5 PDF

AN PUBLICATION | JANUARY 2011
In our first
HYDRAULICS issue
we examine:
• Emerging technologies
• Reservoir design & components
• Keeping the system clean
Taking STLE global

Oil’s lucky whiskey
bottle
The 48 stupidest
things ever said
about lubrication
Check out our digital TLT—sponsored by Münzing—at www.stle.org.

Afton Chemical and Polartech. More choices, more convenience.
Now, in one convenient place, you have a much bigger selection of additive technologies. Afton’s family of lubricant and fuel additives
has been strengthened with the addition of Polartech’s metalworking fluid additives. Together, we’ll bring superior additive solutions to
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With additional metalworking additive products, Afton and Polartech are a great fit. And we promise
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© 2010 Afton Chemical Corporation is a wholly-owned subsidiary of NewMarket Corporation (NYSE:NEU). www.aftonchemical.com
Afton Chemical ® and Polartech® are the registered trademarks of Afton Chemical Corporation.
TLT / JANUARY 2011 / VOLUME 67 / NO. 1
C O NT E N TS
17 20 24
FEATURES
17 Student Poster Abstracts* BEST PRACTICES PEER-REVIEWED PAPER (EDITOR’S CHOICE)
24 Oil analysis: Finding 42 Energy Efficiency of
A 3D Finite Element Model for
economic value Industrial Oils
Investigating Effects of
Material Microstructure on Plants can achieve ludicrous By Lev A. Bronshteyn and Jesa
Rolling Contact Fatigue savings in equipment repair and H. Kreiner
replacement costs through a
By Nick Weinzapfel, Farshid
well-managed program.
Sadeghi and Vasilios Bakolas
By Mike Johnson
20 MINUTES WITH...
20 Mike Gust FEATURE ARTICLE
A veteran engineer with

experience in industry and
30 Hydraulic systems take
center stage 30
academia discusses the future Emerging technologies make
of hydraulic system design them a cost-effective,
and application. energy-conserving
alternative to
By Thomas T. Astrene
electronics.
LUBRICATION FUNDAMENTALS By Jean
22 Hydraulics: The Reservoir Van Rensselar
A critical piece of the hydraulic
system, the reservoir can
function in many ways in order
to prevent failure problems.
By Dr. Robert M. Gresham
* Extended abstracts written by winners of the Student Poster

Competition held at STLE’s 2010 Annual Meeting & Exhibition.
WWW.STLE.ORG TRIBOLOGY & LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY JANUARY 2011 • 1

CONTENTS
EDITOR
Evan Zabawski
The Fluid Life Corp.
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
PUBLISHER/EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Thomas T. Astrene
Education Your Way.
MANAGING EDITOR
Focused. Flexible. Accessible. Karl M. Phipps
8 68 CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Dr. Neil Canter
Dr. Robert M. Gresham
Mike Johnson
Jean Van Rensselar
DEPARTMENTS CIRCULATION COORDINATORS
Myrna Scott
10 Tech Beat 57 new products Judy Enblom
Super-strong, ductile aluminum; Thermoplastic sump pump; DESIGN/PRODUCTION MANAGER

Joe Ruck
Chloride binder; One-step Digital manometer for testing
biodiesel process. oxidation stability; 3D optical ADVERTISING SALES
Tracy Nicholas VanEe
By Dr. neil canter surface profilers and more! Phone: (630) 922-3459
Fax: (630) 904-4563
tnicholas@stle.org
50 newsmakers 61 Advertisers Index
This month’s newsmakers 63 Tribology Transactions
include POLARIS Labs, Houghton Review TECHNICAL EDITORS
International, RheinChemie
and more! Also: A tribute to Take a moment to review the
Dr. Rob Davidson Frank Kroto
long-time STLE member offerings from the most recent Afton Chemical The Lubrizol Corp.
issue of STLE’s peer-reviewed Richmond, Virginia Wickliffe, Ohio
Dr. Waldemar Dmochowski.
journal. Dr. Fred W. Girshick Mike Mayers
Infineum USA, Analysts Inc.
54 Sounding Board L.P.Linden, New Jersey Stafford, Texas
65 Resources
What’s the stupidest thing
you ever heard someone say Keep up-to-date with the latest Dr. Martin Greaves Sandra Mazzo-Skalski
The Dow Chemical Co. ExxonMobil Chemical
about lubrication? technical literature available in Freeport, Texas Paulsboro, New Jersey
print and online.
Adam Henderson Mark Minges
PCC Chemax Inc. Polaris Laboratories
Piedmont, South Indianapolis, Indiana
COLUMNS
Carolina
Dr. Jun Qu
Dr. Ken Hope Oak Ridge National
4 president’s Report 68 on condition Monitoring Chevron Phillips
Kingwood, Texas
Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Taking STLE global Oil analysis in the real world:
Part VII
6 From the Editor
TRIBOLOGY AND LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY (USPS 865740)
Toss leads to oil boom 72 Worldwide Vol. 67, Number 1, (ISSN-1545-858), is published monthly
by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers,
Efficient hydraulic fluids 840 Busse Hwy, Park Ridge, IL 60068-2376. Periodicals
8 headquarters Report Postage is Paid at Park Ridge, IL and at additional
mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to
Tribology and Lubrication Technology, 840 Busse Hwy,
STLE University opens for Park Ridge, IL 60068-2376.
business
2 • JANUARY 2011 TRIBOLOGY & LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY WWW.STLE.ORG

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President’s rePort
Peter Drechsler
Taking STLE global

New initiatives and joint ventures are increasing our
society’s brand awareness worldwide.
W hile STLE is recognized as an international tribology orga-

nization, our brand awareness is primarily in North Ameri-
ca and not as recognized globally. That’s why we are enhancing the
One of the hurdles we face in promoting STLE certification pro-
grams abroad is the “internationalization” of the exam material
itself. Content of the exams could reference ASTM standards or
STLE brand by participating with work practices that are relevant to
other organizations and events the U.S. marketplace but which
around the world. Our latest en- might not be germane globally.
deavors include a joint meeting Other standards such as DIN, IP or
with the Tribology Society of India JIS or work practices might need to
(TSI) and the OilDoc Conference & be referenced for the global com-
Exhibition in Europe. munity. This is an area that the CLS
Our collaborative efforts with committee is currently working on,
TSI led to a very successful three- and other STLE committees soon
day education event held in Gurga- will follow. While this may not be
on, India, last February. Dr. Robert an easy task, it certainly is re-
Gresham and Mike Johnson repre- warding.
sented STLE and taught courses on The OilDoc Conference & Exhibi-
basic lubrication, friction and wear, tion is Feb. 1-3 in Rosenheim, Ger-
base oils and additives, and condi- many, and focuses on lubrication,
tion monitoring. The feedback we maintenance and tribology. Sever-
received from participants was so al STLE members are presenting in
enthusiastic that we are planning More and more nations are recognizing and technical sessions, and STLE Exec-
another joint TSI/STLE education seeking STLE education, training and certification. utive Director Ed Salek, Bob Gresh-
event this year. This event, also in am and I also are attending.
Gurgaon, is Feb. 14-16 and includes a course on metalworking flu- We encourage our STLE European members as well as those
ids. Gresham and Johnson are returning, and Dr. Fred Passman, from around the world to attend this conference. Bob is providing
perhaps the leading authority on microbiology in metalworking an overview of STLE’s mission, education and certification pro-
fluids, is making a Web presentation. grams during the conference’s opening day. STLE also has a booth
STLE’s education and training courses are recognized globally, in the exhibition hall, and I am sure we will have many visitors
and now they are being complemented by our certification pro- requesting information on our certification programs. OilDoc con-
grams. While our certification programs are widely recognized in ference organizers tell us they already have received several in-
the U.S., they are not as well known internationally. quiries regarding STLE certification programs. We are getting
The purpose of a certification program is to demonstrate one’s these inquiries from TSI as well.
breadth of knowledge and understanding in a particular field. All of these activities are leading to increased STLE brand
Whether it is the Certified Lubrication Specialist, Oil Monitoring awareness globally and certainly follow our vision to “be a leader
Analyst or the Certified Metalworking Fluids Specialist program, a in the global network of individuals, institutions, societies and
person who passes one of these exams has demonstrated that he corporate entities with a common interest in expanding the sci-
or she is an expert in the given field. Education and training and ence of tribology and the practice of lubrication engineering.”
actual shop floor experience are the keys to passing a certification
exam.
In the U.S., a holder of one of our certificates is recognized as
an expert. The value of STLE certifications has been documented in Peter Drechsler is a senior tribology specialist
the U.S. marketplace with increased income, respect and credibil- with The Timken Co. in Canton, Ohio. You can
ity and now is starting to gain traction internationally. reach him at peter.drechsler@timken.com.

Education Your Way. Focused. Flexible. Accessible.
The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers is proud to

introduce the STLE University, your personalized, centralized location
for continuing education in the field of tribology and lubrication
engineering. We provide you with the latest educational information
in the field while at the same time providing opportunities to enhance
your career and create value for your company. Choose from a variety
of educational formats:
STLE University was designed with our members in mind. STLE
provides education that is:
Online Offerings (Available Now!)
• Focused: STLE offers a variety of courses that are designed for
specific audiences working in the field of tribology and lubrication • Online certificate courses
engineering. The courses vary by topical area, level of expertise
Fundamentals of Lubrication
(basic to advanced) and audience segment (formulators,
salespeople, distributors, students, etc.).
• Online short courses
• Flexible: Courses are offered both in-person and online to fit around Basic Lubrication
any busy schedule. Courses are designed to meet your varying Lubrication Composition
educational needs. If you need a short course, an introduction/
Fluid Management and
overview or a long, in-depth course, chances are STLE U has
Recycling
something to fit your needs. There are varying types and formats
of courses to match up with your available time commitment.
• Industry Insight Webinars
• Accessible: STLE offers a variety of educational opportunities, Volatile Organic Compounds
both in-person and online. Our in-person education locations (VOCs)
change yearly, ensuring you have a chance to visit one nearby.
Our online options allow you to purchase a course at any time Stay tuned as future courses and
and start it immediately. As long as you have a computer and Webinar topics will be added soon!
an Internet connection, you have access to our online education
offerings. Also, STLE U is open to members and non-members.
While members get significant discounts on all course formats, In-Person Offerings
non-members will find STLE U is an excellent way to experience
the high value of STLE education and participation. • Annual Meeting courses
• Local Section courses
Come experience STLE University for yourself. Classes are now available!
• Certificate courses
For more information about STLE University, contact Kara Lemar,
klemar@stle.org or Bruce Murgueitio, bmurgueitio@stle.org. • On-site education courses
Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers

840 Busse Highway • Park Ridge, Illinois (USA) 60068 • Phone: (847) 825-5536 • Fax: (847) 825-1456 • Web site: www.stle.org/university
From the editor
Evan Zabawski
Toss leads to oil boom

History begins with an empty whiskey bottle—and a simple act.
W hiskey containers play

more than one role in
the history of North American
another 19 years before it
bought the Transcontinental
Oil Co. This transaction netted
oil production. Readers who the Marathon brand, a name
recall my May 2010 column, the entire company would
“The Barrel’s Boozy Begin- adopt in 1962.
nings,” about how the whiskey By 1920 about 7,000 wells
barrel inadvertently led to the had been drilled, although
bbl standard of measure for very few were drilled between
crude, may consider this a 1930 and 1950 due to the
quasi-sequel. availability of lower-priced
About 250 miles south of crudes from East Texas. The
STLE’s headquarters in Park Ohio Oil Co. attempted water-
Ridge, Ill., lie two Crawford flood development in the
County villages, Stoy and Ob- 1950s and 1960s. Waterflood-
long, and our story begins on a ing is where water is pumped
farm in this region. Oblong into an existing reservoir to
was originally a crossroads Let’s raise our whiskey glasses and give toast to loosen and force out addition-
where Henry Peck operated a al oil, usually yielding about
the humble beginnings of an oil industry.
general store. His store fea- 15% of the volume of the res-
tured a prominent sign, “Hen. ervoir. However, low crude
Peck,” and this begat the name for the crossroads. When the vil- prices put this to an end until the 1970s when high prices returned.
lage incorporated in 1883, no one wanted to keep the name Hen- Since then the Crawford County reserves have remained active,
peck. Looking at the survey to define its borders for incorporation, though to a lesser degree, and Stoy and Oblong have returned to
it was observed to be a rectangular patch of the prairies, and thus being simple villages. Each occupies less than a square mile, Stoy
the name Oblong was suggested—and subsequently voted in with its 100 or so residents and Oblong comparatively bursting
unanimously. with about 1,600. Oblong promotes its uniquely singular name
Stoy, though much smaller, plays a bigger role in the tale. In with a sign proclaiming “The Only Oblong Welcomes You,” while
1906 John W. Shire had a farm just outside the village, and since Stoy blends in with the surrounding farms.
natural gas was known to exist nearby he brought a team of men in Not quite lost to obscurity but largely forgotten, Stoy and Ob-
to drill for oil. When trying to decide precisely where to drill, it long led the development of a significant oil industry in the Illinois
was decided to simply toss an empty whiskey bottle into the air area. But just think—what if that whiskey bottle had been thrown
and dig wherever it landed. The men only had to dig 14 feet to find in another direction? It seems likely oil would have been found at
oil, and shortly thereafter the oil boom began. some point, though the legend would not be so interesting without
Both villages quickly became tent cities filled with people success on the first try.
seeking quick fortunes—a realized dream for many between 1908 So once again, let’s raise our whiskey glasses and toast the
and 1910. Around 300 million barrels of crude came out of the area, humble beginnings of an oil industry. If you can think of any other
with a majority processed at the nearby refinery in Robinson, Ill., whiskey-oil connections, please send me a note. I enjoy any excuse
operated by The Ohio Oil Co., which was owned by John D. Rocke- to talk about whiskey.
feller’s Standard Oil trust.
By 1911 Rockefeller was a frequent visitor to the bank in Stoy,
but he was not there the day burglars attempted to blast the bank Evan Zabawski, CLS, is manager of training and
vault. Residents were so used to hearing the explosives used for education services for The Fluid Life Corp. in
drilling that no alarm was raised. Later that year, the Standard Oil Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. You can reach him at
trust was broken, and The Ohio Oil Co. operated independently for evan@fluidlife.com.

J\\ lj è Yffk_ ('. Xk JKC< )'('
headquarters rePort
Edward P. Salek, CAE / executive director
STLE University
opens for business
You’ll find industry-specific technical education
that’s focused, flexible and accessible.
T echnical education is nothing new for STLE. This is an organiza-

tion founded more than 65 years ago for the purpose of dis-
seminating reliable technical information about tribology and lu-
ranging from 20 to 30 minutes per module, and the number of mod-
ules varies with each course. Also included are additional reading
and reference materials.
brication engineering. The live Webinar series,
Last year STLE’s board of Industry Insight, is designed
directors approved plans to to provide information on vari-
build on that mission based ous industries, careers and job
on a member research project functions within tribology and
that emphasized two points. lubrication engineering, while
First, STLE is considered to be also keeping participants on
the foremost provider of non- top of new developments and
commercial technical education best practices in the industry.
to the field. The second point While STLE U makes these
was a question: Why aren’t you new online options possible,
doing more of it—especially in the concept also is intended to
online format? highlight the value and expand
So as we head into 2011, the audience for STLE’s in-per-
the STLE University is open for son education opportunities.
business and providing the or- These include annual meeting
ganization with a new way to courses, local section courses,
pursue its mission and serve certificate courses and on-site
the field. In concise terms, STLE education.
U is a personalized, centralized STLE U is open to members
location for continuing educa- and non-members. While mem-
tion in the field of tribology and STLE University offers members and non-members the bers get significant discounts
lubrication engineering. STLE U opportunity to experience the value of STLE’s different on all course formats, non-
includes many different educa- educational offerings, available in online and in-person members will find the univer-
tional offerings available via formats. sity is an excellent way to ex-
online and in-person education. perience the high value of STLE
The online offerings include certificate courses, short courses and education and participation. Specific content and pricing informa-
Webinars. tion is available at www.stle.org.
A certificate course is a complete, stand-alone education Once you visit the site, I think you will find that STLE U delivers
course that addresses various topics. The course is comprised of on its promise: Education Your Way. Focused. Flexible. Accessible.
a varying number of modules (usually around four to five) that ad-
dress a subtopic within that course. This course has assessments
to measure learning and provide progress indicators and offers
reading and reference materials.
An STLE U short course is a recorded presentation or talk that You can reach Certified Association Executive
is accompanied by slides. They are shorter than the live Webinars, Ed Salek at esalek@stle.org.

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TEch BEAT
teCh Beat
Dr. Neil Canter / Contributing editor
Super-strong, ductile aluminum

A new technique has been developed that increases the
strength of aluminum to that of carbon steel alloys.
T he need for greater efficiency and productivity in our automobiles has lead to
research in developing lighter metal alloys with comparable strength to con-
ventional steel. use of these metals should lead to a reduction in the weight of the
automobile, which translates into greater fuel economy.
in a previous tLt article, we described research on a relatively new type of ma-
terial known as metallic glasses.1 metallic glasses are prepared from zirconium and
display diameters less than 100 nanometers. testing showed they displayed high
levels of mechanical strength combined with ductility.
aluminum has been an attractive metal for use in automobiles because of its
lighter weight compared to steel, good strength and ability to elongate. But alumi-
KEy concEpTS num has not reached the mechanical strength achieved by steel.
dr. Yuntian Zhu, professor of materials science at north Carolina state univer-
• Aluminum typically is sity in raleigh, n.C., says, “the traditional technique used to strengthen aluminum
strengthened through alloys is age-hardening, which has been known for over 100 years. if pure alumi-
age-hardening, a num is cut open and evaluated under a microscope, a lot of crystalline grains are
100-year-old technique. seen. Within each grain, the atoms are arranged in a regular order. heat treatment
of aluminum produces a change in the solubility of fine particles in the aluminum
• A new process, high-pres- matrix. this leads to the formation of a different phase of smaller particles within
the aluminum matrix that impedes the movement of dislocations.”
sure torsion, increases the
this effect reduces the ductility of the aluminum and enhances its mechanical
strength of aluminum to a strength or hardness. small particles inside grains act as barriers to the dislocation
level comparable to carbon movement. Zhu makes an analogy to driving on a highway. “if you are driving
steel—without sacrificing along on a highway at 100 miles per hour,” he says, “and the surface is smooth and
even, age-hardening is similar to scattering rocks on the highway, which makes
ductility.
moving along the surface at the same rate of speed difficult.”
• This process leads to this means the speed of the automobile needs to be reduced, which, in effect, is
a direct indication that the metal’s strength has increased.
the formation of smaller Conventional aluminum exhibits maximum yield strength of 0.4 gigapascals
grains below 100 (GPa). age-hardening further increases the strength of aluminum to 0.7 GPa while
nanometers in diameter elongation, a measure of ductility, remains relatively constant. the average particle
and hierarchical nanosize size in an age-hardened aluminum is greater than 150 nanometers.
other techniques such as severe plastic deformation have been tried to further
clusters that appear to
increase the strength of aluminum. But there is need for doing further research to
strengthen the aluminum. see if a technique can be developed to increase the strength of aluminum closer to
that of steel. Zhu says, “if we can further reduce the grain size in the aluminum
alloy below 100 nanometers, then the strength of the resulting metal should signifi-
cantly increase.” such a technique has now become available.
‘If we can further reduce the grain size in the aluminum alloy
below 100 nanometers, the strength of the resulting metal should
significantly increase.’
Elongation of the aluminum does not decrease, leading to a metal alloy
becoming stronger without reducing ductility.
HIGH-PRESSURE TORSION metal and primarily contain four to seven atoms. aluminum
Zhu and his fellow researchers further treated a well-known is the main component at just under 36%, but both zinc and
and used aluminum aerospace alloy, 7075, in a severe plastic magnesium are quite prominent at levels just below 29%
deformation technique known as high-pressure torsion. in each. Zhu says, “the clusters are important because they
this process, a disc-shaped sample is sheared between two make it hard to move the dislocations in the alloy, thereby
anvils that are rotated with respect to each other. increasing its strength. Yet, application of enough stress still
in doing the study, allows the dislocations
researchers initially to move, which does
solution-treated 7075 not hinder the ductility
aluminum at 480 C for of the nh-7075.”
five hours followed by the combined con-
quenching in room-tem- centration of lines and
perature water. this age- nodes is below 10% of
hardening process was the total metal with the
followed by high-pres- remainder of the atoms
sure torsion for 10 revo- being in a non-clustered
lutions under a pressure solid solution. Figure 1
of 6 GPa at room tem- shows atom probe to-
perature. Zhu categoriz- mography of various
es high-pressure torsion views of the nh-7075.
as a nasty technique. the different colors are
tensile strength test- reflective of aluminum
ing on the resulting alu- and the other atoms
minum alloy (designat- (copper, silicon, chro-
ed as nh-7075) showed mium and titanium)
that this metal exhibits used to prepare nh-70-
a strength of 1.0 GPa, 75. the scale width of
comparable to a typically the images in this figure
hardened and tempered is 10 nanometers.
Figure 1 | Atom probe tomography of various views of nh-7075 is shown.
carbon-steel alloy. elon- The different colors show aluminum and the other atoms (copper, silicon, Zhu indicates that
gation of the aluminum chromium and titanium) present in the alloy. (Courtesy of North Carolina theoretically any age-
does not decrease, lead- State University) hardening alloy can be
ing to a metal alloy that strengthened through
becomes much stronger the use of current ap-
without reducing its ductility. this high strength aluminum proach described in this article. he says, “We are now in the
alloy also shows no evidence of brittleness. process of applying this technique on magnesium, a much
Zhu believes the reason for the dramatic increase in alloy lighter metal than aluminum.”
strength is the formation of smaller grains below 100 nano- the preparation of stronger aluminum alloys that do not
meters in diameter and the formation of hierarchical nano- sacrifice ductility should lead to the greater use of this metal
size clusters of alloy elements. in fact, high-resolution trans- in automotive and aerospace applications. Further informa-
mission electron microscopy shows that the average grain tion can be found in a recent article2 or by contacting Zhu at
size for nh-7075 produced in this study is 26 nanometers. ytzhu@ncsu.edu.
the researchers developed a new atom probe tomography
method to better understand the structure of nh-7075. they REFERENCES
found that the metal exhibits a nanostructure with a series of 1. Canter, n. (2010), “ductile metallic Glasses,” tLt, 66 (6),
clusters, lines and nodes. Zhu says, “the nodes are 3.7 to 4 pp. 16–17.
nanometers in diameter, and the lines are 18 nanometers in
length with a diameter of 4 nanometers.” 2. Liddicoat, P., Liao, X., Zhao, Y., Zhu, Y., murashkin, m.,
an analysis was done to determine the concentration of Lavernia, e., Valiev, r. and ringer, s. (2010), “nanostruc-
aluminum and the other metals involved in the alloy in these tural hierarchy increases the strength of aluminum alloys,”
species. the clusters represent just about 38.5% of the total Nature Communications, 1 (63), doi: 10.1038/ncomms1062.

