%

increase my motivation to use English (n = 26)

agree 34.62%
undecided 42.31%
disagree 3.85%
strongly disagree 0%

develop my speaking skills (n = 26)

agree 34.62%
undecided 34.62%
disagree 7.69%
4 Reading and British literature lectures
4.1 Contents of the Survey of British Literature Course

The second course under discussion in this chapter is somewhat unusual
in Japanese university curricula. It is a survey of British literature taught
in English to second- and third-year students majoring in International
Culture. Traditionally, literature courses and other lecture courses taught
at Japanese universities are conducted by Japanese professors in Japanese.
This common practice is viewed as the best way to convey complex
information to students who may not have the English language skills
to comprehend the equivalent content in a second language. While this
practice has its merits, it can deprive students of the opportunity to
study the literature itself. In some instances, when choosing between
authentic English texts and translations complemented by L1 instruction,
288 Mark D. Sheehan
instructors opt to use modified English versions of the texts that have
been made suitable for EFL students. Instructors who choose this option
should be aware of the differences between these texts and the originals:
as Teranishi states, ‘a huge gap between original and retold versions may
cause scholars, teachers and even students to doubt that they are reading
“literature” [ ... ] not only vocabulary and syntax but also literary tropes
are simplified or cut’ (see Chapter 11 in this volume). Bearing the above-
mentioned issues in mind, I designed a course to provide students with
knowledge about British literature and have them take part in a number
of activities that students of literature in their native languages in other
academic settings regularly engage in, but with the linguistic safety net
of simplified reading materials. Combining specialized content and EFL
support is considered a constructive way to create better learning experi-
ences for students (Adamson, 2006; Balik and Greig, 2009).
While some purists may argue (and rightly so) that shortened, summa-
rized versions of canonical literature deprive learners of a number of
reading experiences and exposure to authentic works, a compromise
had to be made based on the logistics of the course and the English
proficiency level of the students. Table 18.1 above shows the TOEIC
scores of students enrolled in the course and reflects a range of student
levels between low-intermediate and high-intermediate. As a result,
this course can be viewed more as a bridge to the study of literature,
and a means to heighten student interest in classic works and English
literature. The course took place over 15 weeks, with students meeting
for 90 minutes each week. Course content included canonical authors
and literary eras taught in chronological order, starting with the Anglo-
Saxon era and finishing with post-modernism. Because it was a survey
course, the focus of the content was more on breadth than depth. Each
week students studied a particular era and a notable author and literary
work from that era. Authors and works studied in the course included
Beowulf,f Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales, Shakespeare and Henry V,
Swift and A Modest Proposal and Gulliver’s Travels, Defoe and Robinson
Crusoe, Shelley and Frankenstein, Dickens and Oliver Twist, t Stoker and
Dracula, Woolf and Mrs. Dalloway, Eliot and ‘The Waste Land’, Golding
and Lord of the Flies, and Orwell and 1984. To supplement course lectures,
students were assigned four GR to be completed as homework at set
times throughout the term. Students read abridged versions of Gulliver’s
Travels, Frankenstein, Oliver Twistt and 1984, and the reading assignments
coincided with the lectures given on the same content. The level of diffi-
culty of the readers progressed from lower-intermediate to upper-inter-
mediate during the term. This was done intentionally as a way to build
student confidence, with the more challenging readers being read at

the conclusion of the course. Along with lectures on the chosen works,
students were given a number of activities, such as declamation1 exer-
cises and presentation assignments, designed to help them to engage
with what they had read.
In addition, a number of resources were used to help students to
achieve the course goals. In particular, Bamford and Day’s handbook
entitled Extensive Reading Activities for Teaching Language (2004) and
Collie and Slater’s Literature in the Language Classroom: A Resource Book of
Ideas and Activities (1987) provided ideas for activities and reusable work-
sheets to prompt students to discuss the GR. Not only did the course
reading assignments and activities serve to expand student exposure
to content that might have been beyond their linguistic reach in its
original form, but they also provided students with a chance to simulate
the work done in traditional literature courses: examination and discus-
sion of literary works. Throughout the term, students were surveyed on
their comprehension of course content and their experiences of stud-
ying British literature by this means. At the end of the term, students
reported on their learning experiences by taking an anonymous survey.
The survey results are presented below, followed by commentary on
students’ responses.
The goals of this survey of British literature include exposing students to
English lectures and fostering in them an interest in reading literature.
4.2 Survey results

The survey results show that students generally had positive learning
experiences. Table 18.6 shows that student interest in reading literature
increased; almost 90 per cent of the respondents reported that they had
become more interested in reading literature as a result of the course.
Furthermore, almost 80 per cent of the students surveyed answered that
they would continue to read literature after the course ended (Table 18.7).
This is no small feat in this age of digital distractions vying for the atten-
tion of young learners (see Chapter 8). Finally, results for the last item
on the survey are also encouraging to literature and language teachers.
Again, almost 90 per cent of the students answered in the affirmative
that they had discovered that literature is an important subject to study
(Table 18.8).
In addition to the survey responses, some students provided
comments about their experience of studying English literature in the
course; those comments are provided in Table 18.9. Overall, the data
and comments show that the use of GR in this lecture course was a
290 Mark D. Sheehan
Table 18.6 I have become more interested in reading

literature as a result of this course (n = 56)
strongly agree 25%

agree 64.29%
undecided 7.14%
disagree 1.79%
Table 18.77 After the course ends, I will continue to

read literature (n = 56)
strongly agree 25%

agree 53.57%
undecided 14.29%
disagree 7.14%
Table 18.8 I have discovered that literature is an

important subject to study (n = 56)

agree 58.93%
undecided 5.36%
disagree 1.79%
Table 18.9 Additional student comments on the literature course experience

(translated and edited for clarity by the author)
● I want to read more books of English literature from now on.
● Through this course, I’m more interest[ed] in English literature. I want to read
many literary books.
● My knowledge of British literature has increased [more] than before.
practical and reasonable choice that contributed to the achievement of

the course goals. Had the instructor assigned students at such a range
of levels authentic versions of the same literary works, the results for
lower-level learners may have been markedly different as they tried to
tackle complex structures and vocabulary (Richards, 2001) or obscure
cultural references (Tamo, 2009). In this course, engaging students and
getting them first to understand and then to appreciate these authors
and stories was the primary goal. GR helped to accomplish this end,
and it is believed that this methodology can be successfully repeated in
a similar course, or in any other course where authentic content may be
out of reach to second language learners.
5 Reading circles and higher-level discussion skills
5.1 Contents of the English Diploma course

The third and final course to be discussed in this chapter is another unor-
thodox course that may not fall under the rubric of traditional English
language courses. The course is the sixth in an eight-course advanced-
level English programme designed to build language and communi-
cation skills and prepare students to work in fields that use English,
including business and education. The programme is called the English
Diploma Course (EDC) and it is highly selective; it uses a number of
academic criteria to select suitable candidates for enrolment. Among
these criteria are successful completion of all other English courses at the
university, above average scores on standardized tests, and a pass grade
on an entrance interview. Needless to say, students are highly moti-
vated to improve their English skills and are open to various teaching
approaches. However, such a group of students can present challenges
to language teachers in terms of finding materials that will stimulate
students and push them forward in their learning. This particular course
was designed to refine students’ discussion skills by having them take
part in reading circles. While reading circles are not a novel idea, this
particular course used a modified version to suit the needs of the learners
and the programme goals. The Oxford Bookworms Club Reading Circles
Series (Furr, 2009) has a number of useful ideas for instructors interested
in structured reading circles; however, the activities in the workbooks
in the series are tied to particular texts and may limit teachers’ choices
of materials and course content. On the other hand, Furr’s ‘Literature
Circles for the EFL Classroom’ (2004) offers outstanding ideas for teachers
interested in having their students participate in literature circles in a
structured, yet adaptable, format. The activities presented here offer
teachers and students more flexibility and choice in what is read. Both
approaches to literature and reading circles are inspirational and sure to
engage learners. For more information about the use of reading circles,
see Chapters 14 and 16 in this volume.
Students in the English Diploma Course discussed in this study were
not able to choose their reading content; this was done to ensure that
what they read tied in with the course lectures and the assignments.
292 Mark D. Sheehan
The GR in this course were chosen to give students access to content

and pique their curiosity as to what the original texts might hold. In
some instances students went on to read the original versions of these
books. It seems a natural progression that, having been lectured on the
historical, societal, economic, political and biographical background to
these works, students would choose to continue their study by reading
the longer and more challenging authentic versions of the stories and
pursue more sophisticated research into the content discussed in the
course. Fortunately, the university that students from this study were
enrolled at offers other courses and seminars in which the topics covered
in this course (American history and culture; immigration; education;
foreign languages) could continue to be studied. Furthermore, students
expressed great interest in continuing to study and read more on their
own from the authors introduced in the course.
The course assignments required students to read three GR during the
15-week term. The reading assignments divided each book into three
parts, one to be read each week, with the third (longer) book being read
over four weeks. Each week, students were assigned roles in which they
were responsible for reading and preparing a worksheet to be used for
group discussions. Along with instructor-created tasks and questions in
the form of study guides, students were given time and space to develop
their own discussion points. Such an open-ended activity gives students
‘ownership’ and ensures that ‘students are in charge of their own
thinking and discussion’ (Daniels, 2002: 23). The GR read in the course
ranged from intermediate to upper-intermediate; the titles in this study
were: Evening Class by Maeve Binchy; Teacher Man by Frank McCourt;
and The Pelican Brieff by John Grisham. Choices were made on the basis
of their appeal to learners and also to introduce students to different
literary genres: a literary novel, a memoir and a thriller.
I measured student experiences throughout the term by observation
and through interviews. At the end of the term, students reported on
their learning experiences by taking an anonymous survey.
The results of the reading circle survey raise awareness of the challenges
faced by teachers of higher-level learners. I sought to ascertain the best
way to engage students who had achieved a high level of English and
had also successfully completed all of their traditional English courses.
In this instance, and to achieve this aim, I duplicated the survey ques-
tions given to the first-year English communication students. This was
done on the one hand to see if students peter out at this stage of their
English studies and need something different, and on the other to see
whether students who are given familiar materials such as GR will push
themselves to the next level of language study.
5.2 Survey results