TEch BEAT
Chloride binder
A newly developed reversible binder
could minimize corrosion in lubricant systems.
c orrosion has been a major topic in this column because it causes significant
problems and leads to premature machinery failure in a wide range of lu-
bricant applications. research is actively progressing to develop better corrosion
inhibitors that are more effective in minimizing the spread of corrosion.
in a recent tLt article, a naturally derived corrosion inhibitor produced by
a specific bacteria strain was described.1 Bacteria normally produces byproducts
that are acidic in nature and can lead to corrosion. But a specific strain of bacteria
produces an exopolysaccharide coating that has been found to inhibit corrosion of
carbon steel.
KEy concEpTS in dealing with corrosion, few answers have been found for how to prevent chlo-
ride from attacking steel alloys. Chloride is an anion that is prevalent in our envi-
• There are not many ronment. When thinking about the presence of chloride, seawater comes to mind.
one approach to eliminate chloride anions from a system is the use of a specific
ways to prevent
agent that can literally remove it chemically through the use of a receptor. dr. amar
chloride anions from Flood, assistant professor of chemistry at indiana university in Bloomington, ind.,
corroding steel alloys. says, “there are a lot of different types of organic chelators that exhibit some degree
of anionic binding. the strength and selectivity of the chelator one needs depends
• A reversible binder has on the boundary conditions of the application.”
been developed that
has peak selectivity One approach to eliminate chloride anions
for chloride anions.
from a system is the use of a specific agent
• The new binder more
effectively binds
that can literally remove it chemically
chloride anions in the through the use of a receptor.
presence of visible
a chelating agent that is specially prepared to bind chloride could potentially be
light and releases
used in a lubricant system to minimize the potential for corrosion. such a technol-
chloride anions in the ogy has not been available until now.
presence of ultraviolet
light. SWITCHABLE FOLDAMER
Flood and his researchers developed a binder that has peak selectivity for chloride
anions. the binder is an aryl-triazole foldamer containing two azobenzene end-
groups.
Flood says, “We found that a favorable orientation of this foldamer will pref-
erentially bind chloride anions. a change in conditions will prompt the foldamer
to change its shape and release the chloride anion. once the chloride anion is
released, the original operating conditions can be re-established to enable the fol-
damer to bind a second chloride anion.” this switchable behavior can enable the
user to bind chloride anions and then release them at another location where they
can be isolated and removed from a system.”
the behavior of the foldamer is similar to how a protein changes its conforma-
tion. Flood says, “a foldamer is a compound present in one specific conformation.
this is similar to a protein that can exist either in an alpha helix or beta sheet
orientation.”

‘A foldamer is a compound which is present in one specific conformation.
This is similar to a protein that can exist either in an alpha helix or
beta sheet orientation.’
in the case of the aryl-triazole derivative, this foldamer is isomer is binding more chloride anions. a change to ultra-
switchable because it can unfold from a specific conforma- violet light led to an increase in conductivity reflective of
tion to a random coil, as shown in Figure 2. the chloride the decrease in the binding of the chloride anion as the aryl-
atom (shown in green) is held within the folded conforma- triazole foldamer is transformed to the cis-cis isomer.”
tion in the compound on the left and then is released when the researchers have evaluated the ability of the aryl-
the random coil geometry is present on the right. triazole foldamer to bind chloride through 10 to 20 cycles.
Figure 2 | The foldamer assumes a favor-

able trans-trans orientation which effec-
tively binds a chloride anion (shown in
green) in the presence of visible light.
When ultraviolet light is applied, the chlo-
ride anion is released as the foldamer is
converted to a cis-cis isomer. (Courtesy of
Indiana University)
Flood indicates that the 1,2,3-trazole functionality is par- Flood reports that the binder retains its affinity for chloride
ticularly good for binding chloride. he says, “this function- anions through these cycles.
ality withdraws electrons that help to heavily polarize the the aryl-triazole foldamer can be prepared by the cyclo-
adjacent carbon-hydrogen bond so that it can participate in addition of an alkyne with an azide in the presence of a cop-
hydrogen bonding. the result is the hydrogen is available to per-(i) catalyst. Flood says, “this is a very versatile process
bind with the chloride anion.” that is known as click chemistry.”
in the case of the aryl-triazole foldamer, the more thermo- the current work showing the performance of the chlo-
dynamically stable conformation is a trans-trans isomer that ride binder was done in an organic solvent. Flood says, “We
readily binds chloride anions. the random coil is a less stable know that development of a binder compatible with water is
cis-cis isomer that releases the chloride anion. a key application for this technology. an aqueous environ-
as shown in Figure 2, ultraviolet light photoisomerizes ment presents its own challenges because water readily sol-
the trans-trans isomer to the cis-cis isomer. the process can vates chloride anions. this effect will need to be overcome.”
be reversed in the presence of visible light. Future work will focus on using click chemistry to de-
Flood says, “the uV light reaction converts the trans- velop a switchable foldamer that can be used in water. Flood
trans isomer to a mixture that is 2/3 cis-cis and 1/3 cis-trans. is also looking to improve the difference in binding between
if the mixture is left for one day at room temperature, it re- the stable trans-trans conformation and the less stable cis-cis
verts back to the trans-trans isomer, even in the absence of transformation. he adds, “Currently we see a 10-fold differ-
light.” ence in binding between the isomers. our goal is to improve
the researchers titrated the aryl-triazole foldamer with the difference to 1,000-fold.”
the chloride source, tetrabutylammonium chloride in aceto- Further information can be found in a recent article2 or
nitrile, to evaluate its binding capability. titrations were run by contacting Flood at aflood@indiana.edu.
in the presence of both visible and ultraviolet light.
Flood says, “We found that the binding capability of the REFERENCES
aryl-triazole foldamer was 10 times higher with the trans- 1. Canter, n. (2010), “natural Corrosion inhibitor from Bac-
trans isomer than the cis-cis isomer. to examine how this teria,” tLt, 66 (11), pp. 8–9.
foldamer can control chloride concentrations, we measured
the conductivity of a salt solution. Changing the light source 2. hua, Y. and Flood, a. (2010), “Flipping the switch on
can change the conductivity. Conductivity declined in the Chloride Concentrations with a Light-active Foldamer,” J.
presence of visible light, which means that the trans-trans Am. Chem. Soc., 132 (37), pp. 12838–12840.

TEch BEAT
One-step biodiesel process

A new catalyst can convert cheaper feedstocks
to produce biodiesel.
T he viability of biodiesel as an alternative fuel is dependent upon reducing the

raw material and processing costs so that they are competitive with diesel de-
rived from petroleum sources. in attempting to accomplish this goal, several barri-
ers must be removed because of the variability of the biodiesel process.
Biodiesel is a methyl ester of a vegetable oil such as soybean oil. the fatty oil is
transesterified with methyl alcohol in the presence of a sodium methylate catalyst.
the strong demand for refined vegetable oils in food applications has led the
industry to look at using inferior quality feedstocks containing significantly higher
levels of free fatty acids and other impurities. in a previous tLt article, a new solid
KEy concEpTS catalyst was discussed that can effectively convert free fatty acid to methyl ester.1
the process achieves a 99% conversion in 1.5 hours, leading to a reduction of the
• Biodiesel must be free fatty acid content to less than the 0.5% level needed to convert the vegetable
prepared from oil to biodiesel.
cheaper feedstocks
to be competitive
‘We found that using a 48-fold molar excess
with diesel derived
from petroleum of methanol with 1 mole % of the triflate
sources. catalyst at 150 C leads to a 99% yield after
• A new catalyst based only one minute of reaction time.’
on rare earth salts of
triflate converts
But the biodiesel process is still a two-step procedure. Jason sello, assistant pro-
cheaper feedstocks fessor of chemistry at Brown university in Providence, r.i., has been studying Lew-
to biodiesel in is acid catalysts derived from rare earth metal salts of triflate (also known as trifluo-
one-step. romethanesulfonate). he says, “We have been using these catalysts in other
applications and found them to be very robust. scandium and bismuth triflates are
• The process utilizes insensitive to air and water so that you can literally run reactions in an aqueous
a microwave reactor environment.”
sello is working to find a more cost-effective way to produce biodiesel. he in-
to achieve the tends to start with a cheaper feedstock and envisions the use of bacteria to produce
conversion to biodiesel precursors from plant biomass.
biodiesel in high the hope is that a catalyst could be found that is sufficiently robust to convert
yield. cheaper vegetable oil feedstocks containing free fatty acids into biodiesel in one
processing step. Progress to achieve this goal now has been realized.
MICROWAVE REACTOR
sello utilized scandium triflate as a catalyst to convert mixtures of vegetable oils
and free fatty acids to biodiesel in a microwave reactor. he says, “We initially tried
to convert pure forms of vegetable oils such as glycerol trioleate to the correspond-
ing methyl ester in refluxing methanol at 60 C. But neither catalytic nor stoichio-
metric quantities of scandium triflate were able to achieve conversion to the meth-
yl ester.”

Approximately 85% to 90% of the triflate catalyst was recovered
after each reaction and then successfully used again.
sello then decided to try using a microwave reactor using affords a high conversion rate that remains consistent from
0.2 to 0.5 milliliter reaction vials, as shown in Figure 3. this the first time through the sixth time.”
feature enabled the process to be run at a higher tempera- approximately 85% to 90% of the triflate catalyst was re-
ture. covered after each reac-
the researchers var- tion and then success-
ied the ratios of the re- fully used again. But the
actants, the catalysts researchers ran into
and the temperature to problems in recovering
find the ideal combina- the catalyst after reac-
tion. sello says, “We tion with a glycerol es-
found that using a 48- ter.
fold molar excess of sello explains, “We
methanol with 1 mole % could not recycle the
of the triflate catalyst at triflate catalyst used in
150 C leads to a 99% transesterification reac-
yield after only one tions with glycerol es-
minute of reaction time. ters because of the pres-
a second metal cata- ence of glycerol as a
lyst, bismuth triflate byproduct. it is likely
also was used because of that glycerol binds to
the environmentally the metal catalyst, mak-
Figure 3 | Small reaction vials were used in a microwave reactor to achieve a
friendly nature of this high yield conversion to biodiesel in one-step. (Courtesy of Mike Cohea, Brown ing it more difficult to
metal. Both the bismuth University) recover.”
and scandium versions With the successful
of this catalyst are equally effective. use of the catalyst in relatively pure mixtures of fatty acids
the next step was to react a free fatty acid and a glycerol and vegetable oils, research next moves to evaluate the tri-
ester together in the presence of triflate catalyst. a 1:1 mix- flate catalyst in the processing of actual byproduct restaurant
ture of palmitic acid and glycerol trioleate was heated in a grease. sello says, “our university donates byproduct grease
microwave with a 10 mole % excess of either bismuth or from its dining halls to a local biodiesel producer, newport
scandium triflate. Complete conversion was achieved in 20 Biodiesel. We intend to carry out model studies with waste
minutes at 150 C. vegetable oil from Brown to evaluate the efficacy of our cata-
lysts and reaction conditions.”
‘We intend to carry out model studies additional information can be found in a recent article2
or by contacting sello at jason_sello@brown.edu.
with waste vegetable oil from Brown REFERENCES
to evaluate the efficacy of our 1. Canter, n. (2008), “Biodiesel Production and Purifica-
catalysts and reaction conditions.’ tion,” tLt, 64 (11), pp. 12–13.
2. socha, a. and sello, J. (2010), “efficient Conversion of

a series of reactions were run with myristic, palmitic and triacylglycerols and Fatty acids to Biodiesel in a microwave
linoleic as free fatty acids and were converted into glycerol reactor using metal triflate Catalysts,” Organic and Biomo-
triesters. in all cases, the triflate catalysts effectively con- lecular Chemistry, 8, pp. 4753–4756.
verted both the fatty acids and the glycerol triesters into bio-
diesel in good yields.
For commercialization of this process to succeed, the cat-
alyst must be durable. sello indicates that both triflate cata- Neil Canter heads his own consulting company,
lysts can be reused without loss of effectiveness. he says, Chemical Solutions, in Willow Grove, Pa.
“Both catalysts can be recycled at least six times to convert Ideas for Tech Beat items can be submitted to
palmitic acid to the corresponding methyl ester. the process him at neilcanter@comcast.net.

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student Poster aBstraCt
A 3D Finite Element Model for

Investigating Effects of Material Microstructure
on Rolling Contact Fatigue
nick Weinzapfel (STLE-member),1 Farshid Sadeghi (STLE-member)1 and Vasilios Bakolas (STLE-member)2
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.
2
Schaeffler Technologies, herzogenaurach, Bayern, Germany
therefore, microstructure geometric features have a signifi-

cant influence on a bearing’s resistance to rolling contact fa-
tigue (rCF). recently developed computational models for
investigating rCF1,2 explicitly consider the microstructure
of material topology; however, these tools have been devel-
oped in a 2d framework. While loading conditions often
qualify for analysis with such models, the geometry of the
microstructure rarely does. this work extends these com-
putational models to a 3d framework in order to account for
more realistic microstructure topologies.
METHOD
the material microstructure was modeled with randomly
generated Voronoi tessellations. each Voronoi cell in a tes-
sellation represents a single grain in polycrystalline bearing
steel and as such, unique properties can be assigned to each
STUDENT POSTERgrain
Nick Weinzapfel, MSME, BSME, is a graduate of Purdue
ABSTRACT
to study various types of microstructure heterogeneity.
University in West Lafayette, Ind., and was a design engi- Cross-sectional imagery of real and simulated microstruc-
neer for Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Currently, he is tures shows that they are qualitatively similar, as shown in
working as a doctoral research assistant in the Mechani- Figure 1. mücklich et al.3 also demonstrated that 3d Vor-
cal Engineering
A 3D FINITETribology Laboratory at
ELEMENT Purdue Univer-
MODEL FOR INVESTIGATING
onoi tessellations EFFECTS OF MATERIAL
are quantitatively appropriate as models of
sity under the guidance of professor Farshid Sadeghi. His
MICROSTRUCTURE ON ROLLING CONTACT
polycrystalline FATIGUE
materials.
research interests include modeling of rolling contact fa- the model, with dimensions normalized by the contact
tigueNick
and Weinzapfel
dynamics of (STLE-member),
rolling element bearing.
1 HeSadeghi
Farshid can be (STLE-member)
half-width,1 and
a, was discretized
Vasilios for (STLE-member)
Bakolas 2
finite element analysis, as
1
reached at weinzapf@purdue.edu.
School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University,
illustrated in West Lafayette,
Figure 2. every Ind. was divided into tetrahe-
grain
2
Schaeffler Technologies, Herzogenaurach, Bayern,
dra (see inset Germany
in Figure 2) and specified as constant strain tet-
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue testing of tribological components in rolling contact,
e.g.,Fatigue testing ofrolling
wheel-on-rail, tribological
elementcomponents in rolling
bearings, etc., contact,
is necessary
to qualify these types ofrolling
e.g., wheel-on-rail, products. The cost
element and time
bearings, etc.,required
is neces-
to generate statistically
sary to qualify these significant fatigue life
types of products. thedatacostsetsandthat
time
cover a broad
required range of
to generate possible significant
statistically operating fatigue
conditions is
life data
substantial. Simulation tools having good correlation
sets that cover a broad range of possible operating conditions with
empirical data cansimulation
is substantial. be used to expedite fatigue
tools having goodtesting and study
correlation with
extreme scenarios that experiments may miss.
empirical data can be used to expedite fatigue testing and
Bearing steels are discontinuous at the microscale level;
study extreme scenarios that experiments mayamiss. Figure
Figure 1 1. Simulated
| Simulated (shown
(shown on theon the
left) realand
andleft) real
(shown on the
therefore, microstructure geometric features have significant
Bearing (shown
right) on the
cross-sections right)
of cross-sections
polycrystalline of polycrystalline
microstructures.
influence on a steels are discontinuous
bearing’s at the microscale
resistance to rolling contact fatigue level;
microstructures.
(RCF). Recently developed computational models for
investigating RCF1,2 explicitly consider the microstructure of
WWW.STLE.ORG T R I B O L O G Y & L U B R I C A T I O NThe
T E C Hmodel,
N O L O G Ywith dimensions normalized J A N U Aby
R Y 2the
0 1 1contact
• 17
material topology; however, these tools have been developed in
half-width, a, was discretized for finite element analysis, as
a 2D framework. While loading conditions often qualify for
Figure 2 2.
Figure | Discretization
Discretizationof the
ofmicrostructure model (a =model
the microstructure contact
gure 2.
gure 2. Discretization
Discretization
half-width).
(a = contact half-width). of
of thethe microstructure
microstructure model model
igure
= 2.
contact Discretization
half-width).
= contact half-width). of the microstructure model
a = contact half-width). RESULTS
ILLUSTRATIVE Figure 3. Depth at which critical shear stress reversal
rahedra
Figures
LUSTRATIVE RESULTS 3(Cst)
RESULTSand 4 or linear
depict the strain
results tetrahedra
obtained (Lst)
with as
100 required
randomly Figureoccurs (normalized
3. Depth at which bycritical
contactshear
half-width).
stress reversal
LUSTRATIVE Figure
Figure3. |Depth
3 Depth atwhich
Depth atat which critical
critical shear
shear stress stress
reversal reversal
occurs
LLUSTRATIVE
gures 3 and generated
to 4achieve
RESULTS
depict microstructure
anthe accurate
results stressmodels
obtained solution. subjected
with the
100 to
static a
randomly frictionless
response of Figure
occurs
occurs 3.
(normalized
(normalized which
by
by critical
contact
contact shear stress
half-width).
half-width). reversal
gures 3 and 4 depict
Hertzian line the results
contact onlineobtained
aobtained
homogeneous, with 100 randomly (normalized by contact half-width).
igures 3 microstructure
nerated
nerated andthe4model
depict
microstructure tothe results
hertzian
models
models
contactwith
subjected
subjected aaelastic
100
pressure
to
to
using half-space.
randomly
frictionless
frictionless
homoge-It occurs (normalized by contact half-width).
enerated can be isotropic,
seen in Figure linear 3elasticthat the locations where was the evalu-
critical
ertzian
ertzian linemicrostructure
line
neous,
contact
contact on models
on aa homogeneous,
homogeneous, subjectedmaterial
elastic
elastic to properties
a frictionless
half-space.
half-space. It
It
shear stress reversals occur fall within the bounds of
Hertzian
nn bebe seenlineated
seen incontact
with on
Figure 33 athat
homogeneous,
the elastic half-space. It
siteslocations
observed where the
the critical
aBaqus. Comparison of the principal stresses
in Figure
microcrack that
initiation the locations where
in experiments critical
by Chen et
anear bestress
seenal. in Figure 3occur
thatthethe
stress 4reversals
falllocations
fall within where
the the with
bounds criticalof
through the depth at the center of the contact theoreti-
ear reversals
Furthermore, occur average within
value of the bounds
this depth of
is identical to
hear stress
crocrack cal
the reversals
initiation
solutions
expected sites occur
observed
validated
location of fall
thethein within
experiments
model.
maximum the bounds
by
orthogonal Chen shearof stress
et
crocrack initiation sites observed in experiments by Chen et
microcrack
4
4 Furthermore, initiation
in the
reversal rCF sites
the observed
asaverage
, reported value
repeated
by Harrisofin this
experiments
over-rolling
5 by
depthofis4aidentical
. Figure Chen to
secondary
illustrates etthat
body the
4 Furthermore, the average value of this depth is identical to
Furthermore,
eel. expected
expected location
average
causes the average
of
magnitude
oscillating the value
maximum
of
shear the of this
critical
stresses depth
orthogonal
shear
that isbelieved
identical
shear
arestress to to
stress
reversal benearly
pri-
location of the maximum orthogonal shear stress
he
versal expected location
matches
as reported
reported thebyoftheoretical
the maximum
Harris 5 prediction
5. the orthogonal
44 for of the shear
range ofstress
orthogonal
versal as marily responsible
by Harris for
.5 Figure initiation
Figure illustrates
microcracks.
illustrates that
that the
to simu-
the
eversal as
erage magnitude reported
shear
magnitude of stress. by
of the Harris
These
the critical . Figure
results were 4 illustrates
applied in that
the the
Lundberg-
erage late
Palmgren
this loading,
critical shear
the
proportionality
microstructure
shear
expression
stress
stressforreversal
is subjected
reversal
life
nearly
to
nearly a series
verage
atches the
atches
magnitude
the of theoretical
theoretical
of the critical
prediction
hertzian pressure
prediction
shear
for
distributions,the stress
the range
fordepicts moving
range
reversal
of the center relative
to
of orthogonal
obtain
nearly
orthogonal of the
matches the life predictions.
theoretical Figure
prediction 5 for the the
range Weibull
of probability
orthogonal forof
ear stress.
ear stress.failure These
contact
These fromresults-2a towere
+2a applied
in 21 steps. in the
the Lundberg-
stress histories
hear stress. These vs. results
the
results
were relative
calculated
were
appliedlives.
applied
in The
in
the Weibull
the
Lundberg-
Lundberg- parameters
lmgren proportionality
lmgren proportionality
all the elements
for the 2-parameter
expression
within thefor
expression
fit are also
life
life
given
to
toinobtain
forrepresentative obtain
the graph.
relative
volume
relative element
The model
eealmgren proportionality
predictions.
predictions.(rVe), Figure
resultsFigurewhere
are outside 5 expression
depicts
fatigue
55 depicts the
cracks
the
the observations
forWeibull
are lifeknown
Weibull
to probability
obtain
to
of probability 5 relative
initiate,
Harris , however, of
ofare re-this
fe
lurepredictions.
vs. the corded. Figure
calculated depicts
relative
thisrelative
work assumeslives. the Weibull
The Weibull
thatWeibull
the grainprobability
parameters
boundaries of are
lure vs. thewas expected,
calculated because the model
lives. The currently accounts
parameters for only
ailure vs. the thecalculated relative lives. The Weibull parameters Figure 4. Critical shear stress reversal (normalized by
orrr thethe 2-parameter
the
2-parameter
the
2-parameter
fit are
topological
weakest
fit
fit are
are
also
also
also
ingiven
influence
points given
given
in
theofmaterial
the
in
in
the
the
the
graph.
microstructure
graph.
graph.
5
The
and microcracks
The
The
onmodel
bearing
model
model
life
initiate
maximum Hertzian contact pressure, Pmax).
sults are are outside
outside
but
as ano theofsources
other
result observations of
of heterogeneity.
shear stress reversalsHarris 5, however,
occurring on these this planes.
sults the observations of Harris 5, however, this
esults
as expected, are
expected, outside the
becausethe
therefore, observations
the model
stress history of
currently Harris
for each ,
accounts however,
element for this
only
is transformed
as
was expected, because
because the
the model
model currently
currently accounts
accounts for
for only
only Figure 4. Critical shear stress reversal (normalized by
ee topological
topological SUMMARYinfluence
intoinfluence of the microstructure on bearing life
bound- Figure 4. Critical shear
shear stress
stress reversal
reversal (normalized
(normalizedby by
he topological influence of
a local coordinate
of the
the microstructure
system established
microstructure on
on bearing
by the grain
bearing life
life Figure
Figure
maximum 4.
4 Critical
| critical
Hertzian shear stress
contact reversal (normalized
pressure, P by).maximum
tt no other A
no other sources
sources
topologically
of heterogeneity. equivalent microstructure model of maximum Hertzian contact pressure, P max ).
sourcesof ofheterogeneity.
ary in which the shear traction can be easily determined. the maximum Hertzian
hertzian contact contact
pressure, pmax). pressure, Pmax max).
ut no otherpolycrystalline heterogeneity.
materials was developed and discretized for
element experiencing the largest shear stress reversal is said
finite element analysis in commercial software in order to study
UMMARYRCF.
UMMARY to be theThecritical
effect element, and the location
of an over-rolling body and on magnitude
100 randomly of
UMMARY
topologically equivalent microstructure model of
topologically
Alycrystalline
the stressequivalent
generated
topologically
reversal
microstructure
equivalent microstructure
are recorded.
models was assessed
microstructure model
model using of a critical
of
lycrystalline plane materials
materials
approach was
was
that developed
developed
assumed the and
and
grain discretized
discretized
boundaries to for
for
be
olycrystalline
ite element
elementof materials
analysis was developed
in commercial andindiscretized forthe site
ite ILLUSTRATIVE
microcrack
analysis in RESULTS software
initiation.
commercial The model’s
software in order
order to
predictions
to study
study of the
nite The
CF. element
effectanalysis
of an inover-rolling
commercial software body on in100orderrandomly
to study
CF. magnitude and location of critical shear stress reversals agree
CF. The
nerated
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Figures
Themicrostructure
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bodyfrom
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obtained 100
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on using
prior
with 100
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critical
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nerated microstructure
enerated microstructure models
ly generated microstructure
models was
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assessed using
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using aa critical
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critical
ane approach experimental
that assumed works. the Itgrain
is anticipated
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ane
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hertzian
assumed
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to
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3 that the of
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f microcrack thus initiation.it aThe
making model’s
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agnitude and
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the location
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critical
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shear stress
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within agree
reversals agree
magnitude and location
determine the of criticalreversals
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ell with
ell with expectations garnered from prior publications and
well with expectations
of the
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of tribological prior
observed publications
publications
components in in and
experiments
rollingand by
contact.
perimentalChen
perimental works.
works. It4 is
It anticipated that future modifications
xperimental works.et al. ItisisFurthermore,
anticipated
anticipated that future
future modifications
thataverage
the modifications
value of this depth
this model
modeliswill
will improve its correlation with empirical data, Figure 5. Weibull probability plot of relative lives
othis
this model will improve
improve
identical to the its correlation
itsexpected
correlation with
with empirical
location empirical
of the maximum data,
data, or-
us making it a valuable tool for engineers seeking to calculated with Lundberg-Palmgren expression.
hus making it a valuable tool for engineers seeking 5.toFigure
us making it
thogonala valuable
shear stresstool for
reversal engineers
as reported seeking
by harris
termine
termine the the influence
influence of
of various microstructure parameters
etermine the influencethat
4 illustrates of various
various
the average microstructure
magnitude of parameters
microstructure parameters
the critical shear
the fatigue
the fatigue life
life ofof tribological
tribological components
components in
in rolling contact.
n the fatigue life reversal
stress of tribological components
nearly matches in rolling
rolling contact.
the theoretical contact.
prediction for
the range of orthogonal shear stress. these results were ap-
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Weibull
Weibull probability
probability
probability
plot
plot
plot
of relative
of relative
of relative lives
lives
lives
plied in the Lundberg-Palmgren proportionality expression Figure 5 | Weibull probability plot of relative lives calculated with
calculated with Lundberg-Palmgren
calculated with Lundberg-Palmgren
Lundberg-Palmgren expression. expression.
expression.
for life to obtain relative life predictions. Figure 5 depicts Lundberg-palmgren expression.

the Weibull probability of failure vs. the calculated relative REFERENCES
lives. the Weibull parameters for the 2-parameter fit are also 1. raje, n., sadeghi, F., rateick, Jr., r.G., and hoeprich,
given in the graph. the model results are outside the obser- m.r. (2008), “a numerical model for Life scatter in roll-
vations of harris5, however, this was expected, because the ing element Bearings,” J. Tribol., 130, 011011.
model currently accounts for only the topological influence
of the microstructure on bearing life but no other sources of 2 Jalalahmadi, B., and sadeghi, F. (2010), “a Voronoi Fe
heterogeneity. Fatigue damage model for Life scatter in rolling Con-
tacts,” J. Tribol., 132 (2), 021404.
SUMMARY
a topologically equivalent microstructure model of poly- 3. mücklich, F., osher, J., and schneider, G. (1997), “die
crystalline materials was developed and discretized for finite Charakterisierung homogener polyedrischer Gefüge mit
element analysis in commercial software in order to study hilfe des räumlichen Poisson-Voronoi-mosaiks und der
rCF. the effect of an over-rolling body on 100 randomly Vergleich zur din 50 601 (the characterization of homo-
generated microstructure models was assessed using a criti- geneous polyhedral microstructures applying the spatial
cal plane approach that assumed the grain boundaries to be Poisson-Voronoi tesselation compared to the standard
the site of microcrack initiation. the model’s predictions of din 50 601),” Z. für Metal., 88 (1), pp. 27-32.
the magnitude and location of critical shear stress reversals
agree well with expectations garnered from prior publica- 4. Chen, q., shao, e., Zhao, d., Guo, J., and Fan, Z. (1991),
tions and experimental works. it is anticipated that future “measurement of the Critical size of inclusions initiat-
modifications to this model will improve its correlation with ing Contact Fatigue and its application in Bearing steel,”
empirical data, thus making it a valuable tool for engineers Wear, 147, pp. 285-294.
seeking to determine the influence of various microstructure
parameters on the fatigue life of tribological components in 5. harris, t.a. (2001), Rolling Element Bearing Analysis, 4th
rolling contact. Edition, John Wiley & sons, inc., new York, pp. 696.
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20 Minutes with…
Mike Gust
By Thomas T. Astrene, Publisher
A veteran engineer with experience in

industry and academia discusses the future
of hydraulic system design and application.
TLT: What is the CCEFP?
Gust: the Center for Compact and efficient Fluid
Power is a national research center funded by the
national science Foundation and dedicated to
transforming the way fluid power is researched,
applied and taught. the center consists of seven
universities and approximately 60 industry mem-
ber companies. the universities include the uni-
versity of minnesota, milwaukee school of engi-
neering, Purdue university, university of illinois at
Champaign-urbana, Vanderbilt university, north
Carolina a&t and the Georgia institute of tech-
nology. CCeFP’s industry members include com-
ponent and system providers, vehicle integrators
and fluid/additive manufacturers.
TLT: Define fluid power and the role of

CCEFP.
Mike Gust: Gust: By definition fluid power is the use of liquids
The quick file or gases to transfer power or to control motion.
CCeFP’s research focus is on making fluid pow-
• Mike Gust has enjoyed a rich and varied career in lubrication er more compact, efficient and effective−and also
engineering, including stints in industry and academia. clean, quiet and easy to use. research is validated
Currently vice president of engineering for McQuay Interna- on four test beds of varying power and weight
tional, a leading HVAC provider headquartered in Minneapo- levels including an energy-efficient excavator, a
lis, he previously was industry liaison officer for the Center hydraulic hybrid passenger vehicle, remote-con-
for Compact and Efficient Fluid Power (CCEFP), which is trolled, fluid-powered robot and a medical ankle-
affiliated with the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis. foot orthosis.
the main objective of the excavator and hybrid
• Mike has more than 20 years of experience in the fl uid power vehicle are to demonstrate dramatic improvements
industry, in various engineering management positions. in fuel economy. the robot and orthosis are used to
Prior to his stint with CCEFP, he was director of engineering explore entirely new applications for fluid power.
and advanced technology for Eaton Corp. in Cleveland.
• He received his bachelor’s of science degree in mechanical TLT: Describe your role with CCEFP.
engineering from the University of North Dakota.
Gust: as the center’s industry liaison director,
my responsibilities included recruiting industry

‘For years alternative technologies such as electronics and batteries
benefited from billions of dollars of public research while fluid power
received little, if any, investment.’
members, maintaining existing members and transferring commercialization potential is wind power. specifically, the
new concepts, technologies and intellectual property to our use of a hmt or hydrostatic transmission (hst) to transfer
members for commercialization. Before joining CCeFP, i power from the turbine blades rotating shaft to the generator
spent nearly 20 years in the fluid power industry where i led is very promising. the continuously variable aspects of these
engineering and technology organizations. transmissions allows for the blade pitch to be controlled in
my initial exposure to the center was during the solicita- a manner such that the blades operate near their maximum
Gust’s role with the center for compact and Efficient Fluid power had him participating in many industry events where he
lobbied for research funding for fluid power. At left he chats with industry member Simon Basely of Bosch Rexroth corp.
tion phase where i helped justify the case for its formation. power coefficient regardless of wind speed. this helps to
For years i watched while alternative technologies such as maximize the system efficiency in much the same manner as
electronics and batteries benefited from billions of dollars the previously described hydraulic hybrid engine does. the
of public research while fluid power received little, if any, use of a synchronous generator is possible and eliminates the
investment. to ensure fluid power remained competitive, i need for power electronics. it is possible to add an energy
felt it was essential that an organization such as the CCeFP storage device that captures fluid pressure during periods of
be formed. high winds. the resulting system promises to improve reli-
ability and power capture.
TLT: What is the status of the fluid power industry

today? TLT: What do you see in the future for fluid power?
Gust: the fluid power industry is going through a transfor- Gust: the role of fluids in future fluid power systems is ex-
mation. For example, its inherently high-power density is pected to increase. efficiency improvements are possible
being augmented by digital valve technology to increase its through fluids that are less sensitive to temperature changes
efficiency. this combination opens up new applications such and, thus, reduce internal leakage. additives that allow sys-
as hybrid vehicles. tems to operate at pressure above 700 bar further enhance
CCeFP’s hybrid vehicle utilizes a hydro-mechanical the power density advantage that fluid power enjoys. it is
transmission (hmt) to increase vehicle fuel economy. the crucial that technologists from the fluids industry remain ac-
continuously variable characteristics of the hmt allow for tive in the CCeFP so that together we can make the future
significantly greater flexibility of engine management. the bright for the fluid power industry.
result is engine operation that is much closer to its optimum in addition, the CCeFP will be exhibiting at the 52nd na-
efficiency than a conventional transmission. the hybrid fea- tional Conference on Fluid Power, march 22-26, at the iFPe
ture allows for energy storage of fluid pressure in an accu- show in Las Vegas (www.ifpe.com). approximately one-third
mulator during braking events that can be redeployed during of the technical papers being presented will include research
vehicle acceleration, further increasing mileage and accelera- being conducted at the CCeFP.
tion performance.
another exciting opportunity for fluid power with huge You can reach Mike Gust at mjgust@me.umn.edu.

LuBriCation FundamentaLs
Dr. Robert M. Gresham / Contributing editor
Hydraulics: The Reservoir

This critical piece of the hydraulic
system functions in many ways to
prevent equipment failures.
I n previous articles, we have taken a look at a number of the com-

ponents in a hydraulic system. now we will take a look at the
reservoir. according to the dictionary, a reservoir is “a natural or
artificial pond or lake used for the storage and regulation of water.”
i don’t think that will work, but the second meaning is a little bet-
ter: “a receptacle or chamber for storing a fluid.” But that doesn’t
begin to describe the many critical functions of the reservoir in a
hydraulic system, as shown in Figure 1.
the little box on the left in the system diagram is the reservoir.
it has a number of important jobs to perform: reduce or eliminate
contamination, cool the fluid, manage foam, eliminate the possibil-
ity for pump cavitation and maintain fluid level. (Note: Cavitation is
Editor’s Note: this article is reprinted the sudden formation and collapse of low-pressure bubbles in liquids by
from the august 2005 issue of tLt. means of mechanical forces such as those resulting from rotation of the
hydraulic pump. Aside from inefficient pumping, this can also result in
pitting of the pump surfaces).
KEY CONCEPTS
• The reservoir can perform

Generally, the No. 1 source of
many important jobs in hydraulic system failure is due to
several ways depending some kind of contamination.
on the hydraulic system.
• Most reservoirs have an these important jobs are performed in a number of ways de-
pending on the system. Whether in a large industrial system, a log
internal baffle to help
splitter or a jet fighter, all hydraulic systems have to deal with these
isolate the return line issues.
from the suction line. if you look a little closer, you can see that the reservoir (in this
case a basic industrial reservoir as shown in Figure 2) has a number
• Hydraulic fl uids may begin of key component parts that contribute to its effectiveness.
to oxidize and could fail due as you look over this basic design, let’s review some of the
to excessive heat. things the reservoir must do for our system.

Proper reservoir design also helps to control system temperature.
Hydraulic systems, when working hard, generate a lot of heat.
Figure 1. Diagram of the industrial hydraulic system.
erated contaminants, usually wear de-

bris. this is often a filter in the line
from the reservoir on the suction side
of the pump to insure that we protect
the pump and any other downstream
components. the suction line should be
located and sized to eliminate the pos-
sibility for pump cavitation. Further, it
should also be located in the reservoir
where it is least likely to see contami-
nants, turbulence or hot fluid with en-
trained air (foam), all introduced by
fluid from the return line. this usually
Figure 1 | Diagram of the industrial hydraulic system. means locating the suction line far from
Figure 2. Diagram of a basic industrial reservoir. the return line, a few inches above the
First, 1.
Figure assuming that
Diagram of theour new, incoming
industrial hydraulic fluid
hydraulic system. bottom and often with an inlet filter.
is clean of particulate contamination (not always a foregone most reservoirs have an internal baffle of some sort to
conclusion), the reservoir should also have a filter on the help isolate the return line from the suction line. this baffle
fill line to insure that no contamination is introduced when reduces turbulence from the return line, provides time for
filling the tank. Likewise, there is an air breather cap that any particulates to settle and provides time for any entrained
allows for pressure relief as the fluid level rises or falls. this air (foam) to separate from the fluid.
cap should be designed to eliminate introduction of particu- additionally, the baffle helps provide time for the fluid
late contamination and water ingestion (including conden- to cool. Proper reservoir design also helps to control system
sation) from the air. temperature. hydraulic systems, when working hard, gener-
in other words, from a contamination perspective, we ate a lot of heat. if we don’t control that heat, our hydraulic
should have a sealed system. in fact, some systems are de- fluid may begin to oxidize, and other components, such as
signed to be truly sealed with a pressurized reservoir. re- seals, may fail due to the excessive heat. in some cases, the
gardless of the specific design, the goal is to eliminate all reservoir is sized to give the fluid time to cool before being
sources of outside contaminants. pumped back into the system. other systems are fitted with
next, we should have means of reducing internally gen- heat exchangers to cool the fluid.
Like the dictionary definition, the reservoir
Figure 2. Diagram of a basic industrial reservoir. stores fluid, so it must also be fitted with a level

gauge. this can be as simple as a sight glass or,
better, a float switch that can control the fluid
level between specific levels. Further, it should
have an alarm system should those limits be ex-
ceeded either by a system leak or overfilling.
Finally, the reservoir should be fitted with a
drain and access port for cleaning and mainte-
nance.
Generally, the no. 1 source of hydraulic
system failure is some kind of contamination.
Clearly, a properly designed, operated and main-
tained reservoir is a key component in control of
contamination to the system.
Bob Gresham is STLE’s director

of professional development.
You can reach him at
Figure 2 | Diagram of a basic industrial reservoir. rgresham@stle.org.