The survey results are presented below followed by commentary on
students’ responses. The questions shown in Tables 18.10 and 18.11 are
unique to this course and sought to measure whether or not students
enjoyed the reading assignments. In both cases, almost 80 per cent of
the students responded positively. These results show that reading can
have a positive effect on students; however, caution must be exercised
in drawing definitive conclusions, since these were higher-level learners
and perhaps the most receptive to various types of English study.
On the other hand, the students reported lower levels of confidence
than the first-year students. Table 18.12 shows that only around 50 per
cent of the students had an increase in confidence. On the other hand,
over 80 per cent of the students reported that their motivation had
improved as a result of the reading assignments (Table 18.13). Finally,
Table 18.14 shows that about 40 per cent of the students felt that their
speaking skills had improved.
Table 18.10 Reading English books in my English

class helped me to enjoy reading more (n = 18)

agree 47.06%
undecided 17.65%
disagree 5.88%
Table 18.11 I enjoyed reading the books in this

course (n = 18)

agree 47.06%
undecided 11.76%
disagree 0%
Table 18.12 Reading books in this course has helped

to build my confidence to use English (n = 18)

agree 41.18%
undecided 41.18%
disagree 5.88%
294 Mark D. Sheehan
Table 18.13 Reading books in this course has

helped to increase my motivation to use English
(n = 18)

agree 52.94%
undecided 11.76%
disagree 5.88%
Table 18.14 Reading books in this course has

helped to develop my speaking skills (n = 18)

agree 35.29%
undecided 35.29%
disagree 23.53%
What can be understood from this data is that students at all levels
need a base to study from, and they also need to find ways to push them-
selves beyond traditional EFL courses. That is why engaging students in
reading circles is important. Assigning students specific roles and giving
them clear guidelines for discussion enabled them to generate more
productive language output. Furthermore, the course atmosphere was
more relaxed, since the reading circles were modelled on book clubs
where like-minded people read and chat about literature. That is not
to say that students did not struggle with some of the content in the
upper-intermediate books. Teaching students to talk about literature
using literary terms related to plot, setting, character, style and autho-
rial intent was a challenge; nonetheless, the exercises helped students to
talk about texts on a more intellectual level than the lower-level learners
in this study. As a result, the author, as well as others who have written
about the benefits of reading or literature circles, can conclude that
these activities are an excellent way to engage higher-level learners and
improve their critical thinking skills as well as to inspire a passion for
reading and enjoying literature.
6 Student views on reading English books
The final part of this study seeks to measure students’ views on

reading and its role in learning, and also to see what, if any, impact
the implementation of graded reading assignments had on students in

the three university courses discussed above. It also seeks to ascertain
whether this particular group of students had a more positive disposi-
tion towards reading and, as a result, cooperated more with the assign-
ments than perhaps lower-level, less motivated students might have.
The results are encouraging and show that students value reading as a
means not only to academic success, but also to personal growth. When
the data from all three courses is collated, the total number of respond-
ents is 100. Though this is by no means a large sample size, it is believed
that the diversity of students among the three courses, and their varying
English proficiency levels, can give educators some valuable insights.
In particular, as Table 18.15 and 18.16 show, 94 out of the 100 students
believed that reading is important for academic success, and 95 students
felt that reading is important for personal growth. Given these student
views about reading, instructors should be encouraged to find ways to
integrate English reading assignments into the curriculum. It is equally
clear that the use of GR facilitated these assignments. Table 18.17 shows
Table 18.15 I think reading is important for

academic success (n = 100)
strongly agree 63
agree 31
undecided 3
disagree 2
strongly disagree 1
Table 18.16 I think reading is important for

personal growth (n = 100)
strongly agree 64
agree 31
undecided 3
disagree 2
strongly disagree 0
Table 18.17 7 Since reading English books in

university courses, my attitude to reading has
become ... (n = 100)
excellent 12
good 49
undecided 37
poor 1
bad 1
296 Mark D. Sheehan
that the attitudes to reading of 61 out of the 100 students changed posi-
tively as a result of reading English books in their university courses.
Overall, these findings are positive and show that the fertile minds of
the students on the courses described above were ideal subjects for more
innovative uses of GR.
7 Conclusion
This chapter has sought to outline some of the ways in which GR can
be used to support student learning in three different contexts and with
three different types of learner with distinct needs and of varying L2
proficiency levels, ranging from lower-intermediate to upper-interme-
diate. While limited space prevents more detailed explanations of course
content, it is hoped that the ideas put forth, as well as the survey results
provided, will aid and inspire language and literature instructors in their
efforts to foster motivation, increase confidence and develop a love of
reading in their charges. It is well known that GR can be used in exten-
sive reading programmes; however, when that option is not feasible,
instructors can still promote graded reading in various types of compul-
sory English course in a general education curriculum. In addition, it is
hoped that the non-traditional courses described here, where the focus
is on more than just language skill building, will provide useful ideas for
ways to support learners and build a bridge to content, close reading and
higher-level discussion.
Having received positive responses from the students enrolled in the
courses in this study, I will continue to explore the best methodolo-
gies to get students to read and think critically about English literature,
and eventually to discuss content that enriches not only their academic
experience, but also their lives.
Note
1. Declamation exercises consisted of assignments that required students to
memorize texts and deliver them in class. In the Survey of British Literature
course, students memorized and delivered part of a poem or a short passage
from a novel.
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19
Pedagogical Stylistics in
an ELT Teacher Training Setting:
A Case Study
Marina Lambrou
1 Introduction
Stylistics as an academic discipline tends to be associated with under-

graduate programmes in English or English Language studies, where the
focus of stylistics is to present students with a range of literary texts
for analysis of the language used in order for them to understand how
meaning and effects are created. Traditionally, the literary texts under
analysis and discussion include novels, poems and plays, which are
generally from within the literary canon but can also include modern
works. Recent trends in stylistics look to a broader range of texts beyond
the literary kind, such as media texts (including advertisements, print
and online news, and new/social media); personal or non-literary narra-
tives; political discourse and rhetoric; cartoons and anime and also film
and subtitling. Simpson (2004: 5) presents a list of what he describes as
basic ‘levels and units of analysis in language’ or ‘levels of language’,
which can act as a checklist for the analysis and interpretation of a text,
depending on what the focus might be (see Table 19.1).
Table 19.1 Levels of language for stylistic analysis
Level of language Branch of language

study
The sound
d of spoken language; the way words are pronounced phonology; phonetics
The patterns of written language; the shape of language on the page graphology
The way words are constructed; words and their constituent structures morphology
The combination of words into phrases and sentences syntax; grammar
The words we use; the vocabulary of a language lexical analysis;
lexicography
The meaningg of words and sentences semantics
The way words and sentences are used in everyday situations; the pragmatics; discourse
meaning of language in context analysis
Source: Simpson, 2004.
298
Pedagogical Stylistics in an ELT Teacher Training Setting 299
A more detailed checklist of linguistic and stylistic categories for the

analysis of literary texts is provided by Leech and Short in their seminal
work Style in Fiction (2007). In their checklist, linguistic categories are
organized under four general headings: lexical categories, grammatical
categories, figures of speech, and cohesion and context. Each category
prompts a number of questions, such as those in 1–4 below, to help and
guide students as they explore texts at different levels and think about
them critically in terms of form and function and what meaning can be
derived from them. (See Leech and Short, 2007: 61–64 for the full list of
questions.)
1. NOUNS. Are the nouns abstract or concrete? What kinds of abstract

noun occur (e.g. nouns referring to events, perceptions, processes,
moral qualities, social qualities)? What use is made of proper names?
Collective nouns?
2. SENTENCE TYPES. Does the author use only statements (declara-
tive sentences), or do questions, commands, exclamations or minor
sentence types (such as sentences with no verb) also occur in the
text? If these other types appear, what is their function?
3. PHONOLOGICAL SCHEMES. Are there any phonological patterns
of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc.? Are there any salient rhyth-
mical patterns? Do vowel and consonant sounds pattern or cluster
in particular ways? How do these phonological features interact with
meaning?
4. COHESION: Does the text contain logical or other links between
sentences (e.g. coordinating conjunctions, or linking adverbials)? Or
does it tend to rely on implicit connections of meaning?
Given that the components of language are clearly at the core of stylistic
analysis, taking a stylistic approach to literary texts would seem suit-
able as a method of English language teaching. Specifically, learners of
English have to engage with understanding language forms and their
function, and a pedagogic stylistic approach to texts makes available the
same linguistic categories for language learning. In other words, language
learners can improve their competence in the language using litera-
ture as an alternative resource to EFL books, which also gives students
insights into (different) cultural values and allows them to engage with
historical and current social, political, ethical and other themes. As
Povey (1972: 187) argues, literature helps to extend linguistic knowl-
edge ‘by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and
complex and exact syntax’. Similarly, in his discussion of the advantages
300 Marina Lambrou
and disadvantages of using literature, McKay (1982) demonstrates how it