Best PraCtiCes
Mike Johnson
First of a five-part series on oil analysis (January, April, May, July, October)
Oil analysis:
Finding economic value
Plants can achieve
ludicrous savings
in equipment repair
and replacement
costs through a
well-managed
program.
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN h ave you ever wondered how it is that a launched-from-scratch vibra-
tion program can (1.) require investment ranging into the mid-six
figures, (2.) pull the most talented and skilled repairmen and (3.) disrupt
• How savings can be defi ned by other condition-based agendas? i used to wonder. the answer boils down
cash flow improvement, failure to the single most important message delivered in mBa programs world-
wide: Cash is king.
avoidance and productivity
Companies selling vibration analysis tools don’t compete with other
enhancement. companies giving the tools away as a technique to get into some other sup-
ply relationship. they actually have to compete to earn the business⎯which
• Why savings potential from 7:1 to means that they have to demonstrate value. in the lubrication provision
10:1 is a reasonable expectation world, the value of oil analysis is trodden underfoot when it is strategically
of an oil analysis program. given away as a means to entice a user to commit to a new supply arrange-
ment. this is the nature of the business and isn’t evil. in fact, this approach
• How to use careful fi nancial apparently meets a large market interest along with price-based competi-
analysis to achieve ludicrous tion for the lubricant supply arrangement.
Wishing this dynamic wasn’t so won’t make it go away. those trying to
savings and returns on
sell oil analysis as a tool have to come to terms with the fact that the best
invested capital. basis for overcoming “free” services is to demonstrate superior value for
“purchased” services. i contend that this is more about knowing the cus-

The answer boils down to the single most important message
delivered in MBA programs: Cash is king.
tomer’s needs, the capability of the tool, the capacity of the sample ports range from $20 to $300, depending on
lab to understand what the data means (and report accord- materials and construction. assume an average of $150
ingly) and financial analysis techniques than having the test one-time charge, installed. more information on sample
slate delivered by a different laboratory. port installation can be found in the Best Practices article
the economic value proposition for oil analysis or any in the december 2009 issue of tLt, available digitally at
other condition monitoring technique is much greater than www.stle.org. to account for long-term cost to maintain
its simple cash flow value. many managers cover the cost of the ports, expect to replace them every 1-3 years. this
the expense by minimizing another cost elsewhere. that is would be an aggressive replacement schedule. nonethe-
conventional thinking. it is the same thinking that prevents less, bad things happen so you should plan for the future.
companies from optimizing their preventive maintenance
task lists because doing so requires some initial investment. • Properly devised sample procedures. repeatability
it is penny wise and dollar foolish. begins with the sample port. if installed in the correct
location, repeatability is achieved easily enough. the next
chore is to document the method, task an individual to
The economic value proposition for conduct sample collection and place the routine in the
oil analysis or any other condition maintenance-scheduling program.
sample collection documentation costs should run
monitoring technique is much greater less than $100 per machine to hire a consultant to put it
together. much less if it is written internally.
than its simple cash flow value.
• Properly selected test slate and laboratory. the test
managers that are seriously intent on applying modern slate selection is driven by machine criticality, environ-
maintenance concepts, tools and techniques to preserve ma- mental conditions, strictness of the alarm set and the type
chine health are aware of the benefit that oil analysis proof components under surveillance. high criticality sumps
vides in terms of its long-term view into machine health. should include ample testing to clearly define contamina-
Belief alone, though, isn’t enough. some numerical form of tion and lubricant degradation conditions beyond routine
justification is expected. in the following paragraphs, i’ll ad- particle count, Ftir and crackle testing.
dress three different perspectives on how one might justify Laboratory test slates run from as little as $10 to as
implementing or markedly improving an oil analysis pro- much as $60 for a routine sample. in this instance, cheap-
gram, beginning with a quick tally of the costs associated er doesn’t really mean anything at all. quality differences
with setting up a program. exist between labs to the extent that price shopping is
nearly meaningless without some reasonable evaluation
COUNTING THE COST of the labs’ quality practices. more information on lab se-
the tactical process starts with sample collection, and the selection can be found in Best Practice articles in the July
cret to success is location, location, location! drain port and 2009 and december 2010 tLts.
drop-tube samples from sumps are useful for looking into oil
health, but oil health measurement is on the low end of the
value proposition scale. the lubricant soup will be largely
homogenous from one side of the sump to the other. Con-
tamination and wear debris, however, are not. to achieve
consistency, sample collection requires a few key constraints,
including:
• Properly staged sample collection port. a sample

collection port is a device that is permanently mounted
into the machine and enables fluid to be extracted from
the same ideal (one hopes) location each time a sample is Repeatability begins with
drawn. this is particularly important for effective wear de-
bris and contamination measurement since these two parts the sample port.
of oil analysis can deliver highly misleading differences in
readings depending on where the sample is pulled.

in-plant labor cost per sample represents around Option 1 – Cash flow increase. in this view, the increase
$23.63 per sample to collect, label, package and ship the in expenses is covered by a decrease in other expenses. Back
sample (.5 hours x $35 x 1.35 = $23.63). this cost also to the sample size, assuming the 100 critical machines av-
should be factored into the net cost. erage 25 gallons of oil per machine and the fully burdened
assume a $35 median per sample lab price and $23.63 cost of the oil/lubricant is $24 per gallon, the cost per sump
per sample collection cost to be safe. this should allow change is $600 ($8 per gallon times 3.0 for cost associated
the site to maintain some flexibility in selecting from a with purchasing, shipping, storage, planning, work-order
range of test methods for primary and secondary testing. generation, lubricant swap-out labor, waste oil handling and
disposal expense). if one could avoid changing out just five
• Properly selected test interval. the sample interval machines per quarter, or 20 machines per year, the cost of
should be determined after consideration of the same pa- analysis is covered.
rameters, as noted for test slate and lab selection. high
criticality machines operating in highly stressful environ-
ments with narrow alarm limits should be screened on Oil health measurement is
very short (roughly weekly) intervals and lab-tested fol- on the low-value end of the
lowing any finding. this will obviously drive the frequen-
cy toward monthly to quarterly for most machines. Low value proposition.
critically machines may warrant analysis to determine oil
limits should
change be screened
requirements on very
if nothing else.short (roughly weekly) intervals and2lab-tested
Option – Repair avoidance. if plant management is
following any finding. This will obviously drive the
assume a quarterly routine at the minimum for criti- frequency
thinking critically andtohonestly, it would have to admit that
toward monthly
quarterly for most machines. Low critically machines
cal sumps and an annual routine for non-critical sumps. may warrant analysis
the prospect to
of avoiding a mechanical repair each month is
determine oil change requirements if nothing else.
in simple terms, with a combination of critical and non- worth $2,650 in direct costs. one major save per each 100
Assume a quarterly routine at the minimum for critical sumps and an
critical machines requiring 400 samples per year over a machines per year would cover the cost of program imple-
annual routine for non-critical sumps. In simple terms, with a combination of
three-year span, we have something like this, as shown in mentation. this seemingly is self evident, but one must still
critical and non-critical machines requiring 400 samples per year over a three-
the chart below: evaluate based on facts.
year span, we have something like this:
there is a multitude of
case studies in electronic
and paper format on this
topic to be found. in each
instance, the scale of cost
reductions enormously
outweighed the cost of
sampling and analysis. any
time production losses are
included, the cost savings
ratio is lopsided. here are
a few examples of over-
whelming savings from
common production pro-
cesses.
everyEvery company
company has slight
has slight differences.
differences. One be
one must must
surebe sure to1.account for all
Company: of the Chrysler stamping Plant, Warren,
daimler
discrete charges.
to account for all of the discrete charges. mich.1
Following a typical criticality distribution where a quarter of a site’s machines are
Following a typical criticality distribution where a quar-
rated critical, a company with 100 critical machines would have a netProblem population
1: sheared stud for a 1,000-ton hamilton Press.
ter of a site’s machines are rated critical, a company with 100
approaching 400 machines. Even though it wouldn’t be considered a Problem large site,2:this isn’t rocker arm for another 1,000-
Cracked
critical machines would have a net population approaching
much of an increase in expense, rounding up to $2,650 per month. ton hamilton Press.
400 machines. even though it wouldn’t be considered a large
site, this isn’t much
JUSTIFYING of an increase in expense, rounding up
THE PLAN Impact: repairs cycle reduced to three weeks and 24
There are a couple of approaches you might take to justify this effort.hours,
to $2,650 per month. Short respectively
of having a vs. several months, respectively.
database full of mechanical component replacement costs (which would Oil simplify
analysis benefit: Wear debris analysis.
JUSTIFYING
matters), hereTHEare PLAN
three solid options.
Option
there are 1 – of
a couple Cash flow increase.
approaches you might Intake
this view, the increase inAccrued
to justify expensessavings from avoidance: more than $1
is covered
by aeffort.
this decrease
shortinofother expenses.
having Back
a database fullto
of the sample size,
mechanical million in
com-assuming the 100 critical repairs and production losses.
machines
ponent average 25costs
replacement gallons of oil
(which per machine
would simplify and the fully burdened
matters), 1 cost of the
ray Garvey, “Cost Justification for industrial oil analysis,”
oil/lubricant is $24 per
here are four solid options.gallon, the cost per sump change is $600 ($8 per gallon times 3.0
www.compsys.com.
for cost associated with purchasing, shipping, storage, planning, work-order generation,
lubricant swap-out labor, waste oil handling and disposal expense). If one could avoid
changing out just five machines per quarter, or 20 machines per year, the cost of analysis
is covered.
Condition monitoring and control programs increase productive capacity
without new capital investment.
2. Company: rompetrol Petromidia (refinery), roma- losses for each event.
nia.2 Oil analysis benefit: Contamination and degradation
Problem: hydrogen compressor failure due to monitoring and control.
degasification performance loss. Accrued savings from avoidance: $99,000 per year
Impact: Partial production losses during repair. annual savings.
Accrued savings from avoidance in Euros: 2.94
Option 3 – Productive capacity improvement. reduc-
million from unit production losses.
ing maintenance cost or avoiding a maintenance debacle isn’t
Oil analysis benefit: Gas contamination analysis. the best reason to adopt an oil analysis or any other form
Accrued savings from avoidance in Euros: 105,600 of condition assessment program. reducing the unit cost of
from repair avoidance. production by increasing productive capacity means much
more to plant profitability than incremental cost control.
a company’s cost-of-goods-sold equals total cost divided
3. Company: mobil oil (improvement case study). by units produced. many things, some of which are uncon-
Problem: hydraulic mining shovel⎯premature trollable, impact the numerator. raw materials and energy
hydraulic pump failures. are the primary components of material cost, and both of
these components are beyond the control of the purchasing
Maintenance cycle: Four failures in first 27 months department. Given the escalating nature of both cost catego-
of operation. ries, the best chance to move from the high-cost producer to
Impact: $24,000 in repairs, $30,000 in production the middle- or low-cost category is to increase production.
2
Victor Popovici and dumitru Paduraru, “oil analysis Cost savings for Catalytic reformer hydrogen recycle Compressor,” http://openpdf.com/ebook/oil-
analysis-case-study-pdf.html.
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efforts such as condition monitoring and control programs, once the program implementation cost and improvement
which increase productive capacity without new capital in- targets are determined, the commonly used financial models
vestment, are highly desirable. for value calculation works well enough. return on invest-
For example, the rio tinto, Boron operations3 operates ment, internal rate of return and net Present Value are all
terex haul trucks. during a two-month period, the opera- valid. in simple terms, each provides the projected savings
tion experienced unexpected failures on four detroit diesel less the projected cost and then discounts the long-term
16V4000 engines. the rebuild cost is high for these large value of savings according to the cost of money during the
(2,000 +/- bhp) engines. the equipment owner evaluated the period of evaluation. each gives an indication of whether it
circumstances in order to avoid future failures, but during makes sense to proceed or not.
discussions over tactics to prevent catastrophic failure the one effective value calculation model is presented by
team became convinced that there was enough information WearCheck south africa.4 in his article, John evans spells
in the oil and filter element analysis data to enable a rebuild out how one can estimate the long-term value of investment
cycle extension from 750,000 gallons of fuel (the oem’s pro- and arrives at a conservative 7.6:1 ratio for value received
jected rebuild point) to 1 million gallons. Given that these from investment, and projects further that 10:1 is achievable.
four engines were consuming fuel at an average rate of 36 engineers at ontario Power Generation published anoth-
gallons per hour, the extension would allow for an additional er value calculation model that shows a $136,000 avoidance
6,950 hours (for each engine) of increased productive capac- savings.5 in this instance, a problem was detected on a small
ity from the initial capital expense. but critical pump through the standing analysis program.
healthy skepticism was replaced with confidence as deci- detection and early action enabled management to avoid ca-
sions were made to overhaul based on data, machine compo- tastrophe and make repairs at substantially lower costs than
nents were examined and wear rates confirmed. the group would likely have been incurred if the program didn’t exist.
accomplished its expectations, but more importantly the in the review, the weighted cost of a likely failure is es-
group expanded capacity without new (meaningful) capital timated and presented as the savings accrued by avoiding a
expense. failure through testing. the analysis was extended to all of
these case studies affirm the point that oil analysis value the other similar pumps, each of which hadn’t been in the
can be demonstrated in a number of ways, including: sample routine because of low sump size. the authors did
a thorough job of incorporating likely production cost risk
• Reduced machine capital-cost requirement per unit of into their estimates.
work accomplished.
SUMMARY
• Reduced average annual repair cost (through increased
years of operation). Value from an oil analysis program can be demonstrated sev-
eral ways, including: (1.) cash flow improvement, (2.) fail-
• Increased productive capacity for the capital investment. ure avoidance, (3.) productive capacity improvement and
• Improved return on capital from value enhancing com- (4.) detailed assessment and financial modeling (which may
pany activity. include details from each of these three options). the first
step is to establish what is to be measured and estimate the
• Reduced direct expenses.
cost to initiate the program. there is some faith that is war-
Option 4 – Financial analysis and modeling. an amal- ranted for oil-based condition monitoring technique based
gam of the previous three concepts, this option is last in the on its historical strength. in simple terms, savings between
discussion for a couple reasons. Financial modeling is ex- 7 and 10 to 1 is achievable. if careful analysis is conducted,
pected to be wholly objective, it presents the strongest argu- the savings and production improvement value can be ludi-
ment to either adopt or reject implementation of the technol- crous.
ogy and is difficult to do well because hard data is required.
there is plenty data to be found, but real component life-
cycle and cost data is sometimes difficult to locate. if not
available in the computerized maintenance program, the Mike Johnson, CLS, CMRP, MLTII, MLA1, is
next best place to look is the purchase record (file cabinet the principal consultant for Advanced Machine
or computer record). Component replacement numbers, in- Reliability Resources, in Franklin, Tenn.
tervals between replacement, cost and type are all relevant to You can reach him at
the discussion. mike.johnson@precisionlubrication.com.
3
alan travierso, rio tinto minerals - Boron operations, “increasing engine Life,” Practicing Oil Analysis magazine, november 2007.
4
John s. evans, Bs.C., “how to Calculate the effect that oil analysis has on the Bottom Line,” technical Bulletin 29, www.wearcheck.co.za/news/technical-
bulletin.
5
G. Colaiacovo, George staniewski and h. Yan, “oil analysis delivers Big at ontario Power Generation,” Practicing Oil Analysis magazine, January 2000.

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Hydraulic systems
Emerging technologies
KEY CONCEPTS
• Fluid power systems must become more effi cient to compete with or complement
advancements in power electronics and internal combustion engines.
• Simple measures such as choosing the correct fl uid have the most immediate
promise for improving fluid power system efficiency.
• More effi cient hydraulic power could be one of the primary solutions to global
energy challenges.

Feature artiCLe
Jean Van Rensselar / Contributing editor
take center stage

make them a cost-effective, energy-conserving
alternative to electronics.
h ydraulic equipment is amazing in its strength and

agility. relatively compact, easy to service and sturdy,
it produces a significant amount of power for its size.
Consider space shuttles. Capable of maintaining a con-
to a long-overdue need for better fluid power technology.
Paul michael is a research chemist at the milwaukee
school of engineering’s (msoe) Fluid Power institute. he
has been formulating and testing hydraulic fluids for more
sistent orbit for up to 17 days, they offer the perfect envi- than 30 years and is current Chairman of the national Fluid
ronment for transformative experiments in a number of Power association (nFPa) Fluids Committee.
scientific disciplines. none of this would be possible with- “there are several reasons for the current focus on im-
out hydraulics—especially the hydraulic components of the proving hydraulic system efficiency,” michael said. “energy
solid rocket boosters.
the nasa shuttle’s two solid rocket boosters, located on
either side of the orange external propellant tank, are instru-
mental during the first two minutes of powered flight, pro- GM’S LS2 Fluid Selection Standard
viding about 83% of liftoff propulsion. each powerful boost-
STLE-member Don Smolenski was instrumental in developing
er produces 80% more liftoff thrust than an F-1 jet engine.
General Motors’ LS2 Fluid Selection Standard, which has
the booster’s hydraulic power unit operates from t minus
a purpose of—among other things—ensuring that users
28 seconds until the booster’s separation from the orbiter
choose hydraulic fluids with the best properties for the
and external tank.
application. Some of the standard’s specific goals are to:
there are two self-contained, independent hydraulic
power units on each booster, each consisting of an auxiliary
• Improve equipment reliability and prolong life.
power unit, fuel supply module, pump, hydraulic reservoir
and hydraulic fluid manifold assembly. the auxiliary pow- • Improve the likelihood of using the proper fluids in
er units are fueled by hydrazine and generate mechanical plant applications.
shaft power that drives a hydraulic pump, which produces • Reduce the number of unnecessary fluids in the
hydraulic pressure for the booster’s hydraulic system. the plants.
gearbox drives the fuel pump, its own lubrication pump and
• Provide plants with a list of approved lubricants.
the hydraulic power unit’s hydraulic pump.
the hydraulic pump operates at 3,600 rpm and supplies • Support fluid selection and application best
hydraulic pressure of about 3,050 psi. each shuttle’s hydrau- practices.
lic systems are reusable for 20 missions.
For their size, hydraulic systems are among the most Developers believe that the standard will reduce usage,
powerful in the world, yet compared to mainstream alterna- repairs, spill and leak remediation, worker accidents and
tives they are inefficient and technologically poor. the good disposal costs. A detailed cost analysis estimated that,
news is that researchers and the hydraulic industry are work- implementing the standard, a machine using 100 gallons
ing on important breakthroughs. of hydraulic fluid a month could reasonably produce a
the impetus for change is partly a challenge from cut- savings upward of $1,440 a month.
ting-edge electromechanical alternatives but also a response

Without concerted improvements, hydraulics could become an
obsolete power source within 30 years.
expenditures in the u.s. have
increased by 25% in the last
decade. high energy costs and
the down economy have moti-
vated businesses to find ways
to reduce consumption. in ad-
dition, it is clear that at least
some of the interest is driven by
a desire to reduce carbon emis-
sions.”
THE SITUATION
although the threat of emerg-
ing electromechanical solutions
into power ranges high enough
to compete with hydraulics
will be a slow process, experts
agree that the hydraulic fluid
and equipment industries need
to get going on new technology
now.
Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSoE) students chelsey Jelinski and Brian Blazel examining
From a sustainability stand-
the MSoE dynamometer used for efficiency testing of hydraulic motors.
point, fluid power is similar to
power electronic and engine
technology; improved efficiency is required for the develop- says. “tribology is definitely going to be a key enabler for the
ment of smaller machines that consume fewer resources and next generation of hydraulics.”
produce fewer emissions.
since 1980 there have been more than 15 improvements THE CCEFP
in the chemistry of engine oil for diesel and gasoline engines. the Center for Compact and efficient Fluid Power (CCe-
arguably, there have been no significant improvements in FP) in minneapolis is working on this. it is a network of
hydraulic fluids—they are essentially the same as they were researchers, educators, students and industries focused on
30 years ago1. experts agree that without concerted improve- changing how fluid power technology is researched, applied
ments, hydraulics could become an obsolete power source and studied. established in June 2006, the CCeFP is a na-
within the next 30 years. tional science Foundation (nsF) engineering research Cen-
ter. in addition to its nsF grant, the center is supported by
seven participating universities—a team of 38 faculty from
A promising means of improving the universities (each with distinguished academic records
the efficiency of hydraulic and interests that are unique and cross-disciplinary) is en-
gaged in work on 25 research projects and four test beds.
equipment is optimization of other CCeFP supporters include 52 partner companies
that provide $750,000 annually in financial support as well
friction, wear and lubrication. as in-kind donations and expert advice on a project-by-proj-
ect basis (see page 20 for more on CCEFP).
one of the most promising means of improving the ef- “the greatest benefit of the CCeFP is that it fosters col-
ficiency of hydraulic equipment is optimization of friction,
wear and lubrication at the moving interfaces. stLe-mem-
ber ashlie martini, assistant professor at Purdue university’s
school of mechanical engineering in West Lafayette, ind.,
‘Tribology is definitely going
to be a key enabler for the next
a straight-grade mineral oil, plus a 1% to 2% zinc-based antiwear additive
generation of hydraulics.’
1
package.