can promote a learner’s awareness of the structure of language. In more
recent work, Clark and Zyngier (2003) recognize that teaching literature
in an L1 and an L2 context requires the same pedagogical techniques
and that stylistic methods and approaches could be applied to both
(see also Carter, 1996; Short, 1989). Carter (2014: 81) also emphasizes
the value of using literature in an English language teaching context
by stating that ‘[t]he tools of stylistic analysis provide points of entry
into texts. Without a stylistic approach these texts may otherwise be
seen as no more than plots, or characters or themes’. In an example
of a classroom activity that attempts to sensitize learners of English to
the more challenging and dynamic use of words, Badran (2007) fore-
grounds the use of deviant collocations in his analysis of Jim Morrison’s
song/poem ‘Awake’. Such approaches – where stylistics meets language
teaching pedagogy – are discussed in detail by Burke et al. (2012), who
bring together a number of works in this area in their edited volume on
current trends in language, literature and ELT on pedagogical stylistics.
Students who are training to be English language teachers must first
help learners to develop an appreciation and understanding of literature
as a useful resource and a basis for language learning. This is particu-
larly the case if those students’ experience of English language learning
has been through textbooks, sometimes prescribed, where there is little
room for the creative teaching and learning methods or broader inter-
pretations of the language that pedagogical stylistics offers. Students
training to become English language teachers in an ELT, EFL or ESOL
context cannot be expected to be competent teachers if they are not
able to describe the various categories, levels, forms and functions of
language, and, by the same token, we cannot expect language teachers
to be able to teach language through the medium of literature without
a basic knowledge of how a text functions through language. This leads
to the second key point, which is that these students must be enabled to
design and use materials based on literature, which is attempted in an
MA programme at Kingston University, UK.
2 Aims
As a stylistician with a background in and experience of English language

teaching, I was able to bring together these areas of expertise when I was
asked to develop and teach a module called Teaching English Language
and Literature on a postgraduate course called MA Education (ELT). This
was an opportunity to develop and teach a programme on pedagogical
stylistics to students learning to become language teachers in their

home country. The programme attracts mostly non-native speakers of
English and in the six years I have taught the module, students have
been from Thailand, Korea, Japan, China, Egypt, Cyprus, USA, Nigeria,
Italy and France. The programme also attracts home students but in
much smaller numbers. Classroom teaching experience is not an entry
requirement for the programme and the levels of teaching experience
range from some to none. This has been problematic, especially as the
major assessment component requires students to produce lesson plans
based on a literary text for a hypothetical English teaching scenario. To
equip students with the relevant knowledge and skills, I changed the
curriculum soon after I began teaching the course so that before submit-
ting their major assessment, all students were required to present an
unassessed micro-teaching, that is, a ten-minute ELT lesson based on
a literary text. For the micro-teaching, students were given a choice of
four literary texts: a poem aimed at children, one for adults, an excerpt
from a classic novel, and a play (in the form of a summary of the plot)
from a Graded Reader. The purpose of providing such a range of texts
was to encourage sensitivity to the various needs of different language
learners (i.e. of different ages, levels, etc.) and classroom contexts. My
feedback on the micro-teaching would also help students to reflect on
their individual pedagogical practices and help them with the major
assessment.
To find out how useful the micro-teaching activity was in terms of
preparation for the main assignment, I asked students to complete a
questionnaire after giving their micro-teaching. This aim of question-
naire was to give insights into the students’ perception of using litera-
ture for language teaching and whether the activity had given students
more confidence to utilize literary texts in an ELT context. To summa-
rize, the aims of the case study described in this chapter are:
1. To explore students’ perceptions of the usefulness of literature as a

resource for teaching English language in an ELT context
2. To understand the value of the micro-teaching as a way of engaging
students with literature in the transition from MA student to ELT
teacher.
Evaluating the effectiveness of the micro-teaching as a classroom activity

also allowed me to reflect on my own classroom teaching practices so that
I could make changes to the curriculum and assessment where necessary.
This type of classroom practice could be seen as an example of ‘action
302 Marina Lambrou
research’, ‘the systematic collection of and analysis of data relating to the

improvement of some aspect of professional practice’ (Wallace, 1998: 1).
The questionnaire results are presented in 5.1 below. Before reading the
results, it is worth thinking about the relationship between language and
literature and pedagogical stylistics in ELT and considering some exam-
ples of how language can be taught through literature.
3 Language versus literature
As outlined above, this chapter is concerned with how pedagogical

stylistics can be used for English language teaching (ELT). Traditionally,
ELT has been taught through textbooks that mostly take an atomistic
approach to language, whereby units of language are taught in isolation
and outside a context. Teaching language through literature presents
language situated within a context and, moreover, can offer the following
advantages for ELT purposes:
● It provides a medium for language development, i.e. exposure to

linguistic complexity, idiomatic and figurative language, etc.
● It presents themes such as love, hate, jealousy, revenge, war, e.g. in
Shakespeare’s texts
● It offers different cultural perspectives and deepens socio-cultural
knowledge
● It promotes and encourages enjoyment of reading literary works. (For
a further list of the pedagogical merits of teaching language through
literature, see Hall, 2014.)
One of the issues in using literature in an ELT context is attaining a

balance between language and literature. Paran (2008: 6) provides a useful
diagram of ‘the relationship between literature and language learning as
the intersection of two axes’, represented in Figure 19.1 below.
To explain how the four quadrants interrelate, Paran (2008:
471) explains that
the horizontal axis refers to the extent to which any programme or

lesson focuses on literature or literary competence and its develop-
ment ... The vertical axis represents the extent of engagement with
language learning: at one end we have a focus on language learning,
where the teacher focuses explicitly on language learning and activi-
ties are specifically designed to further this aim.
Language learning focus

1. Literary knowledge 2. |Literature is used
and skills are focused as but with no focus
on with a conscious on literary values,
focus on lexis and literary knowledge
grammar etc. or literary skills
3. Literature is 4. Extensive reading

discussed only
as literature so
language focus is on
its literary effects
No language learning focus
Figure 19.1 The intersection of literature and language learning showing focus
of study
Source: Adapted from Paran (2008).
The two axes create four quadrants that represent to what extent litera-
ture and/or language are the focus of the learning. The ideal scenario
for language through literature is quadrant 1, where language learning
interacts with a language focus so that ‘literary knowledge and skills are
focused on, but there is also a conscious focus on the lexis, grammar,
etc.’ (Paran, 2008: 471).
4 Pedagogical stylistics and ELT
The micro-teaching took place in 2012 during an 11-week postgraduate

module called Teaching Language and Literature. The module focused
on teaching pedagogical stylistics mainly through literature (although I
also used media texts to extend students’ knowledge of media discourses
and provide further examples of alternative texts suitable for language
teaching). Twenty-six students enrolled on the module with 31 per cent
native English speakers and 69 per cent non-native speakers (as defined
by the students themselves). The home countries of the students were
Thailand, Cyprus (Greek Cypriot), Iraq, Egypt, Burma, Korea, Czech
Republic, Russia, Libya, Norway and Turkey. The weekly topics covered
in the module using a pedagogical stylistic approach included: lexis and
syntax; cohesion and coherence; collocations and phrasal verbs; accents
and dialects (which included a session on the IPA and standard and non-
standard forms); and figurative language.
304 Marina Lambrou
The sample lesson below shows some of the teaching materials devel-
oped and presented in Week 2 on lexis and syntax using an excerpt from
Roddy Doyle’s (1993) novel Paddy Clarke: Ha Ha Ha as the literary text
for the language focus:
The use of simple sentences to reflect the narrator’s voice:

My da’s hands were big. The fingers were long. They weren’t fat. I could
make out the bone under the skin and the flesh. He had one of his hands
dangling over the chair. He was holding his book with his other hand. His
nails were clean – except for one – and the white bits at the top were longer
than mine.
(Roddy Doyle, Paddy Clarke: Ha Ha Ha, 1993, p. 24)
Question 1: Identify some of the stylistic features in terms of lexis, grammar

and style in the above text that tells you it is written from a child’s point of
view.
ELT activity: What additional tasks could you set, e.g. for advanced learners?
Possible answers to Question 1:

• Vocabulary/lexis
y/ : Monosyllabic words, simple words – big, fat, longg –
Germanic derived; vague language and underlexicalization – white bits;
dialect (non-standard forms) – da
• Grammar/syntax
/ y : Short, simple sentences; use of noun phrases (My
da’s ... The fingers ... They weren’t ... I could ... He had ... His nails ... ); lack of
conjunctions
• Style:
y Descriptive, literal, factual, unimaginative
Suggestions forr ELT activity:

1. Re-write the text, e.g. from the point of view of an adult, a poet, a
scientist ...
2. Create a semantic field for HAND (which creates lexical cohesion in the
text)
Superordinate Hand
Hyponym 1 fingers nail skin flesh bone
Hyponym 2 white bits
3. Vocabulary extension: thumb, index finger, knuckle, fist, etc.