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laboration which is essential when investigating complex While it’s only natural to consider system redesign as a
research problems.” CCeFP faculty member michael said. starting point for improving the efficiency of hydraulic sys-
“also, there is a synergy when industry and academia work tems, fine-tuning maintenance protocol and setting stan-
together. industry provides a reality check for CCeFP faculty dards for fluid selection could actually have a much bigger
researchers while industry benefits from new technology and and more immediate impact on overall efficiency, perfor-
skilled college graduates.” mance and reliability.
CCeFP collaborators are in the process of creating hy- “the fluid is the only thing that you can change without
draulic and pneumatic technology that is compact, efficient changing the hardware to improve efficiency,” explains mi-
and effective. to that end, research goals include: chael. “this makes optimizing the fluid chemistry an obvi-
ous priority.”
• Dramatically improving the energy efficiency of fluid Let’s examine the four emerging research areas in more
power in current applications. detail.
• Improving the efficiency of transportation by devel-
oping fuel-efficient hydraulic hybrid vehicles. 1. Improving system monitoring and maintenance. a
pump’s efficiency can be reduced by as much as 50% before it
• Developing mobile human-scale fluid power devices. reaches the end of its life. that reduced efficiency often goes
• Making fluid power clean, quiet, safe and easy to use. undetected because of the closed nature of hydraulic sys-
tems. among the problems contributing to inefficiency are:
the CCeFP wants to make a transformative impact (and
perhaps create new industries in the process) by reducing • Internal leaks
polluting petroleum usage and increasing the ways in which • Deteriorating piping and valve losses
fluid power improves the quality of life for certain individu-
als. some CCeFP members set an ambitious goal of 10% av- • Changes in process requirements and control
erage energy savings through the use of new hydraulic fluids. strategies.
PRIMARY RESEARCH AREAS

the nFPa and the national Center for manufacturing sci-
A pump’s efficiency can be
ences (nCms) in ann arbor, mich., created a strategy of re- reduced by as much as 50% before
search objectives for technical advancements in hydraulics.
the six resulting initiatives are: it reaches the end of its life.
1. increase energy efficiency. regular, comprehensive efficiency tests on all system
2. improve reliability by increasing uptime, eliminating components—especially the pump and motor—can quan-
leaks, reducing maintenance requirements and tify energy efficiency, pinpoint areas for improvement and
making fluid power safe and easy to use. provide the basis for a cost-benefit analysis of proposed im-
3. reduce the size of components and systems while

maintaining or increasing power output.
4. Build smart fluid power components and systems,
including self diagnostics and plug-and-play (easy to
use) functionality.
5. reduce environmental impact by lowering noise and
eliminating leaks.
6. improve energy storage, recovery and redeployment
capabilities of fluid power components and systems.
those six research areas can be boiled down into the fol-
lowing four:
1. improving system monitoring and maintenance

2. optimizing fluid selection
purdue University professor Ashlie Martini and her student Jose
3. developing new fluids
Garcia looking at the surface roughness of components in
4. redesigning systems & components. hydraulic motors.

provements. the potential energy savings can be easily de-
termined by computing the difference between actual system Oil viscosity specifications
operating efficiency and the manufacturer’s original design The following specification sets, each with advantages
for operating efficiency. and disadvantages, are designed to define oil viscosity in
daily hydraulic system inspections can catch leaks and varying temperature environments2:
other hydraulic system problems before they force equip-
ment shutdown. • ISO 3448 (ASTM D 2422) – ISO VG Classification
stLe-member don smolenski is an interested end-user
• ASTM D 6080-97 – Fresh & Sheared Oil Viscosities
and technical fellow at General motors where he has worked
for 31 years. his expertise is in hydraulics, engine oil, metal- • NFPA T2.13.13-2002 – Viscosity Grade Selection
removal fluids and anything related to them, including en- Criteria
gine test development. he was instrumental in developing • Swedish Standard SS 15 54 34 – Full Formulations
Gm’s Ls2 maintenance Lubricant standard (see page 30 box). Specification
• Denison HF-O – Fresh & Sheared Oil Viscosities
‘If we can save 3%-5% in hydraulic
fluids, we can save a lot of money
there wasn’t. it appears that it’s the heavier fluids that have
operating our plants.’ the most promise.”
at low operating temperatures, particularly at startup,
“a big part of the efficiency equation is keeping the ma- high viscosity negatively affects the mechanical efficiency
chinery maintained,” he says. “an example is using breath- of the hydraulic system, resulting in reduced system per-
ers that aren’t sucking a lot of moist air into the hydraulic formance, lubricant starvation and cavitation (air bubbles).
systems.” high-viscosity fluids can create excessive pressure drops at
the pump inlet, promoting cavitation. this causes metal fa-
2. Optimizing fluid selection. “in Gm plants we’ve tigue, spalling and ultimately diminishes pump longevity.
tried to reduce costs in a number of areas with the volume high viscosity in low-temperature conditions can lead to
of chemicals and the volume of energy,” smolenski says. “if loss of the lubricating barrier and high contact temperatures,
we can save 3%-5% in hydraulic fluids, we can save a lot of which will accelerate wear and may cause the pump to stop
money operating our plants. working altogether. Because of this and to prevent cavitation,
“one of the issues is that there are elegant ways of mea- pump manufacturers specify maximum startup fluid viscos-
suring energy savings in a lab and then there’s the real world,” ity limits.
he adds. “in order to convince somebody to make the switch one of the primary jobs of a hydraulic fluid is providing
to a more efficient fluid, you have to show them that it really a lubricating film to reduce wear on dynamic pump compo-
does work in the plant.” nents. the effectiveness of that film in a hydraulic pump is
smolenski believes the best comparative statistic is mea- dependent on a balance between such factors as viscosity,
suring the difference in the machinery’s kilowatt hours from pressure, sliding speeds and antiwear additive chemistry. as
one fluid to another. temperatures rise, the film thins and may rupture, creating
“that’s what you pay for at the end of the day,” he says. destructive metal-to-metal contact and straining the pump.
“a more efficient system has demonstrated reduced kilowatt Wear tends to occur in pump locations that have a bearing
hours.” on volumetric efficiency. Poor viscosity resulting from high
the performance of hydraulic pumps and motors is a temperatures creates a cycle of rising temperatures, increased
critical factor in overall hydraulic system reliability. Volu- wear and internal leakage.
metric (leakage flow) efficiency and hydromechanical (fric- stLe-member scott Bair, CCeFP member and regents’
tion) efficiency are the two elements of hydraulic efficiency. researcher at Georgia tech’s Center for high Pressure rhe-
the overall efficiency of a hydraulic pump is the product of ology in atlanta, is currently studying elastohydrodynamic
both factors, and both must be considered when selecting lubricating films under extreme contact pressures up to
viscosity. the Catch-22 is that as fluid viscosity increases, 300,000 psi.
volumetric efficiency tends to increase, while hydromechan- “the high pressure substantially changes the behavior of
ical efficiency tends to decrease. the liquid in the film,” Bair explains. “We can measure these
“i’ve been really interested in the whole viscosity index changes in behavior and generate predictions of the film
issue,” smolenski says. “new research has shown that vis- thickness and friction. mechanical efficiency of fluid power
cosity can have an effect but not the effect that we thought.
i thought there would be some sort of breakeven point be- 2
Energy Tips – Pumping Systems, Pumping System Tip Sheet #4, Sept. 2005,
tween internal leakage and hydromechanical losses, but the u.s. department of energy.

‘Find a good fluid and
keep it clean, cool and
dry—it should be able
to run forever.’
“using just the expertise of people in
our plants to set specifications, we came to
the conclusion that if a fluid could meet the
specs, it could work in 99.9% of applica-
tions in the plant,” smolenski says. “in our
manufacturing plants, the fewer choices
of fluid the better. Fewer types mean less
chance of misapplication and bigger vol-
ume discounts.”
smolenski adds that it’s the small chang-
es that have the biggest impact.
“it’s a matter of fully utilizing what’s out
MSoE professor paul Michael (right) examines a hydraulic motor with graduate there, not necessarily designing anything
students Kelly Burgess (left) and Aaron Kimball. radical,” he says. “i knew i could save mon-
ey in the plant just by paying attention to
systems can be directly improved by the reduction of friction details, and we were able to save more than 20% on mainte-
at high-pressure contacts.” nance fluids and cutting fluids by using 50% rerefined oils.
smolenski concludes, “the point is that rather than fool- We couldn’t have done that without a good standard.”
ing around with exotic additives, we might improve efficien- “We are just trying to simplify things. there is nothing
cy simply by using an optimized viscosity. We could just start magical; it’s not real high tech. Find a good fluid and keep it
using a heavier grade of the same product—if the research clean, cool and dry—it should be able to run forever.”
does bear out.”
selection of the proper viscosity grade allows equipment 3. Developing new fluids. “in the vast majority of hy-
to start easily at low temperatures and achieve the oil flow draulic fluid power applications, the impact of the fluid on
rates needed for efficient operation at high temperatures. energy consumption has never been a consideration,” mi-
Viscosity variations associated with low starting tem- chael says. “Price is often the primary consideration as long as
peratures and high operating temperatures contribute to the fluid meets viscosity and certain minimum performance
system inefficiency and unreliability. at low temperatures, standards. over the years, engine builders have developed
a more sophisticated approach. Lubricants are optimized
during the design process in order to meet fuel economy,
‘We were able to save more tailpipe emission and vehicle performance objectives. this
than 20% on maintenance fluids higher level of integration, where hydraulic components and
fluids are optimized for efficiency and performance, is being
and cutting fluids by using 50% developed through the CCeFP.”
in commercial vehicles and mobile fluid power uses,
rerefined oils.’ many experts have come to the conclusion that operating
temperatures and energy efficiency considerations call for
too much viscosity may result in poor mechanical efficiency, multigrade hydraulic fluids.3 Because of their excellent shear
difficulty starting and wear. as oil temperatures increase, stability, multigrade hydraulic fluids are often recommended
viscosity decreases, resulting in lower volumetric efficiency, for equipment where the operating temperatures vary widely.
overheating and wear. in recent years, a variety of laboratory tests and field tri-
at Gm smolenski is working with sae tC-2 and Gm Ls2 als have documented efficiency improvements in fluid power
fluid specification development. systems that use certain types of multigrade hydraulic flu-
“the two sets of specifications are pretty much parallel,” ids.4 these studies have examined the amount of diesel fuel
he says. “We wanted to buy fluids using a performance-based
standard instead of by name brand. We knew that if some-
3
steven n. herzog and Paul W. michael, Hydraulic Fluid Selection for
Improved Fuel Economy.
thing passed Ls2, it was going to work. having that standard 4
steven n. herzog and Paul W. michael, Hydraulic Fluid Selection for
in place has been very important.” Improved Fuel Economy.

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‘To convince somebody to make the switch to a more efficient fluid,
you have to show them that it really does work in the plant.’
that is necessary in heavy equipment vs. the amount of work applications. these polymers make hydraulic fluid break-
produced, and a significant payback in fuel usage and/or pro- down-resistant under the high-pressure conditions that are
ductivity has been demonstrated. present in most industrial equipment.
smolenski is intrigued and encouraged by the prospect of “the viscosity aspect is the most interesting thing to
new fluid development. me,” smolenski says. “But a question that nags at me is how
“Years ago we tested and found a couple of fluids that our pump sizes play into this. Can you save 5%-10% just
looked promising, but they had properties that weren’t good by dropping the pump size down by 20% if the system was
for a hydraulic system,” he says. “For example, they had an overdesigned?”
emulsifier in them, and we wanted to shed water. the up- michael agrees that smaller is the way to go. he explains
side was that we could see there were possibilities.” that, to that end, there are only two ways that a smaller pump
michael says, “With a positive displacement pump, in can do the same job—raise the system pressure or increase
theory the flow rate doesn’t change with pressure. in real- efficiency. this is because the power output of a pump is the
ity, as system pressure increases, the pump internal leakage product of flow rate (pump size) and pressure. For this rea-
flow also increases. this results in a reduction in pump vol- son, researchers at the CCeFP are working on projects that
umetric efficiency. increasing the viscosity of the fluid can reduce size and improve efficiency.
mitigate pump internal leakage losses. since viscosity index
improvers increase viscosity, volumetric efficiency can be en- 4. Redesigning systems and components. the CCe-
hanced using shear stable multigrade oils.” FP vision has been continuously modified and refined over
on face value, it’s logical to conclude that improving fluid three years. right now, it is working with two fundamental
power efficiency could be as simple as switching to a higher observations:
viscosity fluid. this may be the case in applications where
temperatures are stable and higher volumetric efficiency 1. it is not well known how fluid power scales with size
can translate into increased productivity. But from a more as measured by weight or power.
considered standpoint, system architecture, duty cycle and 2. the competitive advantage of fluid power is greatest
operating temperatures need to be considered. While the in mobile applications.
pump may be the source of power in a hydraulic system, it
is important to recognize that every element in a circuit can Working with those observations, the four CCeFP test
impact efficiency. beds address the following four areas:
msoe researchers are studying how fluid properties ef-
fect hydraulic motors. “We have identified fluids that can 1. Mobile Heavy Equipment (50 kW-500 kW): specific
increase the efficiencies of hydraulic motors by as much as research on an excavator.
18%,” michael explains. 2. Highway Vehicles (10 kW-100 kW): specific
research on a hydraulic hybrid passenger vehicle.
‘We have identified fluids 3. Mobile Human Scale Equipment (100W-1kW):
specific research on a compact rescue robot.
that can increase the efficiencies 4. Human Assist Devices (10W-100W): specific
of hydraulic motors by as research on orthosis (devices that support or correct
human musculoskeletal deformities and/or abnor-
much as 18%.’ malities).
Collaborative research between afton Chemical Corp. and spanning four orders of magnitudes of power and weight,
msoe has shown that hydraulic motor efficiency depends the test beds represent mobile applications where experts be-
upon the motor type, pressure and fluid used. Correlations lieve that fluid power is the best solution. in addition, they
between a fluid’s boundary and mixed lubrication frictional encompass current and future fluid power applications, in-
properties have been found and the relative effect of these fluence adjacent applications and have the potential to ame-
properties depends upon motor type and pressure. these liorate important human needs.
studies indicate that properties other than viscosity can have
a profound effect on low-speed hydraulic motor efficiency. 5
developed by a team led by professor Perry Li at the university of min-
rohmax oil additives, for example, has developed and nesota.
produced shear stable polymers that work well for hydraulic 6
explored by a team led by John Lumkes at Purdue university.

one specific CCeFP goal is to develop high-speed valves what physically influences the energy dissipation in pumps
that can toggle quickly with fairly high flow rates and small and motors with the goal of developing appropriate models
pressure drops (practical high-speed valves). and then describing those influencers and their effects.
there are promising research projects for new valve de- to that end, they are developing custom, in-house soft-
signs. one at the university of minnesota is a pulse-width ware tools and using them to predict the conditions and
modulated rotary valve that will eliminate acceleration and load-carrying ability of the flow through sealing and bearing
deceleration and allow for switching at significantly faster gaps considering non-isothermal gap flow, the micro-motion
speeds.5 of parts and fluid-structure interaction.
another is a high-speed poppet valve at Purdue univer- the ultimate goal is to predict energy dissipation and to
sity’s maha Fluid Power research Center.6 the Purdue team find new methods for pump and motor design. the result of
has developed a prototype that is
a pressure-balanced, three-way,
two-position poppet sealing valve.
While this valve development is
important, the challenge is to use
the valves in actual hydraulic sys-
tems, something the Purdue team
is working on.
a goal of the poppet valve proj-
ect is to optimize valve modeling
and develop equation structures
that focus on how fluid, mechani-
cal and electromagnetic mecha-
nisms interact in high-speed on/off
valves.
Purdue is conducting hydrau-
lic systems research in two major
areas: developing energy-saving
hydraulic drive systems and devel-
oping and optimizing pumps and
motors. Current projects include:
• Investigating new circuit

solutions
• Creating appropriate
mathematical models and
simulations
• Advancing actuator and
drive line control concepts Relieve Hydraulic Pressure, Online
• Developing methods for
Introducing HydraulicFacts.com: the world’s first
online prognostics and
hydraulically driven website designed to relieve the pressures
condition monitoring for
of your job through the transmission of hydraulic fluid and
agricultural and other system knowledge. Visit today for news and education on
mobile machines. hydraulic trends delivered with fluidity and precision, 24/7.
When the Purdue team recent- Register today for updates on

ly analyzed a 5-ton miniexcavator HydraulicFacts.com
The Authority On Hydraulic Fluids & Systems
during a typical trenching cycle,
they discovered that only about
15% of the engine energy was ex-
pended in useful work, while more www.lubrizol.com
than 40% of the engine energy was © 2010 All rights reserved.
dissipated in valve losses.

the team is working to discover

tem also can adjust engine speed and pump displacement to
keep the engine operating close to peak efficiency. these de-
U.S. DOE monitoring and velopments, once implemented, could significantly increase
fuel efficiency.7
maintenance guidelines
The U.S. Department of Energy has the following DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
recommendations for testing, identifying and Purdue’s valve research and test implementation is part of
maintaining hydraulic system efficiency: a movement toward digital hydraulics in high-speed appli-
cations where existing technology is too slow and there is
• Survey the priority pumps and conduct an opportunity to appreciably improve system efficiencies.
efficiency tests. these high-speed valves could be important components of
more efficient hydraulic systems.
• Identify misapplied, oversized pumps with in addition, digital technology has the potential to spur
operating points below the manufacturer’s new developments in fluid power that could include motor,
pump curve (if available) and estimate pump and valve innovations. digital valves also could signif-
energy savings of restoring system to its icantly reduce or eliminate leakage and boost performance
original efficiency. and efficiency.
While research is promising, many new technologies still
• Identify pumps with flow rates of 30% or
need to prove their worth in real-world applications.
more than the BEP flow rates or with
“i have had some discussion with Paul michael trying
system imbalances greater than 20%
to plant-trial these things as they come forward,” smolen-
(check system pressures and cycle times).
ski says, “but that requires a lot of coordination at the plant
• Determine the cost-effectiveness of level, especially when most plants are already short-handed.”
proposed improvements.
IN THE END…
so who stands to profit from more efficient hydraulic sys-
tems?
“end-users will benefit first because we will see cost sav-
this research should be: ings immediately,” smolenski says. “i think fluid suppliers
will have an opportunity to create a great marketing tool if
• Improved efficiency of pumps and motors they are on the leading edge and they can show definite proof
• Increased power density about the claims they’re making. Pump manufacturers will
certainly benefit if they spec those kinds of fluids and can
• Decreased design time, with more accurate results. claim lower energy consumption.”
the use of fluid power is so prevalent that improvements
Within the CCeFP, energy efficiency is viewed as a cap- in its use, driven by the research at a number of institutions,
stone goal enabled by foundational improvements in valves, including the CCeFP, could have a profound impact on the
pumps, motors and fluids. the organization is currently way people live, especially if it can free assistive device users
trying to create more compact fluid power systems by re- from dependence on electronics. While there are still many
ducing size and weight. this will enable the development of issues to resolve, more efficient hydraulic power could also
hydraulic-powered human-scale assistive devices and wear- be one of the primary solutions to global energy challenges.
able tools for home and industrial use. “there’s obviously a lot more focus on cost in the manu-
research at Purdue university, sponsored by the nsF and facturing sector—on anything that can cut costs right now,”
the nFPa, is centered on a method for reducing the draw of smolenski said. ”it’s also about competitiveness in general,
mobile hydraulic system power. Basically, the method replac- taking all the fat out. hydraulics still has many advantages
es traditional flow control valves with variable displacement over electronics and it has the potential to be much more
pumps. instead of connecting multiple hydraulic actuators cost competitive. Basically, now is just the right time for hy-
in parallel to a single pump, each actuator is controlled by draulics to take center stage.”
smaller, individual pumps.
this approach promises lower power losses and the abil-
ity to recover energy while performing certain tasks. the sys- Jean Van Rensselar heads her own
communications/public relations firm,
Smart PR Communications, in
7
this research is currently being conducted by graduate students Chris Wil-
liamson, Josh Zimmerman and edward hughes at Purdue university as part Naperville, Ill. You can reach her at
of the CCeFP. jean@smartprcommunications.com.

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Energy Efficiency of Industrial Oils©

LEV A. BRonShTEyn (Member, STLE) and JESA h. KREInER
california State University Fullerton, Mechanical Engineering Department, Fullerton, calf.
Presented at the 54th STLE Annual Meeting KEY WORDS

Las Vegas, Nevada
Energy Conservation; Gear Lubricants; Hydraulic Fluids; Friction Modifying Addi-
May 23-27, 1999
Final manuscript approved March 12, 1999 tives; Viscosity-Pressure Behavior
Copyright© STLE
AbStRAct
Lubricants influence energy efficiency mainly through reducing energy losses, which
include churning losses and friction losses in hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic and
boundary lubrication regimes. The total energy loss depends on lubricant viscosity and
Editor’s note: This month’s cover chemical composition. Different sources of lubricant-related power losses in industrial
story authored by Jean Van Rens- systems are described. The dependence of churning and friction losses on oil properties
selar outlines a plan to improve is analyzed.
energy efficiency of fluid power Viscosity shear-thinning and pressure-thickening effects and their dependence on
in current applications despite base oil and viscosity index improver chemical composition are examined. The role of
practically no improvements in pressure-viscosity relationships is emphasized. Some aspects of oil compressibility and
hydraulic fluids being made in the viscoelasticity are discussed in regard to oil energy efficiency. The mechanism and role of
last 30 years. I couldn’t help but friction modifiers in industrial oil formulations are described.
be reminded of Dr. Rabinowicz’s Significant savings in machinery energy consumption can be achieved by using ener-
landmark study from 1986 on gy-efficient lubricants. Methods for improving industrial lubricant energy efficiency are
friction and wear for the National discussed and potential savings in energy consumption are estimated.
Research Council of Canada. In
his report, he postulated that of INtRODUctION
the approximately five billion How much energy can be conserved by using energy-efficient lubricants in com-
dollars lost per year due to fric- parison with conventional ones? It has been estimated that approximately 11 per-
tion and wear, 25%-30% was recent of the total energy annually consumed in the U.S. in the four major areas of
coverable using existing technol- transportation, turbomachinery, power generation and industrial processes can be
ogy. This Editor’s Choice paper, saved through new developments in lubrication and tribology1 . A simple analysis
published in 1999 in Tribology reveals that supplying all of the worm gear drives in the U.S. with a lubricant that
Transactions, comes to a similar increases mechanical efficiency five percent in comparison to a conventional min-
conclusion, where it shows that eral oil would result in an annual saving of $6 billion2. Industrial surveys report
5%-8% higher energy efficiency that average electrical energy savings of eight percent were achieved by changing
can be achieved simply by switch- lubricants in compressors from petroleum to synthetic diester oils of identical IS0
ing some applications to a readily viscosity grades3. More recent studies have shown energy savings of five percent in
available and better product. This screw, vane and reciprocating compressors switched from mineral to synthetic oil4.
illustrates that often the diffi- The majority of contemporary industrial oils have an additive package contain-
culty is not just inventing the ing rust and oxidation inhibitors, defoamant, pour point depressant, and sometimes
better product but, rather, also antiwear and/or EP additives, blended in mineral oil basestocks of different viscosi-
encouraging the replacement of ties. The energy efficiency of these oils can generally be improved either by using
the older, less effective product additional supplements, separately purchased and blended into the oils, or by re-
when a new iteration comes placing a conventional oil with a new, fully-formulated, more efficient industrial oil.
along. Fuel-saving benefits obtained with synthetic and hydrotreated engine oils and
Evan Zabawski, CLS transmission fluids have been extensively reported5-11. It was supposed that two
Editor main factors contributed to the fuel economy properties of engine oils: the high-
temperature high-shear viscosity (HTHSV) and the boundary friction coefficient.