4.1 The micro-teaching activity

The practical task required students to develop and present teaching
materials for a ten-minute, unassessed micro-teaching that took
place in week 8. By then, students had received seven weeks of
teaching input and my materials and guidance on how to teach
language through literature taking a pedagogical stylistics approach.
Students were presented with a range of literary texts to contex-
tualize a broad range of language units and points to help them
gain a critical understanding of how various levels of language can
be taught through literary texts such as novels, poems and drama.
The micro-teaching activity was a formative task, in which students
received tutor as well as peer feedback on what was done well and
areas for improvement, to help them to prepare for their larger
summative assessment (where they had to produce plans for a three-
hour sequence of lessons and teaching materials based on a literary
text of their choice). Students were given a choice of four literary
texts (see below) and had to design their teaching materials on the
basis of one text, taking into consideration factors such as: learner
age, level of English language competence (e.g. beginner to upper-
intermediate) and learning context (e.g. primary school, FE insti-
tution, EFL language school). Students were encouraged to think
creatively when developing materials and also think of teaching
methods that would be engaging, e.g. the use of multimedia. The
four texts were:
Romeo and Juliett by William Shakespeare (the introductory paragraph

of a Graded Reader for children summarizing the plot)
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen (the opening paragraphs)
‘Utah’ by Anne Stevenson (a poem)
‘A Grammar Lesson’ by Michael Rosen (a poem for children).
Students were given the texts on a hand-out with the following

instructions:
i. ‘Choose one of the texts below to prepare an 8–10-minute presenta-

tion. Before preparing your materials decide on the following:
● Age of students
● Level of students
● Learning context
● Aims.
306 Marina Lambrou
ii. Use your knowledge of English language teaching pedagogy and

stylistics to develop suitable teaching materials. Use Simpson’s (2004)
levels of language study to help you.’
A copy of the hand-out ‘micro-teaching presentation’ with the four texts

is in Appendix 1.
Students were also asked to complete a questionnaire after they had
presented their micro-teaching; they were asked to be honest about
their feelings and reflections on their learning experience and having to
prepare and present their micro-teaching.
The questionnaire was divided into three parts:
● Part A. About you

● Part B. The Mini-lesson
● Part C. Confidence and competence in stylistic pedagogy.
5 Results
Of the 26 students who enrolled on the module, 18 presented a

micro-teaching but only 10 students, or 56 per cent of those who
presented, completed the questionnaire despite several reminders.
(I sent out several emails asking students to complete the question-
naire and reassured them of anonymity but this failed to produce
any more.)
General feedback from the students revealed that they found pedagog-
ical stylistics a useful approach for language teaching, as was the use of
literary texts as the medium for language focus. Students expressed posi-
tive responses to the micro-teaching activity, finding it a good prepara-
tion for the main assessment, as it helped them to focus on the materials
and language development and gave them confidence to present their
ideas. Confidence was a particular issue for those students with either no
previous teaching experience or unfamiliarity with literature in this type
of learning context. Students also felt that using literature would moti-
vate learners and be more engaging (i.e. not ‘boring’) because they could
develop more creative and meaningful materials than what is available
in existing text books.
Students also enjoyed watching the presentations of classmates and
hearing my feedback for improvement, which they found helpful for
their own materials development. Students were also asked to give
peer feedback (positive as well as areas for improvement), which
encouraged criticality and reinforced the need to understand the

appropriateness of the literary text, materials and student needs. (It
was interesting to note how open and responsive students were to
peer feedback.) One positive response given was, ‘Now I understand
how literary texts can be used to teach any aspect of language’. (At the
end of module feedback forms, several students stated that pedagog-
ical stylistics had ‘opened their eyes’ to a new approach to teaching
that they had never previously considered or were unaware of before
attending my course.)
The questionnaire in the case study activity is reproduced below with
the responses from all students who completed it summarized against
each question.
5.1 Questionnaire responses

In this section, I reproduce the format of the questionnaire with a
summary of the students’ responses to each question. The case study
and summary were presented at the Pedagogical Stylistics Special Interest
Group (SIG) of the Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA) conference at
the University of Heidelberg in 2013.
Teaching English language and literature: a reflection on the

mini-lesson
The purpose of this questionnaire is twofold: to find out your experi-
ences of learning how literature can be a useful resource for English
language learning in an EFL context and to receive your reflections on
the usefulness of the mini lesson.
Part A. About you
1. First language English x2; Greek x2; Norwegian; Turkish x2;

Arabic; Korean; Thai
2. Ethnicity British x2; Greek Cypriot x2; Norwegian; Turkish
x2; Iraqi; Korean; Thai.
3. For non-native speakers Yes ___3_______ No _5 ______
of English: as a Please elaborate:
learner of English, Yes: Undergrad degree was in English lang and lit;
was literature ever Poems were presented but to explore patterns not as
presented in class as a a medium for English language learning
medium for learning
English?
Continued
308 Marina Lambrou
4. Previous teaching Yes _____x7____ No __x3 ___

experience? Qualification ____1 x CELTA; BA Teaching Art and
Design; BA Education ___
Give length of experience _1 to 19 years (primary
education)
5. Have you taught Yes ___x3______ No ____x7
literature in an EFL Give length of experience __1 year
context? Age of learners
Please elaborate:
7–14; had to follow lesson plan
Private school in Cyprus, 11–17
10 and 12, primary school – extracurricular; story
telling
Part B. The Mini-lesson
i. You were asked to choose one of four texts given in the guidance to
prepare an 8–10 minute presentation and consider the following as
part of your planning:
● Age
● Level of students
● Learning context
● Aims
ii. You were asked to use your knowledge of English language teaching
pedagogy and stylistics to develop suitable teaching materials for
your learners and asked to use Simpson’s (2004) levels of language
study to help you.
Thank you for completing these questions. As I explained, I will be

summarising the responses for a Pedagogical Stylistics Special Interest
Group (SIG) of the Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA) conference
and would be happy to share a summary of the responses with you.
Please let me know if you would like a copy.
Dr Marina Lambrou
6. List three literary texts you have Oscar Wilde; Charles Dickens; Eric Carle (‘The Very Hungry Caterpillar’)
taught
7. Which text did you choose? a. Romeo and Juliett (for children) x9
(please tick) b. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
c. Utah by Anne Stevenson
d. A Grammar Lesson by Michael Rosen x1
8. Why did you choose this text a. Shakespeare
(i.e. pedagogical aims)? • more well-known than other texts;
• themes are universal e.g. conflict;
• familiar;
• You can teach vocab in an interesting way;
• teach grammar in context
• most appealing/ students (teenagers/ young adults) could ‘connect’ with the themes
• encourages interaction
d. Rosen poem
• developing confidence in speaking and writing skills
9. What aspect did you choose a. Shakespeare: improve skills: speaking, reading, writing; prediction exercise; teach/
to teach i.e. language skill (e.g. revise grammar: past simple/ past perfect – using gap filling; vocabulary and synonyms;
reading, writing, speaking) lexical phrases; conjunctions/ cohesion; language awareness and encourage interaction;
or language point (e.g. tense/ sociocultural themes/
grammar, vocabulary, cohesion/ d. Rosen poem: enrich vocabulary; develop reading, writing, speaking skills
sociocultural themes etc.)?
10. How did you feel about having to +
present in class? • good idea/ good experience (before the main assignment)
• good to see other students’ ideas
• exciting/ given feedback
• not being assessed made me feel comfortable
• thankful for the comments and feedback
• I enjoy presenting; good to receive feedback from peers on different styles, traditions,
cultures
• I don’t mind – good to get feedback
_
• not enough time
• a bit nervous as this was the first time
• too excited – though gaining more experience would help ‘stage fright’
11. How did you feel after the mini • very positive about the experience – relaxed and positive atmosphere
lesson? • Useful/ helpful experience and feedback
• I felt more comfortable about the comments I received
• Relieved it was over but thankful for comments/ feedback from tutor and classmates
• I understand how to plan a lesson on literature
• relieved, reassured, relaxed, more confident
12. Do you feel that the mini lesson Yes __x10_______ No _______
has helped you to think about lesson Please elaborate:
planning and materials development • helpful for ideas
in the future? • how to create materials and implement them
• how to think thoroughly about being clear with instructions, and engaging and
interacting with the students in mind
• feedback useful: strengths/ weaknesses
• Helped me for future teaching
• Good preparation for the main assignment
• ‘hands-on’, practical experience helps immensely
Part C. Confidence and competence in stylistic pedagogy
13. Do you feel more or less confident about More___x8____ Less __x2_______
undertaking the assignment (- to produce a set of Can you say why?
teaching materials for a sequence of three hours, • Good opportunity to stage a lesson around a text
based on a literary text, with a critical reflection) • How to use literature creatively to teach language
• good preparation for the assignment
• I became aware of different teaching techniques from watching other
students’ present
• Literature can be used to focus on meaning and language
• It’s a big challenge but in a position to produce my own lesson and proud of it
• Still less confident as I have to find literature that I can understand fully
14. How has a pedagogical stylistic approach • I’m happy to be taking this module – in the future, I’d like to study story
to English language teaching changed the way telling for young learners
you think about using literature in the language • English is always taught in Saudi Arabia from commercial text books; new
classroom? method will add much more to teaching the language
• I learned how literature can be used to teach different cultures, language skills
and to motivate learners.
• Enhances interaction and expand language awareness; literature educates us
as a whole – to revisit values and opinions in the societies we live in
• You can teach literature in English lessons without boring learners
• Now I understand how literary texts can be used to teach any aspect of
language
• Stylistics is interesting but a hard subject to access – literature is couched in
archaic and specific terminology which makes it hard to reference and teach
312 Marina Lambrou
Any additional comments:

• I enjoyed the subject so much I have decided to base
my dissertation around teaching literature in a language
classroom
• As a non-native teacher, I need to understand the literature
before I can teach it – especially poems
• Mini-lesson was a good idea – most of us have no teaching
experience; more opportunities to teach
6 Conclusion
Teaching language through literature was a new experience for many

of the students on the Teaching English Language and Literature MA
module. My focus when teaching the module was to present students
with ideas for teaching language through stylistics using pedagogical
stylistics approaches and, in so doing, expose them to literary texts
as a resource for language teaching in an ELT context. My main aims
in setting the micro-teaching assignment were to explore students’
perceptions of the usefulness of literature for teaching English
language while also gaining insights into the value of the micro-
teaching as a way of engaging students with literature in their transi-
tion from MA student to ELT teacher. I wanted to give students an
opportunity to be creative with their preparation and presentation of
language learning materials and, in an unassessed learning context,
give them confidence to trial their skills and knowledge and allow
them to gain feedback to help them to prepare for a similar but larger
assessment. An unexpected outcome was how the micro-teaching
helped with confidence – something that was particularly problem-
atic for those students who had no previous experience of teaching,
let alone teaching language through literature, and were anxious.
Students appreciated the opportunity to present and gain feedback
and all of those who presented and completed the questionnaire said
that the classes and the activity would help with their teaching in
the future.
The case study activity also allowed me to reflect on my own class-
room teaching practices so that I could make changes to the curriculum
and assessment where necessary by evaluating the effectiveness of the
micro-teaching for the students. The questionnaire results emphasized
how useful the micro-teaching was in giving students the confidence
and competence to engage with language creatively and use literary texts
for the teaching of language in their future careers as English language
teachers. It would also remain in the course curriculum as a feature of

the module and an area of good practice.
APPENDIX 1
(My original hand-out was designed with images and colour for each
text to encourage students to be creative in their own materials design
and make them attractive and engaging for their learners. Only the
literary texts are reproduced below.)
1 Romeo and Juliett (for children) http://www.

nosweatshakespeare.com/ebooks/romeo-juliet-kids/
1 A long time ago something happened between the two leading

families of Verona that led their members to kill each other
5 whenever they met. That went on for many years, and eventually
10 no-one could remember what had caused the feud. The killing
stopped in time but fights continued to break out for no reason
at all. Every child born into the Montague and Capulet families
grew up with the feud: they were taught to hate the members of
the other family. Marriage between the young men and women of
the two families was out of the question; they did no business with
each other, and they never mixed. Even the servants joined in the
hatred. The atmosphere in Verona was always tense and Verona’s
ruler had come to the end of his tether. He had made it clear that he
would not tolerate any acts of violence between the two families.
The story of Romeo and Juliet, teenagers on opposite sides in the feud,
begins on an ordinary summer’s day.
2 Pride and Prejudice (Jane Austen, 1813)
1 IT is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in

possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
5 However little known the feelings or views of such a man
may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so
well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he
is considered as the rightful property of some one or other of
their daughters.
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” said his lady to him one day, “have
you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?”
10
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
“But it is,” returned she; “for Mrs. Long has just been here,
and she told me all about it.”
314 Marina Lambrou
15 Mr. Bennet made no answer.

“Do not you want to know who has taken it?” cried his wife
impatiently.
“You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.”
20 This was invitation enough.
“Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that
Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from the
25 north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise
and four to see the place, and was so much delighted with it
that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately; that he is to take
possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to
be in the house by the end of next week.”
“What is his name?”
30 “Bingley.”
“Is he married or single?”
35 “Oh! single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune;
four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!”
3 ‘Utah’ (Anne Stevenson, 2008)
(For copyright reasons, it was not possible to reproduce the ten-line

poem. The poem is widely available on the internet.)
4 ‘A Grammar Lesson’ (Michael Rosen, 1993)
(For copyright reasons, it was not possible to reproduce the 22-line

poem. The poem is widely available on the internet.)
References
Badran, D. (2007) ‘Stylistics and Language Teaching: Deviant Collocation in
Literature as a Tool for Vocabulary Expansion’, in M. Lambrou and P. Stockwell
(eds) Contemporary Stylistics, 180–192. London: Continuum.
Burke, M., Csabi, S., Week, L. and Zerkowitz, J. (2012) Pedagogical Stylistics:
Current Trends in Language, Literature and ELT (Advances in Stylistics). London:
Continuum.
Carter, R. (1996) ‘Study Strategies in the Teaching of Literature to Foreign
Students’, in J. J. Weber (ed.) The Stylistics Reader,
r 149–156. London: Arnold.
Carter, R. (2014) ‘Stylistics as Applied Linguistics’ in P. Stockwell and S. Whiteley
(eds) The Cambridge Handbook of Stylistics, 77–86. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Clark, U. and Zyngier, S. (2003) ‘Towards a Pedagogical Stylistics’, Language and
Literature 12 (4): 339–351.
Doyle, R. (1993) Paddy Clarke: Ha Ha Ha. London: Vintage.
Hall, G. (2014) ‘Pedagogical Stylistics’ in M. Burke (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of

Stylistics, 239–252. London: Routledge.
Leech, G. and Short, M. (2007) Style in Fiction: A Linguistics Introduction to Fictional
Prose (2nd edn). Harlow: Longman.
McKay, S. (1982) ‘Literature in the ESL Classroom’, TESOL Quarterlyy 16 (4):
529–536.
Povey, J. (1972) ‘Literature in TESL Programmes: The Language and the Culture’ in
H. Allen and R. Campbell (eds) Teaching English as a Second language, 187–193.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rosen, M. ‘A Grammar Lesson’, available from http://www.thewritershelpers.
com/post/48116838090/an-a-to-z-of-english-michael-rosen-extract [accessed 2
February 2014].
Short, M. (1989) Reading, Analysing and Teaching Literature. London: Longman.
Simpson, P. (2004) Stylistics. London: Routledge.
Stevenson, A. (2008) Selected Poems. New York: The Library of America.
Wallace, M. (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Epilogue: Literature and Language
Learning in the EFL Classroom
Ronald
d Carter
Histories
In the early part of the 20th century, in many parts of the world, learning
a foreign language meant a close study of the canonical literature in that
language. In the period from the 1940s to the 1970s, as the learning of
a foreign language, especially the learning of English internationally,
literature came to be seen as extraneous to language teaching and to
everyday communicative needs and as something of an elitist pursuit
and was replaced by more functional concerns. However, in the 1980s
and 1990s the growth of communicative language teaching methods
led to a reconsideration of the place of literature in the language class-
room with recognition of the primary authenticity of literary texts
and of the fact that more imaginative and representational uses of
language could be embedded alongside more referentially utilitarian
concerns. There continue to be some divisions, differences of opinion
and distinctions in theory and in practice between those principally
concerned with ‘relevance’ and ‘utility’ (mainly language teachers) and
those principally concerned with literature, culture and ‘significance’
(mainly literature teachers), limiting in the process opportunities for
bridge-building teaching and learning. In the 21st century, however, it
is becoming increasingly difficult to sustain such divisions, as education
through English is re-conceptualized as the study of a wide variety of
texts. Analysis has been extended to all texts as cultural products, with
the notion of culture seen as increasingly dynamic and co-constructed
interactively, as an emergent and specifically linguistic process rather
than as a completed product. One main outcome of this development,
316
Epilogue 317
as we see in this volume, has been the growth of analysis and explora-
tion of all texts, not simply or exclusively ‘literary’ texts, and the re-inte-
gration of the traditionally separate domains of literature and language
study, often with process-based (rather than product-based) pedagogies
at their heart.
This book continues a now well established tradition of publication
across the interfaces between language and literature studies and their
associated pedagogies. One of the reasons why there is continuing interest
in and commitment to this field is that it has a particular resonance for
students and teachers of English in contexts of language learning. The field
of stylistics, in particular, continues to grow internationally as a result of
the efforts over many years by many in this field to demonstrate its rele-
vance to language and literature study in both first and foreign language
education. Landmark volumes such as Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature
and Practical Stylistics (Widdowson, 1975; 1992), Reading, Analysing and
Teaching Literaturee (Short, 1989), Literature in the Language Classroom (Collie
and Slater, 1987), Language, Literature and the Learnerr (Carter and McRae,
1996) and Literature in Language Education (Hall, 2005/2015), and, more
recently, volumes such as Paran’s collection with a TESOL focus (2006) and
Watson and Zyngier’s Literature and Stylistics for Language Learners (2006)
have productively extended the field in both theory and practice. Special
issues of journals such as Language and Literaturee have also been dedicated
to this topic (for example, Burke (ed.) 2010).
The Present
Of course, many of the questions first raised 30 or more years ago are
still being asked today, in many cases with greater sharpness and rele-
vance to the design of today’s curricula in language and literature. Some
of the questions are epistemologically fundamental: What justifications
are there for the inclusion of literature in the L1 and L2 English language
learning curriculum? What is literature for, how can it be justified and
will these justifications not be different in L1 and L2 or EFL teaching
situations? What are the differences and distinctions between L1 and
L2/foreign language environments? Is there such a thing as a canon of
texts for teaching in these different situations? Are students motivated
to read them and, if so, are they differently motivated in the learning
of a foreign language by exploring literary texts in classroom language
learning? What role can translation play in the teaching of literary texts
to foreign language learners? To what extent should literatures in English
be included and according to what criteria?
318 Ronald Carter
Some of the questions being asked are a result of recent changes in