The best energy efficiency can be achieved when using all tions in hydraulic systems will be higher, resulting in higher
possibilities for improvement, including boundary friction churning losses in comparison with no-load conditions. For
modification and viscosity optimization. Friction modifiers, example, in contemporary hydraulic systems, pressures of 35
being added to the oil additive package in low concentra- MPa (5000 psi) can be reached, approximately doubling the
tions (about one to two percent), reduce boundary friction. viscosity of the oil. The pressure in hydrodynamic journal
Such concentrations have very little effect on the oil visco- bearings may be twice as high as in a bulk fluid (approxi-
metric behavior. Therefore, these two ways of obtaining en- mately 70-100 MPa) resulting in a four to five times viscosity
ergy efficiency improvements can be considered and utilized increase compared to unload conditions. This may contrib-
almost independently. ute additional friction losses due to increased viscous drag
in bearings. In addition, the bearing power losses depend on
SOURcES OF POWER LOSS IN INDUStRIAL SYStEMS lubricant viscosity behavior at high share rates, which occur
Energy loss in industrial equipment consists of friction loss- in thin film bearing lubrication typical of the hydrodynamic
es in the bearings, gear mesh, vane-ring, piston-liner or other or elastohydrodynamic regime.
friction couplings as well as churning losses, seal losses, and Churning losses in gear systems, sometimes called splash-
losses in the auxiliaries, such as valves, filters, etc. ing losses, can be estimated with Equation 5:
The numerical distribution of power losses is load depen-
dent. Thc total power loss in a system PTOTAL as two parts,
November 2010
i.e., the power loss without load P0 and the increment of

power loss due to thc loading PLOAd:
where g is the coefficient depending on gear wheels, ρ is the
17:08 19 2010
oil density, η is the kinematic viscosity, ν is the peripheral

19 November
speed of the gear, r is the pitch radius, and b is the wheel

width.
At: 17:08 At:
where t0 is the fraction of time when the system is unloaded. Taking into consideration only lubricant-related param-
Transactions]
The no-load power loss P0 consists of two parts: eters, the authors obtain
Transactions]
[UTRB - Tribology
where PCH0 is thc churning losses, PF0 is the friction loss- where K 10-18 • g • r • b is a coefficient depending on gear
es and PLO is the leakage losses under no-load conditions. wheel parameters.
- Tribology
Thc no-load churning losses are caused by churning, It is important to note that churning losses in gear sys-
squeezing, ventilation, acceleration and deceleration of lu- tems depend on oil density with exponent one, viscosity with
By: [UTRB By:
bricant in pumps, gears and other devices. The no-load fric- exponent 0.6 and speed with an exponent of about 2. This
DownloadedDownloaded
tion and leakage loss can often bc neglected because their dependence is not likely to be changed much for no-load
values are very small. hydraulic pumps because the nature of the process remains
Thc load-dependent power loss PLOAd consists of four the same. But in loaded hydraulic systems, higher viscosity
parts: and density of a compressed fluid will contribute to higher
churning losses.
Table 1 illustrates the mechanical efficiency and churn-
ing losses experimentally measured for a car’s manual gear
where PCH is thc churning losses, PF is the friction losses, transmission with a reference mineral oil operating in four
PAX is the losses in auxiliaries, and PL is the leakage losses regimes with different levels of load and speed5. These data
under load conditions. indicate that the relative contribution of churning losses to
Since the churning and friction losses represent the most total losses is maximum for low-load, high-speed operating
significant fraction of the total power losses, the authors will conditions that result in the minimum mechanical efficiency
concentrate on them in the analysis. Thus, because the val- of the transmission.
ues of PF0, FAX, PLO and FL are negligibly small in compari- In spray-lubricated gear transmissions, no-load losses are
son with PF , the authors obtain lower than in bath-lubricated systems, but the viscosity de-
pendence of losses is approximately the same. A four-times
increase in viscosity has caused approximately a 1.6 to 1.7
times increase in no-load power losses for spray-lubricated
gears12, which roughly corresponds with the exponential de-
Thc difference between PCHO and PCH in Equation 4 is pendence shown in Equation 5.
that the viscosity of the compressed oil under load condi- It has been shown13 that friction losses for gear transmis-

the solid surface. The phenomena of surface vitrification and to store elastic energy and produce norma1 forces during
the aligning effects of solid surfaces may be contributing fac- steady flow has been measured in lubricants which contain
tors in determining differences in the performance of petro- high molecular weight VII. The authors of ref.19 reported
leum and synthetic base oils. that long-chain polymer VII created the “network” structure
Another factor is oil viscosity-pressure behavior. It is with rubber-like properties in a low molecular weight liq-
described by pressure-viscosity coefficient a, the value of uid medium. The viscoelastic effect of this structure results
which reflects the rate of oil viscosity increase under increas- in normal stresses exerted on the bearing surfaces and con-
ing pressure. In comparison with conventional mineral oils, tributes to the oil film thickness 19,20. The authors of ref.21
highly paraffinic polyalphaolefin and hydrotreated base oils showed that assuming relaxation time to be proportional to
have lower a and their viscosity is less dependent on pres- viscosity, viscoelastic normal stresses can result in increases
sure. Introduction of a dI additive package into base oil de- of 20 percent and higher in load-bearing capacity. That, in
creases its pressure-viscosity dependence as well7. turn, may contribute to friction reduction and energy con-
Compressibility is vitally important for hydraulic fluids, servation. The numerical modeling suggested that at high
one of the main functions of which is to transmit power. Pre- eccentricities in journal bearings (the most severe Hd case,
cise power transmission in high pressure hydraulic systems close to EHd), pressure-thickening dominates the viscosity
requires the fluid viscosity (as well as volume) to be the least behavior rather than shear-thinning or temperature-thin-
sensitive to pressure or have the smallest pressure-viscosity ning. That means that lubricant rheology, as well as friction
coefficient a. Low viscosity at high pressure is also beneficial energy losses for highly loaded contacts, tends to be affected
for the reduction of viscosity- related churning power losses more by the pressure-viscosity relations than temperature or
under load conditions. However, a certain compressibility shear dependence.
can be convenient in that it dampens pressure surges caused
by switching and thus provides smoother operation. ROLE OF OIL MOLEcULAR StRUctURE AND cHEMIcAL
Pressure-viscosity and temperature-viscosity properties cOMPOSItION
are known to be loosely related. High viscosity index oils while viscosity mainly controls the hydrodynamic behavior
tend to be less compressible. Both these properties of liquid of lubricants, their molecular structure has a direct effect in
hydrocarbons are strongly dependent on molecular struc- EHd and boundary lubrication. The effect of a lubricant’s
ture. According to existing theories of liquid structure, the molecular structure on its friction behavior can be illustrated
more degrees of freedom in the molecular structure of a liq- by the so-called paper stack model shown in Figure 122.
uid, the higher its compressibility17. Each sheet of paper in the stack represents a lubricant
The decrease in free molecular space under high pressure molecule. The stack is compressed vigorously in a direction
results in a higher tendency of structuring, and shear thin- perpendicular to the paper plane and is subject to a rate of
ning starts at lower shear rates. when the molecules of the shear in trying to pull single sheets of paper out of the stack.
liquid have made all the steric adjustments possible, further This action will be more difficult and will require more en-
increase of pressure works against intermolecular repulsive ergy the more uneven the paper surface is and/or the stron-
forces. For very high pressures, a glass transition to solid-like ger the interaction between the individual paper planes. This
behavior occurs and a critical shear stress is required to initi- corresponds to a high traction coefficient.
ate sliding. For mineral oils, the glass transition pressure is The single molecules are accelerated by a shear stress to
usually about 0.8 GPa at 30°C18. a different extent depending on the distance from the con-
In practice, a hydraulic fluid is often simultaneously
exposed to temperature, pressure and shear stresses. Sharp
pressure surges in a hydraulic system cause cyclical heat-
ing and cooling of oil due to energy dissipation. This energy
dissipated in hydraulic fluids may be much higher than in
gear oils, in which temperature is usually controlled by fric-
tion heat developed in the gear mesh. when pressure grows,
causing oil thickening, the temperature rise coincidentally
imposes the opposite effect of viscosity drop, compensating
the final viscosity change. The dissipation process and en-
ergy loss is dependent on the relationship of dynamic pa-
rameters of the mechanical impact and fluid relaxation time
which defines oil viscoelastic properties.
Besides the shear thinning effect, VI-improved oils ex-
hibit another aspect of non-Newtonian behavior: viscoelas-
ticity. The viscoelastic effect is considered to be important
7:08 19 November 2010
for energy conservation arid friction reduction. The ability Figure 1 | paper stack model of lubricant behavior in EhD contacts

tact surface. The resistance to a shearing stress depends on Conventional mineral-based hydraulic fluids which are
a shape of the molecule. disk-shaped molecules with non- used at plants usually do not contain VII because these fluids
branched hydrocarbon chains provide lower traction. This are not exposed to very low temperatures. Nevertheless, VII
model concept also allows one to predict that molecules can help to utilize the shear-thinning effect for friction re-
shaped like balls or ellipsoids should have lower friction duction and energy conservation as was determined earlier.
because they are susceptible to rotating, sliding, rolling and Polymers can also reduce leakage problems in hydraulic sys-
spinning motions. tems. Apparently, the best polymer for these purposes should
Even insignificant changes in molecular structure can significantly thicken oil at low shear rates but start thinning
have extraordinary effects, provided they take place near the even at shear rates corresponding to churning of the oil.
“active molecular effect center” responsible for molecular in- The most commonly used VIIs are polyrmethacrylates
teractions. Usually these centers are oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and olefin copolymers. Polyrmethacrylates have more stable
or other nonhydrocarbon heteroatoms of functional groups viscosity-shear characteristics than olefin copolymers. The
attached to a molecular carbon frame. Minimizing function- shear-thinning effect tends to be more pronounced for high-
al groups involved in intermolecular interactions facilitates er molecular weight polymers and higher polymer concen-
molecular motion and decreases friction. trations in oil25.
Polycyclic fluids have higher traction coefficients than Friction modifiers create boundary layers on rubbing met-
monocyclic22,23. It was also shown that the pressure-viscosity al surfaces, physically adsorbing and chemically interacting
coefficient a has the predominating effect on the maximum with the surfaces. The structure of these boundary layers is
friction coefficient. The degree of branching of the carbon different from the surface layers created by regular antiwear
chains in a molecule was defined as a critical parameter of or EP sulfur, phosphorus or chlorine-containing additives.
aliphatic oil frictional behavior causing a to increase for These additives reduce wear, but, as a rule do not decrease
more branched chains. The effects of molecular structure (and often increase) friction force and energy consumption.
were shown to become more important at elevated pressures. There are two main groups of oil-soluble friction modi-
The effect of oil chemical structure on friction losses fies, which are proven to be effective in engine oils: or-
was studied in more detail in24. The comparison of losses ganomolybdenum compounds and ashless organic ester- or
measured for the high and low sliding velocities and load acid-based additives like stearic acid or octadecanol. Organo-
range showed that the benefits of synthetic fluids were more molybdenum additives such as molybdenum dithiophos-
evident for the high-speed and high-load test conditions that phate (ModTF) or molybdenum dithiocarbamate (ModTC)
characterize newer machinery designs. Two kinds of synthet- react chemically with surfaces, and are effective for bound-
ic oils - polyalphaolefin and polyglycol - behaved alike: they ary lubrication at high temperatures. Their friction reduc-
gave 12-20 percent lower friction losses in comparison with tion activity is based on the thermally activated chemical
a mineral oil for the high-speed and high-load conditions reaction with metal surfaces, and their effectiveness is higher
and showed no practical differences in losses for the low- at higher temperatures26. Long-chain polar organic acids or
speed and low-load test. esters work at lower temperatures providing relatively thick
The hydrocracking process results in basestocks contain- antifriction films adsorbed on metal surfaces.
ing more paraffinic and less aromatic hydrocarbons while PAO The antifriction efficiency of friction modifiers depends
consists of almost only paraffins. This molecular structure, on the composition and thickness of the surface layers cre-
as was discussed previously, has better temperature-viscosity ated on rubbing metal surfaces. The suggested structure of
and pressure- viscosity behavior, resulting in a high viscos- these surface layers is shown in Figure 227.
ity index and low pressure-viscosity coefficient a. The high The multilayer composition consists of A - a layer of ad-
pressure viscosity of the VHVI base stocks is substantially sorbed lubricant molecules; B - a resin-like film of oxidation
lower than that of the solvent-refined basestocks. Therefore, and destruction products of the lubricant components; [this
hydrocracked and PAO oils show significant advantages over film contains elements (C, O, S, F, Ca, Zn. etc.) included in
conventional mineral oils in Friction reduction under EHd the lubricant composition]; C - a layer of secondary struc-
lubrication conditions. It is important to note that PAOs are tures formed during the friction process as a result of diffu-
more effective than hydrocracked oils. Similar results were sion of active components of the lubricant (mainly O and S)
reported for automotive transmissions and power steering into the metal surface, with a subsequent formation of non-
fluids formulated with these basestocks11. stoichiometric compounds with an oriented microcrystaltine
Energy-saving benefits have been obtained with synthetic structure; and d - a layer formed as a result of the carboniza-
industrial gear oils in comparison with paraffinic mineral tion and hardening of the metal surface. The thickness of
oil12,13,24. Mesh power loss in a gear transmission was reduced each layer depends on the lubricant composition and friction
by as much as 50 percent by using polyglycol-type lubri- conditions and is approximately in the range of 10.50 nm
cants12. Synthetic polyalphaolefin and polyglycol bascd oils for the B layer and 50-3500 nm for the C and d layers. The
have shown friction in the hydrodynamic lubrication regime formation of the C and d layers occurs simultaneously. The
approximately 12-20 percent lower than using mineral oil 24. final thickness of the d layer may be greater, equal to, or

pendence, as shown for polyalphaolefins, is the most ben-
eficial for energy conservation as well as for antiwear per-
formance. Hydrogenated petroleum oils produced by severe
hydrocracking processes are considerably cheaper than
polyalphaolefins but show similar performance, and can be
regarded as a good compromise between performance and
cost.
REFERENcES
1. Strategy for Energy Conservation through Tribology, 2nd
ed., ASME, New York, (1977). (1981).
2. Pacholke, P. J. and Marshek. K. M., “Improved worm
Gear Performance with Colloidal Molybdenum disul-
fide Containing Lubricants.” Lub,: Eng., 43, pp 623-628,
(1987).
3. douglas, P. J., “An Environmental Case for Synthetic Lu-
Downloaded By: [UTRB - Tribology Transactions] At: 17:08 19 November 2010
bricants,” Lubr. Eng., 48, 9, pp 696-700. (1992).

4. Hildebrant, K. A. and Norgate. J. r., “Energy Savings Us-
ing Synthetic Lubricants,” Canadian Institute of Mining.
Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM) Bulletin, 87, 984, pp 44-
Figure 2 | Structure of metal friction surface layer. 46. (1994).
5. Barzaghi, C., Berti, F. and Gommellini, C., “develop-
less than thc thickness of the C layer depending on friction ment of a Bench Test Procedure for Assessing the Effect
conditions. The better antifriction efficiency was observed of Lubricants on Car Manual Transmission Efficiency,”
to correspond to the thinner C and d layers allowing the SAE Paper No. 951027, SAE, warrendale, PA. (1995).
localization of the tribo-chemical processes in smaller mi- 6. Cooper. d. and Moore, A. J., “Application of the Ultra-
crovolumes. The thicker the layer of the material involved in Thin Elastohydrodynamic Oil Film Thickness Tech-
friction process, the higher the friction coefficient. nique to the Study of Automotive Engine Oils,” Wear,
175, pp 93-105, (1994).
cONcLUSIONS 7. Moore. A. J., Cooper. d. and robinson. T. M., “rheologi-
1. Approximately five-to-eight percent energy savings cal Properties of Engine Crankcase and Gear Oil Com-
are achievable by using energy-efficient industrial lubricants ponents in Elastohydrodynamic Oil Films,” SAE Paper
compared with current typical products. No. 941977, SAE, warrendale. PA, (1994).
2. Lubricant-related energy losses in a hydraulic system 8. Moore, A. J., “Fuel Efficiency Screening Tests for Au-
are load dependent and consist of churning and friction tomotive Engine Oils,” SAE Paper No. 932689, SAE,
losses. Churning losses are mostly influenced by oil viscosity warrendale, PA, (1993).
while friction losses largely depend on oil chemical composi- 9. Igarashi, J., Kagaya, M., Satoh, T. and Nagashima T.,
tion. Boundary friction coefficient, high-temperature high- “High Viscosity Index Petroleum - Base Stocks - The
shear viscosity and pressure-viscosity coefficient are thc High Potential Base Stocks for Fuel Economy Automo-
most important oil properties defining oil energy efficiency. tive Lubricants,” SAE Paper No. 920659, SAE, warren-
3. The shear-thinning and viscoelastic effects of viscos- dale, PA. (1992).
ity index-improved hydraulic fluids can be utilized for fric- 10. Nagashima. T., Saka, T., Tanaka, H., Satoh, T., Yaguchi,
tion reduction and energy conservation. The best polymer A. and Tamoto. Y., “research on Low-Friction Prope-
for these objectives should significantly thicken oil; however nies of High Viscosity lndex Petroleum Base Stock and
it begins to thin at low shear rates corresponding to the oil development of Upgraded Engine Oil,” SAE Paper No.
pumping process. In addition, viscosity index-improved hy- 951036, SAE, warrendale. PA. (1995).
draulic fluids can reduce leakage problems and improve low 11. Sasaki, T., Olimori. I., Furumoto. M., Tanaka, H., Komi-
temperature fluid pumpability in hydraulic systems. ya, K., Ohsumi, T., Henmi, M., “development of Auto-
4. Lubricant rheology as well as friction energy losses for motive Lubricants Based on High-Viscosity Index Base
highly loaded contacts tend to be more affected by pressure- Stock,” SAE Paper No. 951028, SAE, warrendale. PA,
viscosity relationships than temperature or shear depen- (1995).
dence. Since hydraulic fluids are usually subjected to high 12. Michaelis, K. and Horn, B. r., “Influence of Lubricants
pressures, the pressure-viscosity behavior is one of the most on Power Loss of Cylindrical Gears,” Trib. Trans., 37, 1,
significant fluid properties to be taken into account while pp 161-167, (1994).
selecting a hydraulic fluid. A minimal pressure-viscosity de- 13. Yoshizaki. M., Naruse, C., Nemoto, r. and Haizuka, S.,

“Study on Frictional Loss of Spur Gears (Concerning the 21. davies, A. r. and Li, X. K., “Numerical Modelling of
Influence of Tooth Form, Load, Tooth Surface rough- Pressure and Temperature Effects in Viscoelastic Flow
ness, and Lubricating Oil),” Trib. Trans., 34, 1, pp 138- Between Eccentrically rotating Cylinders,” Jour of Non-
146, (1991). Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 54, pp 331-350, (1994).
14. Carson. G., Hu, H. and Granick, S., “Molecular Tribol- 22. Hentschel, K. H., “The Influence of Molecular Structure
ogy of Fluid Lubrication: Shear Thinning,” Trib. Trans., on the Frictional Behavior of Lubricating Fluids,” Jour of
32, 3, pp 405-410, (1992). Synth. Lubr., 2, 2, pp 143-165 and 3, pp 239-260, (1985).
15. Bair, S. and winer, w.O., “A New High-Pressure, High- 23. Toshiyuki. T. and Hitoshi, H., “The Fundamental Molec-
Shear Stress Viscometer and results for Lubricants,” ular Structures of Synthetic Traction Fluids,” Trib. Int’l.,
Trib. Trans., 36,4, pp 721-725. (1993). 27, pp 183-187, (1994).
16. Bair, S., winer, w.O., and Qureshi. F., “Lubricant rheo- 24. Naruse, C., Nemoto, r., Haizuka, S. and Yoshizaki, M.,
logical Propenies at High Pressure,” Lubr Sci., 5,3, pp “Influence of Oil Viscosity, Chemical Structure, and
189-203, (1993). Chemical Additives on Friction Loss of Spur Gears
17. dorinson, A. and Ludema, K. C., Mechanics and Chemis- (Concerning the Influence of Synthetic Oil and Mineral
try in Lubrication, Elsevier, Amsterdam, (1985). Oil).” Trib. Trans., 37, 2, pp 358-368, (1994).
18. Bair, S. and winer w.O., “The High Pressure High Shear 25. Suzuki, Y., Mitsui, J., Shiomi, M., Fukuchi. H. and Oka-
Stress rheology of Liquid Lubricants,” Trans. ASME, mura. H., “Experimental Study on Viscosity-Shear Char-
114, pp 1-13, January, (1992). acteristics of Lubricating Oils.” SAE Paper No. 951029,
19. Bates, T. w., williamson, B., Spearot, J. A. and Murphy, SAE, warrendale, PA, (1995).
C. K., “A Correlation Between Engine Oil rheology and 26. Stipanovic. A. J. and Schoonmaker J. P., “The Impact
Oil Film Thickness in Engine Journal Bearings,” SAE Pa- of Organomolybdenum Compounds on the Frictional
per No. 860376, SAE, warrendale, PA, (1986). Characteristics of Crankcase Engine Oils.” SAE Paper
20. williamson, B. P. and Milton, A., “Characterization of No. 932779, SAE, warrendale, PA, (1993).
the Viscoelasticity of Engine Lubricants at Elevated 27. Vipper. A. B., Bartz, w., Karaulov, A. K., Mischnuk, O,
Temperatures and Shear rates,” SAE Paper No. 951032, A., Lukinyuk, M. Y., “Antifriction Action of Lubricant
SAE, warrendale, PA, (1995). Additives,” Lubr Sci., 7, 3, pp 247-259, (1975).