media cultures and modes of linguistic transmission. Among these
questions is: To what extent are the above questions different now, as
we move ever more irreversibly into a world of multi-media and multi-
modal communication? Other questions being asked range from the
aesthetic to the ideological, both domains in which there remain key
issues of definition. For example: Should the criteria for the selection
of texts for study be exclusively aesthetic? Should they relate to ques-
tions of national canons or to values that transcend specific social and
political concerns? Or should socio-economic and political values and
educational priorities prevail? For fascinating reviews of many of these
issues see Kramsch and Kramsch (2000) and Hall (2005/2015). The
editorial team and contributors to this book take many of these debates
and discussions further with a particular focus on the specific needs of
students in the context of learning English in international environ-
ments such as Japan. Their focus on EFL education is a significant contri-
bution to further research and debate.
Futures and challenges
This book looks back and acknowledges histories in the field; but it also
looks forward to new challenges. In many parts of the world, the growth
of the discipline of stylistics and of explorations across the domains of
language and literature study have led to an enhanced understanding
of responses to literature and language in the classroom and point to
the need for further empirical research into student experiences, moti-
vations and learning experiences. A number of chapters in the book
outline and illustrate possibilities for further qualitative classroom
research and there is little doubt that this focus needs to continue to
provide further evidence for refinements of existing paradigms and
the development of new paradigms in pedagogy. The role of creative
writing practices and their integration with more traditional stylistic
and process-based pedagogies is a good example and is explored in this
volume. Quantitative studies investigating the possibilities of enhanced
language learning performance as a result of literature programmes are
much more challenging and run the risk of enforcing instrumentalist
paradigms but at the same time such research directions should not be
foreclosed. A further major challenge is to link the points of entry to
texts provided by many of the approaches illustrated in this volume to
the broader etymological, historical and cultural research undertaken
within traditional literary criticism.
Epilogue 319
The classrooms of the future are taking shape, with a growing emphasis
on digital texts and on new technologies in support of learning. There
have been pioneering developments in web-based courses in stylistics
which point us in this direction (see Short et al., 2006 and the associated
website http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics). The growth of
distance learning courses supported by internet-based communication,
video-conferencing and new picture- and image-based technologies
imparts a different character to communication and teaching in a recon-
figured language and literature classroom. The ease of access to spoken
data and digital sound files together with such technologies as Skype,
FaceTime and related visual interaction programmes enhance learning
through different text types while simultaneously liberating language
and literature teaching from an over-concentration on and privileging
of certain types of written discourse. And there is a growing recogni-
tion that the field of stylistics, with its recent distinctly cognitive turn
(Stockwell, 2002), is better placed than many to explore the challenge
of new media and to investigate the literary in terms of the multimodal
creation of virtual worlds, drawing on students’ own now differently
ordered experience of representational and poetic clines across fiction
and reality, speech and writing, texture and visuality. Literature and
Language Learning in the EFL Classroom points the way in theory and in
practice to such pedagogic futures and makes a distinctive and original
contribution to the continuing history of interfaces between language
and literature and pedagogy.1
Note
1. This epilogue draws in part on a previously published paper: Carter, R. (2010)
‘Issues in Pedagogical Stylistics: A Coda’, Language and Literature 19 (1):
115–122.
References
Burke, M. (ed.) (2010) Special Issue Language and Literature 19 (1).
Carter, R. and McRae, J. (eds) (1996) Language, Literature and the Learner: Creative
Classroom Practice. London; New York: Longman.
Collie, J. and Slater, S. (1987) Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: CUP.
Macmillan.
Study’, Modern Language Journal 84: 533–573.
320 Ronald Carter
Short, M. (ed) (1989) Reading, Analysing and Teaching Literature. Harlow:

Longman.
Short, M., Busse, B. and Plummer, P. (2006) ‘Preface: The Web-based Language
and Style Course, E-learning and Stylistics’, Language and Literature 15 (3):
219–233.
Stockwell, P. (2002) Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction. Routledge: London.
Learners: Theory and Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Widdowson, H. G. (1975) Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. Harlow:
Longman.
Widdowson, H. G. (1992) Practical Stylistics. Oxford: OUP.
Index
achievement tests, 5 Brontë, C.

for literary reading, 115–28 Jane Eyre (1847), 162, 174
practice, 121–3 Brown, J., 262, 268, 269
results and implementations, 123–4 Brown, R., 132
tips for constructing, 118–21, 124–5 Browne, A., 101, 102, 103
action research, 21, 302 Brautigan, R., 5–6, 144–5, 147
Adam Bede (Eliot), 155, 159–61 Bruns, C. V., 260
adolescents, 20–2 building bridges to course content,
The Adventures of the Dish and the 280–96
Spoon (Grey), 99–100, 101, 105–7 Burke, M., 300
advertisements, 35
Alderson, J., 116 Carroli, P., 168, 225
American Council on Teaching of Carter, R., 62, 63, 94, 117, 185, 300
Foreign Languages (ACTFL), 15 characterization, 6, 65, 69, 151, 154,
analysis-oriented pedagogical 157, 158, 163
stylistics, 4 Chen, Y.-M., 184
analysis of variance (ANOVA), 147 children’s literature, 21–2, 94–5
Angry Arthur (Oram and Kitamura), 97 see also picture books
Angry Men, 97 Childs, P., 173
apprentice masters, 25 China, access to English literature in, 27
Aristotle, 76 Chopin, K., 182, 185
Association of Departments of Foreign Clark, U., 300
Languages (ADFL), 15 Classical Chinese, 56n3
Austen, J., 155, 174 cognition, 215, 249
Pride and Prejudice (1813), 155, 156–9, cognitive stylistic analysis, 4, 75–91
174, 313 coherence, 3, 65, 71, 253, 303
authentic cohesion, 299
authentic English literary fiction, 6, Common European Framework, 15, 18
167, 226, 236, 238, 239, 287 communicative competence, 3, 27, 30,
authentic works, 168, 288 34, 26, 117, 200, 207, 213–5, 226
authenticity, 3, 16, 26–37, 245–6 communicative competence, as main
Aymara, 92n3 objective, 27, 28–9, 34
communicative language teaching
background knowledge, 141 (CLT), 34, 37, 316
Benson, P., 233, 234 competences, 212–3, 216, 223
Bibliobattle, 55 composition, 51–3, 182–96
bioethics, 7, 215, 217, 224 composition classrooms, 6, 182–96
Black and White (Macaulay), 96 comprehension process, 8
book clubs, 248–58 comprehension task, 5–6, 145–6
book reports, 185, 215, 217, 220–2, 253 conceptual metaphors, 4, 75–91
Bookworms Club Diamond d (Furr), 216, activities, 90–1
218 creating and testing new, 90–1
bottom-up processing, 132 mapping, 76–7
321
322 Index
conceptual metaphors – continued dramatic irony, 4

ontological, 82–3 creating, 68–71
orientational, 80–1 definition of, 67
structural, 78–80 stylistic analysis of, 66–8
stylistic analysis of poem, 83–90 dramatic readings, 53–4
unpacking, in drama, 90
unpacking, in song lyrics, 90 e-book readers, 131
confidence, 285, 293 EFL classrooms
content analysis, 217 literature use in, 1–2, 6–7, 13–22
Content and Language Integrated teaching speech/thought
Learning (CLIL), 20 presentation in, 6
content-based learning (CBL), 20 EFL course design, 8
content-based instruction, 202 EFL education, see English language
Cook, G., 26–7, 35 education/teaching
cooperative learning, 55, 268 EFL learners
Council of Europe, 15, 22 Korean, 6, 154, 155, 163–4
Courses of Study for Junior and Senior Japanese, 154, 155, 163–4
High Schools (Japan), 28–30 EFL skill building, 296
created texts, 61–2, 71–2 Eigo Tatsujin, 229–30, 234
creative stylistics, 4, 61–72 elementary school, literature in, 41–3
creative writing, 3, 4, 7, 17–19, 21, 50, 62 Eliot, G., 155
dramatic irony in, 68–71 Adam Bede, 155, 159–61
stylistic approach to teaching, 64–6 emotions, 19–20
creativity, 14, 17, 18 empathy, 3, 193, 199, 200, 208, 209
critical perspective, 248–58 empirical study, 118
critical thinking skills, 8, 250 empowerment, 22
cross-cultural understanding, 245 Enever, J., 94, 98
cross-over literature, 13 English communication, 282–7
cross-subject learning, 50–3 English Diploma course, 283–4, 286,
cultural exposure, 99 291–4
culture, role of, 16, 19–20 English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
culture and identity, 19–20 183
English for Specific Purpose (ESP),
Dahl, R., 182, 185, 189 183
decoding, 131–2 English language, culture of, 19–20
description-oriented pedagogical English language education/teaching
stylistics, 4 achievement tests in, 5, 115–28
digital texts, 131–8 compositions, 182–96
in the classroom, 133–4 creative stylistics in, 64–72
reading process and, 131–3 digital texts in, 131–8
reading strategies for, 5 graded readers in, 280–96
research on, 134–8 in Japan. see Japanese English
discussion, 202–3, 208, 215, 216–8 education/teaching
discussion skills, 291–4 L1 education and, 53–5
Dörnyei, Z., 14, 19, 20, 116, 198, 217, for medical students, 212–27
285 objectives of, 27
drama, unpacking conceptual pedagogical stylistics and, 62–3,
metaphors in, 90 303–6
Index 323
English language education/teaching – foreign language experts, 229–46