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“we will also be submitting the necessary notifications California-Berkeley has been awarded
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work on our 2013 registrations,” Evans adds. The Tribology Gold Medal, presented
Infineum says it will continue monitoring rEACH activi- to him on behalf of The Tribology
ties of the company’s EU suppliers to ensure it meets its pri- Trust.
mary objective for rEACH. Talke was recognized with the
2010 Gold Medal for his outstanding
PROMOtIONS & tRANSItIONS achievements in tribology, in partic-
ular for his meritorious work in the
RHEIN cHEMIE APPOINtS field of magnetic storage systems, Frank E. Talke
HEAD OF GLObAL MARKEtING & SALES inkjet technology and interferometric instrumentation.
Rhein chemie has appointed Stefan Viezens the company’s Talke is an international authority in tribology and me-
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vision. search in data storage technology and the development of
Prior to joining rhein Chemie, Viezens worked in the instrumentation and new techniques for improving the stor-
metalworking fluid industry as head of sales for Shell Metal- age density in hard disk drives.
working Europe and Petrofer Chemicals. He also worked in In addition, he has authored or co-authored more than
the metalworking tooling industry, where he was sales direc- 200 archived publications and holds 11 U.S. patents. He
tor at Hoffmann Group/Perschmann. is a fellow of STLE, ASME and the Institute for Ethics and
Emerging Technologies. Talke has also been recognized with
HONORS & AWARDS numerous awards including the Max Planck Award for Inter-
national Cooperation, induction to the National Academy of
tALKE AWARDED tRIbOLOGY GOLD MEDAL Engineering (1999), the First Seagate/ASME Tribology Award
STLE-member professor Frank E. talke of the University of (2002), Honorary doctorate from the Technical University of
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NEWSMAKERS
Munich, Germany (2005), Senior Humboldt research Prize John K. duchowski with HY-
(2007), ASME medal (2008), induction into Acatech, the dAC Filtertechnik GmbH in
German National Academy of Engineering (2009) and the Germany. “More important,
ASME Mayo d. Hersey Award (2010). we have lost a warm, passion-
ate and dear friend on whom
IN MEMORIAM we could always depend. His
outstanding contributions,
WALDEMAR DMOcHOWSKI: ‘FOREVER WItH US’ spirit, warm smile and sense
with great sadness STLE reports the passing of long-time of humor will remain forever
member and active volunteer Waldemar M. Dmochowski. with us.” Waldemar M. Dmochowski
dr. dmochowski, or waldek as he
was best known to his many friends, ZZZQFHHGFRP
spent most of his career at the National
research Center of Canada, most re-
cently in Ottawa. He held numerous
posts at the center, including his last
8E£RESCOURING
title, Program Manager, Mechanical THEGLOBEFOR
Components.
His research activities concentrated
THEMOSTAFFORDABLE
on various effects of design, lubrica-
tion and contamination control of hy-
ANDRELIABLE
drodynamic bearings where he reached CASTORPRODUCTS
an internationally recognized level of
expertise in the experimentation and
modeling of various tribological phe-
nomena. In particular, he made sig-
nificant contributions to the physical
understanding of the dynamic and
thermal phenomena in these systems.
dmochowski’s long list of achieve-
ments has been recognized by national
and international academic and indus-
trial partners and was accentuated by
the invitation to be a visiting fellow
at the delft University of Technology
(1980-1981), a visiting professor at the
University of British Columbia (1989)
and a visiting professor at the Univer-
sity of Poitiers (2003). His knowledge
and experience have been instrumental
in solving design and field operational
problems in numerous applications.
dmochowski joined STLE in 1994
and for many years represented the so- 1&HHG·VFRPPLWPHQWWRÀQGLQJUHOLDEOHDQGDIIRUGDEOHSURGXFWV
ciety on the Organizing Committee of KDVEHHQXQZDYHULQJ0RUHDQGPRUHEXVLQHVVHVDUHÀQGLQJRXW
the International Joint Tribology Con- ZKDWRWKHUVKDYHNQRZQDOODORQJ²1&HHGFDUHVDERXWWKHTXDOLW\
RISURGXFWLWVHOOVDQGEDFNVWKDWXSZLWKWKHWHFKQLFDOH[SHUWLVHWR
ference. He also was an associate editor
EHDQDW\RXUVLGHFROODERUDWRU
of Tribology Transactions, STLE’s peer-
reviewed journal. /HDUQPRUHDERXWKRZHVWHUVRI6HEDFLF$FLG
“we’ve lost one of the most tal- DQGFDVWRURLOGHULYDWLYHVFDQKHOS\RXU
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ented, innovative and highly accom-
&KHUU\DWFKHP#QFHHGFRP
plished scientists in the field of tribol-
ogy,” said his friend and colleague dr.

Mark Your Calendar!
2011 International
Joint Tribology Conference
Oct. 24-26, 2011
Marriott Los Angeles Downtown, Los Angeles, California (USA)
Please join hundreds of your colleagues for a

unique event focusing on cutting-edge research in Coming soon: Information on how to
the multidisciplinary field of tribology. Technical submit your abstracts for consideration at
presenters are from more than 20 nations, including the conference. Deadline: March 14, 2011.
the U.S., U.K., Israel, Taiwan, Canada, India, Pakistan,
Japan, China, Poland, Singapore, South Korea, Czech The conference is soliciting papers in
Republic, Switzerland, Mexico and the Netherlands. tribology areas that include:
The IJTC is a unique conference for tribology • Nanotribology

thought-leaders looking to: • Biotribology
• Hear some 200 technical presentations • Engineered Surfaces
• Network with tribology’s top professionals • Boundary Lubrication
• Preview cutting-edge research • Fluid Film Lubrication
• Discover where lubrication technology is heading • Machine Components Tribology
• Contact Mechanics
For more information please contact:
Merle Hedland at 630-323-7212 • Magnetic Storage Tribology Track
mheldand@stle.org and Symposium
• Manufacturing/Metalworking Tribology
Co-sponsored by: • Wind Energy Tribology
• Student Posters
www.asme.org www.stle.org
LosAngeles
Los Angeles Attractions: • Disneyland • Universal Studios Hollywood • Knott’s Berry Farm • Los Angeles Zoo
• Whale Watching • Hollywood Walk of Fame • Universal City Walk • Rodeo Drive Shopping (Beverly Hills) • Santa Monica Pier
SOUNdING BOArd
What was the stupidest thing you ever

heard anyone say about lubrication?
Trying to judge which of our reader-submitted comments
wins the blue ribbon for foolishness is a daunting task.
Is it the mildly amusing “I know how good the oil is
by feeling it” or the truly frightening “changing oil is
unnecessary and was devised by oil companies to
get rich?” While STLE members have spent lifetimes
advocating for safe, effective and environmentally
protective lubrication practices, a frightening lack of
knowledge is still far too prevalent in many plants and
facilities. The comments that follow are a lubrication
engineer’s nightmare and a literal recipe for disaster—
and it gets worse. Next month our readers reveal the
most uninformed and potentially dangerous lubrication
practices they’ve observed in workplaces around the world.
“Oil is oil, it doesn’t matter what I “There is no real difference in prod-

put in, as long as there is enough.” uct technology.”
Said by the head mechanic at a large
metropolitan bus fleet after there were “The heavier the oil, the better
six engine failures in a month. lubricant it is.”
“The only oil analysis test that one “We have been using the cheap stuff
needs is viscosity, because that will (Aw 32) and we were having prob-
tell you whether or not the oil is good lems, so we moved to the premium oil
or bad.” (Aw 68).”
“I never liked this newfangled “The more grease the better.”

synthetic oil to begin with. I’d much “Lubrication is not necessary in
rather stay with my old, reliable min- “We can’t shut the line down to fix machining operations.” True but only
eral oil-based product!” that right now” or “it can wait.” re- in limited applications and the HSE
sult: Breakdown that caused the lines risks of atomizing machined metal is
“Every night I extract part of my to be down anyway. dangerous.
MwF from sump and add water to
replenish sump volume.” “You mean water-contaminated oil is “Oil? You never have to change it.”
bad for machinery lubrication?”
“Oil’s cheap,” meaning they as- “All lubricants are the same and
sumed that changing oil upon learn- “It is impossible to improve main- they can be mixed in the machine as
ing of an abnormal finding in an oil tenance costs without spending a lot long as they are of the same viscosity.”
analysis would help or completely of money we don’t have.”
resolve the problem, regardless of its “I change my motor oil when the oil
nature. “You don’t need a filter!” pressure light goes on.”

Hearing someone refer to an oil by “Why buy a more expensive one? All “I won’t use anything but red
the micron rating of the filter when it lubricants are the same.” grease.”
was filtered: “I need a 25-micron oil.”
“The viscosity of engine oil is a “It’s more reliable to lubricate
“They wouldn’t sell it if it wasn’t measure of its effectiveness. The more manually than by installing an
good enough.” viscous the better.” automatic lubrication system.”
“If properly maintained, a coolant I was speaking to a maintenance “It’s easy, anyone can do it and
system never needs to be recharged.” supervisor about using one of our use anything.”
This was the claim of one of our cus- fire-resistant hydraulic fluids in a
tomers when tooling problems started die-casting operation. His comment It amuses me to see people put
in a line that had been using the same was that Fr fluids are too costly and their fingers into oil, rub their
charge of coolant for more than nine a waste of money, because using them fingers together and say, “It
years. didn’t matter since the surface tem- doesn’t feel dirty.”
peratures were so hot that anything
“We don’t service them until they would combust! The unbelievable “One type of lubricant for
break. If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” part is that he was horribly disfigured all types of application.”
facially and on his hands, including
“Oil is oil, grease is grease. If you missing fingers, due to a plant fire! “If I can’t see the
change it often enough or grease it grease, it wasn’t done.”
often enough, you will never have a “How dangerous is this stuff? will
lubrication failure.” we have to do any special air quality “I’ll save money by using
monitoring?” the cheapest oil I can find.”
“As long as a machine has some oil,
it will carry on working.” While lubricating bearings in a 250- Salesman quote: “Just dilute it
hp, overhung 2,000-rpm blower with further. It will be fine.” In reference to
“Oil never goes bad, that’s just a a 72-inch wheel, a tech was asked using a highly sulfurized coolant on
myth. Change the filter every now how much and what kind of grease brass.
and then and it will last forever.” was being administered. His answer:
(Spoken by a decision-making person “does it matter?” Yes, he was serious. “I change the oil often enough, so I
speaking of our rolling stock and don’t care much about the quality.”
diesel pumps.) “Never change the lubricant, just
keep adding product or mix product.” “As long as it is running, don’t
“It’ll be OK, the filters will catch it.” worry about it.”
I hear that statement all the time and “Bearing clearance is 6 mil, so why
I cringe. are you worried about filters?” From a General attitude I have observed
maintenance manager. in 30 years: “we’ll change lubricants,
practices or maintenance procedures
“All lubricants are interchangeable when it breaks.”
and contain the same stuff−the only
difference is price.” “We don’t worry about preventive
maintenance.”
“As long as the bearings have oil in
them, the compressor should run!” “In the choice of oil viscosity, envi-
ronmental conditions plays no part.”
The stupidest thing I have ever
seen was the two-finger grease test. I
was presenting a grease to use in elec-
Editor’s Note: Sounding Board is based on
tric motor bearings. The customer put
an e-mail survey of 7,200 TLT readers. Views
a dab between his index fingers and expressed are those of the respondents and
pulled them apart. He then exclaimed do not reflect the opinions of the Society of
that this “grease was too thin, it’s not Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers. STLE
does not vouch for the technical accuracy of
as thick as the red stuff we use.” They
opinions expressed in Sounding Board, nor
are still losing motor bearings to this does inclusion of a comment represent an
day. endorsement of the technology by STLE.

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NEW PAtENtED tEcHNOLOGY PROVIDES cLEAN OIL SAMPLES
Analysts Inc. introduces its new SureSample bottle. The SureSample uti-
lizes a patented vacuum technology that eliminates the need for sample pumps
or baggies. Simply affix the
desired length of tubing
to the SureSample bottle
and insert into an oil res-
ervoir or sample port—and
the bottle will do the rest.
The vacuum technology al-
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ples with ISO VG 320. The
DIGItAL MANOMEtER WItH SureSample ensures easy
SOFtWARE FOR tEStING OF and clean samples every
OXIDAtION StAbILItY time.
AMEtEK Petrolab co. introduces
the new Petrotest PA5 digital ma- Analysts Inc.
nometer, which is now available with Hoffman Estates, Ill.
the PetroNet software from Petrotest In- (800) 222-0071
struments. The Petrotest PA5 manometer www.analystsinc.com
offers users a proprietary data logging
and management solution for determin-
ing the oxidation stability of fuels, lu-
bricants and oils according to various VANtON tHERMOPLAStIc SUMP PUMP
standards including ASTM D525, ISO 7536, Vanton introduces the SUMP-GARD Model SGK PY800SP thermoplastic
ASTM D942, D2112 and D4742. Among the pump, which features a close-coupled, cantilevered shaft that reduces headroom
unique features of the Petrotest PA5 ma- requirements and eliminates immersed bearings. Hard coupling of the drive shaft
nometer is its ability to simultaneously to the motor shaft reduces height above the mounting plate by about 50%, allow-
record temperatures along with pressure ing the pump to fit in restricted areas commonly encountered in replacement and
and time data. For continuous real-time OEM applications, while lowering the center of gravity. The cantilevered, large
monitoring of bath temperatures, the diameter shaft eliminates the need for immersed bearings prone to fail in caustic,
Pt1000 with a resolution of 0.1 C and a acidic and abrasive applications, and al-
range of up to 200 C is recommended. For lows run-dry operation with no damage to
ASTM D525/ISO 7536, PetroNet software the pump. All wetted components, includ-
provides a temperature correction algo- ing a heavy wall shaft sleeve, are molded
rithm. For fuels oxidation and other ASTM of solid polypropylene, PVDF or CPVC,
oxidation tests, the PA5 offers predefined eliminating corrosion associated with
routines and settings to ensure that pumps constructed of stainless steel and
tests are conducted according to interna- high alloys, as well as delamination and
tional standards. In addition, when using wicking related to plastic-lined and fiber-
the professional version, the test stop glass pumps. Since all wetted surfaces are
can be programmed based on criteria like chemically inert, the pump is also rated
elapsed time, pressure drop or percent- for handling of reagent grade chemicals,
age of pressure drop. high purity water and other fluids that
must remain free of contamination.
AMEtEK Petrolab co.
Broken Arrow, Okla. Vanton Pump & Equipment corp.
(918) 459-7170 Hillside, N.J.
www.petrolab.com (918) 459-7170
www.vanton.com

Send us your new product news with color photos to:
TLT Magazine, Attn: Karl Phipps, 840 Busse Highway,
Park Ridge, IL 60068, kphipps@stle.org
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Call for
Student
PoSterS
2011 STLE AnnuAL MEETing & ExhibiTion
The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers The criteria for poster submissions
(STLE) is seeking student posters for the 66th Annual are as follows:
Meeting & Exhibition, to be held at the Hilton Atlanta
• The poster must present original work by the
in Atlanta, Ga., May 15-19, 2011.
student during the 2010-2011 academic year.
The event organizers are inviting students from all • The student may submit only one poster as the
areas of tribology research to participate in a special lead author.
session dedicated to student posters. The posters • As the lead author of the poster, the student
must deal with an aspect of tribology research that should have performed the major portion of the
can be translated into friction, wear and lubrication. work.
Student poster research topics can be co-authored
• Lead authors must be full-time graduate or
by faculty and other researchers but only students
undergraduate students registered during the
may exhibit their posters and discuss their work
2010-2011 academic year.
at the session. The posters will be judged by a
conference committee, and awards will be given • Posters can be no larger than 48 x 48 inches.
to the best nine posters. • The author must be present at the poster display
during the judging session on Monday afternoon,
STLE is now accepting abstracts for posters at May 16 and during scheduled conference breaks
www.stle.org. The deadline for abstract submissions on Tuesday, May 17 and Wednesday, May 18.
is March 15, 2011. Notification of acceptance will be
sent to students shortly after this date.
Three awards will be given

in each of the following categories:
Platinum: superior scientific and presentation
quality ($150 prize)
Gold: good technical quality ($100 prize)
Silver: overall quality worthy to be
encouraged ($50 prize)
For additional questions about

the student poster session,
please contact Christie Barbosa,
christie.barbosa@u.northwestern.edu.
ATLAnTA, gEorgiA (uSA)

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perkinElmer 59 Joyce Tyler (408) 835-2855 joyce.tyler@perkinelmer.com www.perkinelmer.com
pilot chemical 48 Tom McAlpin (513) 326-0636 tjmcalpin@pilotchemical.com www.pilotchemical.com