continued foreign language learners
sentence recognition and, 140–9 interviews with, 236–44
teaching training, 298–314 oral histories of, 7
textbooks, 31–4 free indirect discourse, 6, 152, 164
use of literary materials in, 140–9, see also speech presentation,
167–80, 213–14, 316–19 thought presentation
use of poetry in, 200–1 Fukaya, M., 268
using English novels, 167–80
English language teaching (ELT) Gallo, P., 268
programme, 8–9 games, 49–50, 53, 55
English literature courses, 151, Gardner, R. C., 198
155–64, 170–5 general EFL reading course, 115–28
English novels Gilman, C., 126
analysis of students’ responses to, good readers, 132
175–80 government policy, 43, 55
language awareness and, 151–64 Grabe, W., 215, 261, 264–5, 267, 270,
lesson content, 170–5 276
teaching, in EFL classroom, 167–80 graded readers, 8, 280–96
teaching methods and materials, ‘A Grammar Lesson’ (Rosen), 314
172–4 Grammar-Translation Method,
English Oral Communication course, 182
282–5 Grey, M., 101
English textbooks, 3 group discussion, 16, 48, 108, 197,
Erikawa, H., 245 203, 204, 208, 257, 268, 273, 286,
ESL, see English language education/ 292
teaching
essay writing, 7, 175, 212–27 Haiku, 57n8, 201–2, 204–8
evaluative process of reading, 8, Halasz, L., 120
264–77 Hammond, J., 280
‘Eveline’, 182, 185, 186, 187, 189, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone
256, 257 (Rowling), 152, 161
evidence-based explanation, 248–58 Harumi, S., 199
extensive reading (ER) programmes, 8, Hashimoto, T., 47
51–3, 168–9, 260–77, 282 Hemingway, E., 254
in Japanese context, 262–4 Henning, S. D., 117, 120
study of, 266–77 Hightsmith, P., 182, 185
World Café, 268–9 ‘Hills Like White Elephants’
(Hemingway), 254–5
Fialho, O., 120, 252, 258n6 Hirvela, A., 121, 184
figure of speech, 252, 298 Ho, L., 99
first language vs. second language Hunt, R. A., 119, 120
reading, 15–17 Hyakunin Isshu, 49–50, 53
Fish, S., 120
Ford, F. M., 174 identity, 19–20, 210–11, 220, 234
foreign language information and communication
creative writing in, 17–19 (ICT) technology, 2, 20–2,
reading literature in, 15–17 133–4
324 Index
intensive reading, 8, 51, 53, 116, 167, The Journal of Literature in Language
267, 269–70, 272, 273–4 Teaching,g 14
internet, 20–2 Joyce, J., 182, 185, 195n3
interpretation, 4, 5, 7, 34–5, 45, 46,
95, 120, 298, 300 Kaizen, 51, 57n9
intertextuality, 99 Kamishibai, 42–3
Ishiguro, K., 216, 225–6 Kanji, 42, 52, 56n1, 210n3
Kawabata, Y., 178
Jacobs, G., 268 ‘Kataude’ (One arm)’, 178
James, H., 169 Kobayashi, M., 263
Washington Square, 169 Korea, access to English literature in,
Japan 27
elementary school, 41–3 Krashen, S., 168, 263
L1 education in, 3–4, 41–56 Kuiken, D., 119
L2 education in, 53–5
literature in, 43–50 L1 education, 3–4, 7
teaching methods and approaches, elementary school, 41–3
45–8 in Japan, 41–56
testing conventions in, 115–16 L2 education and, 53–5
tests in, 48–50 literature in, 43–50
transdisciplinary activities, 50–3 outside language class, 50–3
Japanese EFL classroom, 2 teaching methods and approaches,
Japanese English education/teaching, 45–8
28–37 tests in, 48–50
creative stylistics in, 61–72 L1 literature, translation of, 197–210
curricula, 28–30 L2 education
digital texts in, 131–8 cognitive stylistics in, 75–91
ER programmes in, 262–4 factors influencing willingness to
graded readers in, 280–96 communicate in, 198–200
history of, 229–30 L1 education and, 53–5
interpretation of authentic materials use of literary materials in, 140–9
in, 35–7 use of picture books in, 94–109
L1 education and, 53–5 use of poetry in, 200–1
marginalization of literature in, L2 motivation, 198
30–1, 34–7 Labov, W., 169
for medical students, 212–27 Lakoff, G., 76, 78, 82, 91n1
present status of, 28–31 language
reform of, 61 Chinese, 122, 154, 243
speech/thought presentation, European languages, 154
151–65 Korean, 122, 154, 163–4
textbooks, 31–4 Japanese, 42, 45, 69, 122, 153, 154,
use of literary materials in, 3, 26–37, 207, 208, 210n3, 243
116–18, 140–9, 167–80, 182 language, vs. literature, 302–3
use of poetry in, 200–1 language acquisition, 69, 75–7, 98,
use of short stories in, 182–96 100, 141, 148, 168, 213
Japanese English textbooks, 31–4 language awareness, 7, 62, 134–5, 142,
Japanese masters of English, 229–46 148, 149, 151–64, 178–80, 198,
Japanese poetry, 201–10 209
Johnson, M., 76, 78, 82, 91n1 Language and Literature, 14
Index 325
language learning literary reading circles, 7, 212–27

cognitive stylistics in, 75–91 literary texts/literature
confidence and, 285 achievement tests for, 5, 115–28
graded readers and, 280–96 advantages of using, 299–300
learning focus, 303 authentic, 16, 26–37, 245–6
motivation and, 285 characteristics of, 252
role of literature in, 7, 229–46 children’s, 21–2, 94–5
young learners and, 20–2 compositions and, 182–96
language teaching conversation analysis on, 54
see also English language education/ critical thinking skills and, 8
teaching cross-over, 13
culture and, 19–20 definition of, 62
literature use in, 182–96 in elementary school, 41–3
technology and, 20–2 evidence-based explanation of,
translation and, 22, 143 248–58
use of literary materials in, 1–2, 6–9, in extensive reading programmes,
13–22, 140–9, 167–80, 213–14, 260–77
316–19 in foreign language, reading, 15–17
language-use situations, 29–30 in Japanese EFL classrooms, 6,
Lawrence, D. H., 174 26–37, 116–18
The Rainbow, 174 in L1 education, 3–4, 43–50
Lazar, G., 196, 200, 210n1, 226 in the learner’s first language, 7,
learner autonomy, 249, 252 197–210
learning experiences, 208, 217, 229, language vs., 302–3
233–6, 282, 285, 288, 289, 292, marginalization of, 30–1, 34–7
318 need for, 37
learning motivation, 14, 198–200, non-canonical texts, 2
208–9, 277, 280–96 oral, 41–3
learning styles, 245 processing of, 15–16
Leech, G., 299 reader response to, 121
legibility, 132–3, 138 rediscovering value of, in native
liberal arts English, 7, 212–3, 249 language, 177–8
levels of language, 298–9, 305, 306, role of, in language learning, 7
308 sentence recognition and, 140–9
Lin, H., 142 short stories, 182–96
linguistic competence, 9, 94, 117 student perceptions of, 190–2
linguistic creativity, 120 student views on, 294–6
linguistic observation, 248 teaching through new media, 131–8
literacy, 46, 249 testing and, 48–50
literal meaning comprehension, 119 translation of, 197–210
literariness, 140, 169, 171, 179 use of, in language teaching, 2,
literary competence models, 3, 6–7, 8–9, 13–22, 167–80,
116–17 182–96, 213–14, 229–46,
literary devices, 169, 173, 178 316–19
literary insights, 248 vernacularization of language in, 13
literary interpretation, 120
literary reading, 115–28 mini-lesson, 306–12
assessment of, 142–3 Mizuno, K., 268
literary texts and, 141–2 Modernist fiction, 173, 176–7
326 Index
Modern Language Association (MLA), Paddy Clarke: Ha Ha Ha, 304

15, 18 parody, 99
motivation, 14, 198–200, 208–9, 277, pedagogical stylistics, 4, 15–16, 61,
280–96 62–3, 151, 161, 164, 183, 298–314
multi-media, influence of, 2 peers, 8, 46, 204, 206, 207, 257,
multimodality, 20–2 267–9, 273
Murakami, H., 262, 267 performance, 53–4
1Q84, 262, 267 personal connection to the text, 185,
Muramoto, T., 142–3 194, 209
phonological schemes, 299
narrative mode, 214–15 picture books
narrator, 6, 46, 49, 67, 68, 70, 71, 102, activities using, 101–7
107 in elementary school, 41–2
National Curriculum Project, 63 post-modernist, 4–5, 94–109
National Institute of Youth Education reasons to use with teenage and
(NIYE), 261 adult learners, 97–100
Natsume, S., 262–3 suggestions for using, 100–1
Never Let Me Go (Ishiguro), 216–22, play, 14, 18
225–6 Plummer, K., 232
New criticism, 258n5 poetry, 50, 57n8, 141
new media, 131–8 stylistic analysis of, 83–90
newspaper articles, 35 translation of, 197–210
Nikolajeva, M., 95 point of view, 15, 27, 65, 70, 79, 135,
Nishihara, T., 140–1 161, 208
Nitobe, I., 7, 229, 230 polysemy, 252
non-canonical English literary texts, 2 polyphony, 161
nouns, 299 post-modernist fiction, 170, 173
novice reader, 8, 249, 258 post-modernist picture books, 4–5,
Nunan, D., 233, 234 94–109
activities using, 101–7
O. Henry, 32 features of, 95–7
Ohmura, H., 47 reasons to use with teenage and
Okakura, T., 7, 229, 230 adult learners, 97–100
ontological conceptual metaphor, suggestions for using, 100–1
82–3 Povey, J., 300
oral culture, 43, 49 prediction, 37, 106, 183, 186, 187–8,
oral history, 232–3 191, 192
oral literature, 41–3 Pre-modernism (realism), 170
oral reading, 49, 53 Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 155,
orientational conceptual metaphor, 156–9, 174, 313
80–1 process of reading, 8, 264–77
otherness, 21 comprehending process of reading,
Otsuki, K., 263 264, 265, 266, 270
overseas experiece, 245–6 evaluative process of reading, 8,
Oxford Bookworms Clubs Reading Circles 264–77
Series (Furr), 291 linguistic process of reading, 265,
316
Paran, A., 118, 302–3 rapid process of reading, 264,
Parkinson, B., 118, 200 265
Index 327
Programme for International Student reliability of narrator, 252, 256, 257,

Assessment (PISA), 46, 249 258n5
Purves, A. C., 119, 120 rewriting, 183, 186, 187, 189, 191,
192, 201
qualitative analysis/study, 6–7, 182, rhetoric, 49, 65, 76, 298
209, 224, 229, 232, 233, 236–44, Richard, I. A., 76
318 Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare), 313
quantitative methodology, 141, 142, Rosenblatt, L. M., 141
209, 233, 318
quasi-experiences, 214 Saito, H., 7, 229, 230–1
questionnaire, 7, 8, 135, 187, 190, Saito, Y., 229–30, 231, 245
192, 193, 203, 204, 212, 217–8, Sakai, K., 262, 263
222–4 Scott, J., 64
quizzes, 174–5 second language, see foreign language
self
reader response, 120–1 self-evaluation, 224
reading activities, 5, 104–5, 116, 134, self-image, 224
216, 261, 262, 267, 269–70, 274, self-perception, 224
276 want-to-be self, 224
reading Senryu poetry, 50
in book clubs, 248–58 sentence recognition, 5–6, 140–9
concept of, 264–5 sentence types, 299
decline in, 260–1 Short, M., 62–3, 299
digital texts, 131–3 short stories, 6–7, 182–96
English communication and, 282–7 Sigal, E., 132
evaluative process of, 8, 264–77 signification, 267, 273
extensive, 8, 51–3, 168–9, 260–77 simplified stories, 2, 8, 16, 168–9, 216,
in foreign language, 15–17 241, 266, 275, 286, 288
language awareness and, 178–80 simplified readers, 16
literary, 115–28, 141–3 Simpson, P., 298
oral, 49, 53 Sipe, L. R., 96, 97, 98
outside of class, 54–5 Smith, F., 261
for pleasure, 16, 248 song lyrics, unpacking conceptual
popularity of, 248 metaphors in, 90
strategies, 141 source domain, 76, 78, 85, 91
student views on, 294–6 speaking skills, 133, 236, 281, 283,
style, 176–7 287, 293, 294, 309
survey on, 250 speech/thought presentation, 6,
tasks, 143, 145, 147 151–65
time Japanese students spend on, difficulties in learning, 153–4, 163
224 literature lecture course, 155–64
reading circles, 16–17, 212–27, 291–4 pedagogical significance of, 152–3
reading comprehension, 119, 145–6 translation and, 154–5
reading materials, 245 Spiro, J., 18, 117
Realist novels, 173 Start with Simple Stories (SSS)
The Red Tree (Tan), 101 method, 263
reflection, 203, 204–6, 207, 213, 216, The Stinky Cheese Man and other Fairly
217, 225, 249–50, 258, 281–2, Stupid Tales (Scieszka and Smith),
306 96–7
328 Index
storytelling, 41–2, 214–15 logical mode of thinking, 42, 45, 46,

structural conceptual metaphor, 78–80 213, 249
student attitude, 184, 190–2 narrative mode of thinking, 214–15
student motivation, 141 reflective thinking, 224
student views on reading, 281, 294–6 Thomas, H. R., 118, 200
stylistic analysis, 4, 5, 66–8, 83–90, ‘Three Golden Rules’, 263
298–314 TOEIC Test, 33, 108, 122, 144, 215,
stylistics, see pedagogical stylistics 216n1, 235, 237, 241, 263, 284,
stylistic transformation exercises, 19 288
‘Super-Frog Saves Tokyo’ (Murakami), top-down processing, 131–2
262, 267–9 Torikai, K., 233
Survey of British Literature course, traditional Japanese poetry, 7, 54,
283–4, 286, 287–91 197–210
Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) process, transcultural learning, 21
8, 264, 266 transdisciplinary activities, 50–3
transformative text analysis, 183
Takase, A., 263, 264 translation, 22, 145–6, 154–5, 168,
Takeuchi, O., 233, 234–5 263
The Tale of Genji, 71 Japanese-English, 197–210
tasks English-Japanese, 145
comprehension tasks, 143–8 of Japanese poems to English,
recall tasks, 142 197–210
sentence recognition tasks, 6, 142, student’s comments on, 206–7
143–8 translation in language teaching
task type, 5, 143, 144, 147, 148, 193 (TILT), 143
translation tasks, 6, 140–8 translation task, 5–6
target domain, 4, 76, 77, 85, 86, 91 TV commercials, 35
teacher collaboration, 6
teacher training, 298–314 Umino, T., 234
teaching unforgettable book, 261–2, 265, 270,
see also English language education/ 274–7
teaching university textbooks, 33–4
methods and approaches, in Japan, university EFL, 182–94
45–8, 172–4 Ushioda, E., 209–10
second language reading, 15–16 ‘Utah’ (Stevenson), 314
technology, 20–2
digital texts, 131–8 value, 267, 273
information and communication van Peer, W., 120
technology, 2, 20–2, 133–4 Vipond, D., 119
teenagers, 20–2 vocabulary, 16
teen learners, 20–2 Voices in the Park (Browne), 101–5
textbooks, 63
Japanese English, 31–4 Waka, 49, 201–6, 208, 210n5
Japanese L1, 43–5 Washington Square (James), 169
textual gap, 255 web pages, 35
textual transformations, 183 Widdowson, H. G., 98–9, 201, 267
thinking Wiesner, D., 98
deductive thinking, 224 willingness to communicate (WTC),
instrumental thinking, 224, 318 198–200, 208
Index 329
Woolf, V., 174 “The Yellow Wallpaper” (Gilman),

Mrs Dalloway, 288 126–8
‘The Mark on the Wall’, 174 Yoram, E.-A., 132
World Café, 268–9 young learners, 20–2
writing Yutori Kyoiku, 57n4
academic writing, 185, 189–93
writing activity, 182–94 Zyngier, S., 300

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Literature and Language Learning in the EFL Classroom

Also by Masayuki Teranishi

Also by Katie Wales

Notes on Contributors xvi

Part I Current Issues and Suggestions for

2 Literary Texts as Authentic Materials for

3 Bridging the Gap between L1 Education and L2 Education 41

4 From Reading to Writing: Creative Stylistics as a

5 Unpacking and Evaluating Properties in Conceptual

6 Playing with Words and Pictures: Using Post-modernist

Part II Empirical and Case Studies

8 A Stylistic Approach to Digital Texts: Teaching Literary

9 The Effects of Literary Texts on Students’ Sentence

10 Benefits of Teaching Speech/Thought Presentation:

11 Teaching English Novels in the EFL Classroom 167

12 Using Short Stories in University Composition Classrooms 182

13 Translation of Japanese Poems into English:

14 Literary Reading Circles and Short Essay Activities for

15 The Role of Literature in Foreign Language Learning 229

16 The First Step towards a Critical Perspective: The Practice of

17 The Use of a Literary Text in an Extensive Reading

18 Increasing Motivation and Building Bridges to

19 Pedagogical Stylistics in an ELT Teacher Training Setting:

Epilogue: Literature and Language Learning in the

2.1 General interpretation of ‘communication abilities’ and

2.1 Objectives of foreign language study established in the

17.4 Correlations of post-course questionnaire scores with

In recent years, both native and non-native English language teachers

The motivation for this project originated from exchanges at a variety

Michael Burke is Professor of Rhetoric at University College Roosevelt,

Ronald Carterr is Research Professor of Modern English Language in

Geofff Hall is a professor and Head of the School of English of the

Editor of the journal Language and Literature and author of Literature in

Tomohide Ishihara is an associate professor at Aichi University. He

Yuka Kusanagi is Associate Professor in English Language and

Kyoko Kuze is Associate Professor of English at Ueno Gakuen University

Marina Lambrou is an associate professor and Head of Department

Gillian Lazar is a senior lecturer and teaching fellow at Middlesex

Tetsuko Nakamura is Associate Professor of English at Komazawa

Masako Nasu is an associate professor at the Language Education

Takayuki Nishihara is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at the

Soichiro Oku is a professor at the College of Architecture and

Akira Ono is an associate professor at Hiroshima University, Japan. He

Aiko Saito is Professor of English at Setsunan University, Osaka, Japan.

Yoshifumi Saito is Professor of Education at the University of Tokyo.

Kiyo Sakamoto holds an MA in Comparative Literature from the

Mark D. Sheehan is an associate professor at Hannan University, Japan.

Hiroko Sugimura is a professor at Osaka Electro-Communication

Kazuko Takahashi is Professor of English at the School of Education,

Masayuki Teranishi is Professor of English Studies at the School of

Katie Wales has held professorships in English at the Universities of

Literature and Language Learning in the EFL Classroom is a collection of

1 The aim of the book

EFL curriculum is a theme pursued, directly or indirectly, throughout

2 Local and global perspectives

3 Contents of the chapters

different focus of the chapters and to also provide an overall coherence

Shaun Tan and Mimi Grey, while apparently targeted at children,

Old Bus or a newspaper article from The Nikkei Weekly, followed by a

In Chapter 16, Hiroko Sugimura explores the use of literary texts as a

and are required to present a mini-lesson based on a literary text. As

Simpson, P. (1996) Language through Literature: An Introduction. London:

The preparation of a second edition of a book that has been noticed