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Tribology Transactions
Review
A bimonthly look at tribology’s leading-edge journal
The following published papers are Han, J., Fang, L., Sun, J. and Ge, S., of the Friction and Wear of Electrified
Hydrodynamic Lubrication of Micro- Copper Against Copper Alloy under
featured in the latest issue of STLE
dimple Textured Surface using Three- Dry or Moist Conditions, T53, (6), pp.
Tribology Transactions (Vol. 53, Dimensional CFD, T53, (6), pp. 927-932.
No.6/November-December 2010): 860-870.
Shangguan, b., Zhang, Y., Xing, J.,
chen, W., Gao, Y., Wang, Y. and Li, Fesanghary, M. and Khonsari, M.M., Sun, L. and chen, Y., Comparative
H., Tribological Behavior of Si3N4-hBN On Self-Adaptive Surface Grooves, T53, Study on Wear Behaviors of Metal-
Ceramic Materials without Lubrication (6), pp. 871-880. Impregnated Carbon Material and C/C
under Different Test Modes, T53, (6), Composite under Electrical Sliding,
pp. 787-798. Mihut, D.M., Aouadi, S.M. and T53, (6), pp. 933-938.
Rohde, S.L., Assessing Nanotribologi-
Minet, c., brunètiere, N., tournerie, cal Performance and Surface Energies of Gullac, b. and Akalin, O., Frictional
b. and Fribourg, D., Analysis and Inconel-ZrN, Cr-ZrN, Nb-ZrN, and ZrN Characteristics of IF-WS2 Nanopar-
Modeling of the Topography of Mechan- Thin Films, T53, (6), pp. 881-887. ticles in Simulated Engine Conditions,
ical Seal Faces, T53, (6), pp. 799- T53, (6), pp. 939-947.
815. Wei, M.X., Wang, S.Q., cui, X.H. and
chen, K.M., Characteristics of Extru- Shyu, S.-H., Li, F., Jeng, Y.-R., Lee,
Zhao, H., Morina, A., Neville, A., sive Wear and Transition of Wear W.-R. and Hsieh, S.-J., THD Effects of
Durham, J. and Vickerman, R., Mechanisms in Elevated-Temperature Static Performance Characteristics of
Anti-Shudder Properties of ATFs—An Wear of a Carbon Steel, T53, (6), pp. Infinitely Wide Turbulent Journal
Investigation into Friction Modifying 888-896. Bearings, T53, (6), pp. 948-956.
Mechanisms using VSFT and SAE No. 2
Tests, T53, (6), pp. 816-830. Wan, c. and Jian, c., Nonlinear Pouly, F., changenet, c., Ville, F.,
Simulation of Rotordynamics Coupled Velex, P. and Damiens, b., Power
Van Zoelen, M.t., Venner, c.H. and with Journal and Thrust Bearing Loss Predictions in High-Speed Rolling
Lugt, P.M., The Prediction of Contact Dynamics under Nonlinear Suspension, Element Bearings using Thermal
Pressure-Induced Film Thickness Decay T53, (6), pp. 897-908. Networks, T53, (6), pp. 957-967.
in Starved Lubricated Rolling Bearings,
T53, (6), pp. 831-841. Fujiwara, H., Kobayashi, t., Kawase,
t. and Yamauchi, K., Optimized Online access to tribology transactions
available free to StLE members!
Van Der Heide, E., Lossie, c.M., Van Logarithmic Roller Crowning Design of
STLE has reached an agreement with
bommel, K.J.c., Reinders, S.A.F. and Cylindrical Roller Bearings and Its journal publisher partner Taylor & Francis
Lenting, H.b.M., Experimental Experimental Demonstration, T53, (6), to provide full access for all STLE mem-
Investigation of a Polymer Coating in pp. 909-916. bers to Tribology Transactions. This in-
cludes the current volume plus a full
Sliding Contact with Skin-Equivalent searchable archive of 53 years worth of
Silicone Rubber in an Aqueous Environ- Farhat, Z.N. and Zhang, c., The Role tribology research. downloads of the full
ment, T53, (6), pp. 842-847. of Reversible Martensitic Transforma- papers are free and available 24/7.
To access the journal, log on to the
tion in the Wear Process of TiNi Shape Members Only section of the STLE web
Houpert, L., CAGEDYN: A Contribu- Memory Alloy, T53, (6), pp. 917-926. site (www.stle.org) and enter your five-
tion to Roller Bearing Dynamic digit membership Id and password, then
click the menu button on the left column
Calculations. Part III: Experimental Shangguan, b., Zhang, Y.-Z., Xing, labeled “Tribology Transactions Journal.”
Validation, T53, (6), pp. 848-859. J.-D., Sun, L.-M. and chen, Y., Study

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66th STLE Annual Meeting & Exhibition
Join your peers for five days of technical & professional development!
May 15-19, 2011
Hilton Atlanta
Atlanta, Georgia (USA)
When it comes to advancing your career

and upgrading your technical knowledge,
STLE’s Annual Meeting & Exhibition is a
unique event in the lubricant industry.
1,200 of your peers in the lubricants

community are expected to participate in
STLE’s 66th Annual Meeting & Exhibition.
Please join us in Atlanta for a unique
experience that blends the best of industry
education, technical training, professional
certification and new technologies.
• 300 Technical Presentations

• 10 Industry-specific Education Courses
• 70-exhibitor Trade Show
• Commercial Marketing Forum
• Networking
• New Products
• Professional Certification
• Peer Recognition
• Emerging Technologies
• Student Posters
• Industry Planning
Visit www.stle.org for regular program updates and to register.
Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers • Phone: 847-825-5536 • Fax: 847-825-1456 • info@stle.org • www.stle.org
STLE LOCAL SECTION MEETING CALENDAR
SECTIONS ARE A VALUABLE MEMBERSHIP BENEFIT!

When you join STLE, you are automatically part of your local section at
no additional charge. STLE sections hold regular local education meet-
ings and host networking and social events. Thus, the benefits of be-
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additional information and updated listings, Log on to www.stle.org.
ZLWK.HQ+RSH3K'
JANUARY
27 STLE Oklahoma Section: “Gear Lubrication and Failure Analy-
sis, Gear Manufacturing,” (Speaker: Dr. Phil Terry, Lufkin Indus- Q: Environmentally safe hydraulic
fluids are becoming highly
desirable in the industry. What are the
tries) 5 p.m.-9 p.m., Meridian Technology Center, 1312 South Sangre
advantages of using PAOs in these
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Cell: (405) 320-2662, danny@steagalloil.com.
PAOs demonstrate advantages in three
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FEBRUARY PAO Advantages
8 STLE Cincinnati Section: “Water/Glycol FR Hydraulics,” (Speak- Evaporative Loss
PAO2
F
PAO2.5
G
PAO4
E
PAO2/4 Rapeseed
G
er: TBD) 5 p.m.-9 p.m., Montgomery Inn, 9440 Montgomery Road, Flash Point G E E G F
Biodegradability E E G E E
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kostusa.com. Hydrolytic Stability E E E E P
E = Excellent G = Good F = Fair P = Poor
22 STLE Alberta Section: “Varnish and Varnish Control,” (Speak- Aviation hydraulics require the use of PAOs
because of the inherently high flash/fire points and
er: Peter Dufresne, EPT Inc.) 6 p.m.-9 p.m., Cedar Park Inn, 5115-103 low volatility. This resistance to fire and flame
Street, Edmonton, AB, Canada. Contact: Stephanie Pepin (708) 468- propagation improves the margin of safety in the
3659, stefanie.e.pepin@essco.ca, for meeting reservations. event of a hydraulic leak. Our unique PAO 2.5cSt
further improves flash/fire points by as much as
10% over other commercial polyalphaolefins. For
24 STLE Oklahoma Section: “Contamination Control” (Speaker: other applications, PAO’s safe and non-toxic nature
allows it to be used where incidental food contact
Ed Laswell, Lubrication Engineers) 5 p.m.-9 p.m., Meridian Technol- certification or kosher approval is necessary.
ogy Center, 1312 South Sangre Road, Stillwater, Okla. Contact Danny Lower viscosity PAOs have a unique property of
M. Steagall, (800) 729-6042, Cell: (405) 320-2662, danny@steagal- biodegradability. Since this can be achieved without
sacrificing hydrolytic stability, the finished lubricant
loil.com. will maintain superior properties over an extended
period of time, resulting in less waste.
With regard to performance, PAOs are able to
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MARCH as well as the low temperature benefits they are
15 STLE Cincinnati Section: “Education program” (Location: known for.
These advantages show that PAOs address
TBD) 5 p.m.-9 p.m., For more information, contact: Tony Lebarge, problems other fluids cannot. Our knowledge and
(513) 492-5559, tlebarge@kostusa.com. experience in this area allows us to help you meet
your formulation challenges.
21 STLE Alberta Section: “2011 Tier 4 Emission Standards, Im-

plications on Fuels and Lubricants,” (Speaker: TBD), Lloydminster,
AB, Canada. For more information: e-mail STLEAlberta@ufa.com.
24 STLE Oklahoma Section: “Fuels Additives” (Speaker: Michael

Belluomo, BG Products) 5 p.m.-9 p.m., Meridian Technology Center,
1312 South Sangre Road, Stillwater, Okla. Contact Danny M. Steagall,
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ON CONdITION MONITOrING
Jack Poley
Oil analysis in the

real world: Part VII
Clean oil thoroughly to prevent hydraulic system failures.
h ydraulic systems are arguably the most sensitive of all

oil-wetted systems in terms of the necessity for good
contamination control. Unlike gearsets, which frequently
operate without benefit of online filtration, hydraulic sys-
tems virtually depend on sufficiently clean lubricants to per-
form properly.
cLEANLINESS OF HYDRAULIc SYStEMS

The reason cleanliness is so important is because clearances
for moving parts (spools, cylinder rods, axial pistons, etc.)
are at ten-thousandths of an inch tolerances. Particles enter-
ing such clearances can wreak havoc and quickly render a
system unable to function properly, posing both production
loss and safety hazard possibilities.
In contrast to most gearsets, hydraulic systems feature
the most sophisticated filtration found on a multicomponent
machine such as an earth-moving machine. In a plant, the
component might be a stamping or molding machine.
The cleanliness of a hydraulic or similar system, in oil
analysis terms, is measured via the lube’s particle count (PC).
The de facto PC analysis features results at six particle diam-
eter size ranges: 4µ, 6µ, 14µ, 21µ, 38µ and 70µ. Figure 1 is a
typical table covering industry-standard cleanliness ranges
and terminology based on ISO 4406 (1999). This table ap-
plies to all six ranges but is referenced primarily for the three Figure 1 | ISo cleanliness code Table

Hydraulic systems are arguably the most sensitive of all oil-wetted
systems in terms of the necessity for good contamination control.
smaller particle chord (diameter) sizes of 4µ, 6µ and 14µ, • If high Si is shown in SP results, the preponderance of
respectively. The ISO Cleanliness Code consists of three excessive particles should probably be suspected to be
numbers corresponding to the particles concentrations for abrasives, dirt, sand, etc. Oil handling and storage
those three sizes, as shown below: should be on the list of considerations as to cause
along with compromised filters and breathers
and, where applicable, sealing gaskets. Be
thorough.
• If low Si is shown in SP, this unfortunately

does not rule out abrasives, as 3µ-5µ particles
and greater are not readily detected by SP with
consistency. Such particles can cause untold
Following are some recommended test considerations: wear damage as they are able to pass into critical clear-
ances. while being wary of abrasives, one must also
Particle counting. In a previous column, we covered PC consider the possibility of Si-based gaskets and o-rings
to a reasonable extent, but it bears special mention and em- contributing particles as they are compromised and
phasis with reference to hydraulics. while I’m usually quick crumble.
to recommend spectrometric metals analysis (SP) as the pri-
mary or key test in a suite of tests for most component types, Finally when reviewing a PC result, there is no standard
I would choose PC over SP when a sophisticated hydraulic for the three larger particle sizes routinely determined in a
system (i.e., axial-piston pump or radial-piston pump) is be- PC. It is important to treat excessive amounts (as statistically
ing monitored. This is because I would expect contamina- determined) with some degree of importance. Most of the
tion to precede abnormal wear more often than not in such time, particularly when the ISO Cleanliness Level is reason-
systems and thus would want as much early warning as pos- able, larger particles represent contamination induced by
sible. In a simple gear hydraulic system, I would consider SP carelessness, e.g., unclean transfer vessels and piping, open
and PC equals as first-call tests, but I would defer to anyone drums of fresh oil and similar events.
having more specific information in a given situation. Of It is also good practice to inspect newly delivered oils for
course, this debate should stay at the hypothetical level be- excessive particulates, as there is no guarantee (unless it’s by
cause one should be employing both tests routinely for all contract with the vendor) that a specific cleanliness level ex-
hydraulic systems. ists at delivery. For this reason, many operations routinely
Summing up the efficacy of PC testing for hydraulic sys- test stored oils for particulates prior to placing them into ser-
tems, dirty oil is considered to be the primary cause of hy- vice.
draulic system failures, whether the failure is valve malfunc- I hope one has enough input herein to fully appreciate
tion/sticking or excessive abrasive wear and subsequent the necessity of employing particle counting for hydraulic
fatigue or loss of function. PC testing is, therefore, impera- systems and the oil placed therein. Hydraulics are the excep-
tive for maximum life and value of the machine. tions that justify PC as the key test, even over SP. To reiterate,
Metals analysis, particular for wear elements, is obviously however, both tests are truly essential.
a means of assessing damage more specifically (PC does not
identify the compositional aspect of particles, only that they FDMPLUS, PQ or DRF Analysis (Ferrous Debris Inspec-
exist in progressive size ranges). If the wear level or rate is tion). Some would contend this is overkill if one is monitor-
sufficiently low (acceptable), it may be that flushing the sys- ing PC, backed by SP. That argument is sustainable in a num-
tem or using offline filtration (sometimes called portable or ber of situations, but it must be recalled that because PC is
kidney filtration) can rid the lube of excessive particles, mit- able to inspect for particle sizes beyond that of SP there is a
igating the abnormal amounts of metal, thereafter. gap in vetting such particles effectively—that is, one cannot
If one is able to achieve that effect, the essential parallel be sure if the particles are predominantly wear or simply
piece of maintenance to perform is to determine the mecha- contamination, which is an important differentiation.
nism by which the particles got into the system and make Such ferrous debris inspection instruments cover the gap
necessary repairs or adjustments to prevent recurrence. In left by SP and, while only addressing Fe (iron) particles they
assessing contamination scenarios, SP and PC at times can are addressing the primary wear metal in virtually any sys-
work together: tem, including a hydraulic circuit.

Fourier transform Infrared Spectroscopy. FTIr has
value in terms of its practical application involving gearsets.
However, FTIr is probably not as great a player in hydraulic
system lubes as it is in gearsets or engines, mostly because
one rarely sees abnormal oxidation values (against refer-
ence).
Acid number (tAN). As with gearsets, the recommenda-

tion is much the same. If one finds little or no movement in
the test data over time, it may well be unnecessary. Probably
the best approach is to extract the AN from FTIr, if available,
rather than incur the expense of an added test setup. Not
withstanding FTIr, ASTM d664 is the recommended formal
method.
Viscosity. Automatic.
I offer a compromise position on considering ferrous de- we have enough tests to propose the following test suite
bris inspection routinely, not only for hydraulic systems but for a hydraulic system:
any system of value. If the component is situated in a re-
mote venue that cannot be readily visited at will (e.g., unat- • Particle count: The key test for hydraulics, hopefully
tended pipeline stations, offshore drilling units, wind tur- identifying contamination before it can cause wear or
bines remotely sited, etc.), this type of scenario justifies the other trauma.
added testing support in order to be able to make a decision
• Spectrometric metals: Mandatory and to assist in
quickly.
vetting the PC results.
Now if sensors are employed as well, such instruments
are sufficiently small and inexpensive enough to be placed • Ferrous Debris Monitoring (fdMplus, PQ, DRF): Con-
on site for exceptional insight immediately after a sample has sider the remoteness of the machine and its rCM im-
been secured out of turn based on a sensor warning. In some portance (rating) to one’s operation.
instances, this will result in failure prevention. Final assess-
• Viscosity (usually 40 c): Mandatory.
ment or justification can be made by performing a proper
reliability Centered Maintenance (rCM) study. • Water (Karl Fischer preferred vs. crackle, FtIR,
etc.): One should always know if water’s there, so do
Water. In my opinion, the obsession with determining something. Choose the method and testing sequence,
water concentration is unjustified, particularly when it if any, based on asset criticality and sensitivity to wa-
comes to significant figures in the reported values. If water ter.
content needs to be precisely known, I would recommend
• Oxidation (FtIR): Usually via FTIr for mineral lubes.
utilizing an online sensor.
If AN is achievable, as well, it is a welcome addition.
regardless it is surely useful to assess that water is or isn’t
water screening can also be satisfied properly.
in the system and, if so, to deal with it since hydraulic sys-
tems do not operate well in an aqueous-infested environ- • AN (AStM D664 or FtIR): May be optional. If available
ment. Karl Fischer is the standard for water monitoring of free from FTIr, that’s plenty good enough.
hydraulic systems. I admonish, per usual: Be clever and con-
• Micropatch or Analytical Ferrography: Invoked as
sistent about securing the sample and be diligent about se-
appropriate for decision-making as to a teardown for
curing reasonably valid aliquots for testing in the laboratory.
wear or other trauma inspection, when above tests,
Following those two advisories, one should know if water is
local diagnostics and observation indicate accordingly.
present or not and, if so, whether the concentration is small,
medium or large. If the amount is relatively small (<500
ppm), there may be some technical fix to perform. If it’s
>1,000 ppm, there may be both technical and human error Jack Poley is managing partner of Condition
issues. If it’s >5,000 ppm, the sample may be unrepresenta- Monitoring International (CMI), Miami,
tive or oil handling and care-taking is wanting. (All of this consultants in fluid analysis. You can reach
with the assumption that the laboratory has taken its proper him at jpoley@conditionmonitoringintl.
precautions to get as representative a test sample as possi- com. For more information about CMI, visit
ble). www.conditionmonitoringintl.com.

People are talking about
STLE EDUCATION
90%—That’s the percent of industry
professionals who gave a positive rating
to education courses at STLE’s 2010 Annual
Meeting in Las Vegas. Here’s what survey
respondents have to say about the value
of education at STLE.
■ STLE’s education courses are the best in the industry and a great value.
■ The education courses at STLE are a must because they improve your
ability to do your job better and add to the value of your organization.
THE 2011 LINEUP
■ STLE education is an excellent opportunity to improve one’s technical
STLE’s 2011 Annual Meeting & Exhibition is
background and gain a better understanding of the lubricants industry.
May 15-19 at the Hilton Atlanta in Atlanta, Ga.
The education course lineup includes:
■ The education content at STLE alone justifies my attendance—and
the business networking is worth 10 times that! • Advanced Lubrication 301: Advanced
Lubrication and Theory
■ There’s no better meeting that offers the combination of technical
learning and business networking. • Basic Lubrication 101: Fundamentals of
Lubrication
■ Great instructors—extremely knowledgeable. I learned a lot! • Basic Lubrication 102: Components &
Applications
■ Sometimes it is hard to justify the expense of attending an industry
meeting. But with STLE, the cost of not attending might be greater. • Biofuels and Lubes (new!)
• Condition Monitoring 150 – Overview (new!)
■ STLE is the premier education event for the lubricant industry
and a ‘must attend’ for those seriously involved with lubricants. • Hydraulics: Basic Fuels & Applications
• Metalworking Fluids – Hot Topics (new!)
■ Whether you’re involved in the technical side of the business,
marketing or sales, STLE is a great learning experience for young • NLGI Basic Grease
scientists starting their careers in the lubrication field. • Synthetic Lubricants 203: Non-petroleum
Fluids and their Uses
■ The education at STLE’s Annual Meeting is value for the money.
• Synthetic Lubricants 204: Synthetic
Formulation and Applications
Watch www.stle.org for news and

registration information about the
2011 STLE Annual Meeting & Exhibition.
Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers

840 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068 • www.stle.org • P: 847-825-5536 • F: 847-825-1456 • info@stle.org
wOrLdwIdE
R. David Whitby
Efficient hydraulic fluids

Compressibility is still one of the most critically important factors.
h ydraulic fluids transmit power as a hydraulic system con-

verts mechanical energy into fluid energy and subsequently
to mechanical work. To achieve this conversion efficiently, hydrau-
while phosphate and vegetable-oil esters have compressibilities
similar to that of water. Polyalphaolefins are more compressible
than mineral oils. Water-glycol fluids are intermediate between
lic fluids need to be relatively incompressible. Hydraulic fluids mineral oils and water.
must also minimize wear, reduce friction, provide cooling and pre- Mineral oils are relatively incompressible, but volume reduc-
vent rust and corrosion, be compatible with system components tions can be approximately 0.5% for pressures ranging from 6,900
and help keep the system free of deposits. kPa (1,000 psi) up to 27,600 kPa (4,000 psi). Compressibility in-
Compressibility measures the rela- creases with pressure and temperature
tive change in volume of a fluid or solid and has significant effects on high-pres-
as a response to a change in pressure and sure fluid systems. Hydraulic oils typi-
is the reciprocal of the volume-elastic cally contain 6% to 10% of dissolved air,
modulus or bulk modulus of elasticity. which has no measurable effect on bulk
Bulk modulus defines the pressure in- modulus provided it stays in solution.
crease needed to cause a given relative Bulk modulus is an inherent property
decrease in volume. of the hydraulic fluid and, therefore, is
The bulk modulus of a fluid is nonlin- an inherent inefficiency of the hydraulic
ear. When the change in volume against system. Because compression of the fluid
pressure is plotted on a graph, the result requires energy at the input, which can-
is a curve rather than a straight line. Tan- The size and weight of a hydraulic system not be converted to useful work at the
gent bulk modulus relates to the slope of is critical when the importance of a low output, it is lost energy. The larger the
the curve at any specific point and is, bulk modulus becomes greater. system actuator and the faster the re-
therefore, the true rate of change in vol- quired response time, the higher the en-
ume at that specific pressure. ergy inefficiency due to bulk modulus.
Bulk modulus is further defined as isothermal, where the heat There are hydraulic system problems caused by low compress-
associated with compression is dissipated (constant temperature) ibility, including:
or isentropic. When the heat associated with compression is not
dissipated, both pressure and thermal expansion are considered. • Servo-valves fail to maintain static rigidity and experience ad-
Isentropic can be viewed as dynamic bulk modulus and isothermal verse effects in system amplification.
as static bulk modulus. The former is typically appropriate to mod-
ern, high-response hydraulic systems. • Loss in efficiency because volume reduction due to compress-
Hydraulic fluids need to have a very low compressibility. A low ibility cannot be recovered.
compressibility translates into a fast response time, resulting in a • Cavitation, which may cause metal fracture, corrosive fatigue
high-transmission velocity of pressure and low power loss. Hy- and stress corrosion.
draulic fluids with a high compressibility or low bulk modulus act
as dampening fluids. As a result, hydraulic fluids that contain en- It is normally desirable that compressibility should be as low
trained air, due either to poor air release or excessive foaming, are as possible, although an extremely high resistance to compress-
much less effective in transmitting power. ibility in a hydraulic fluid could actually be disadvantageous in
The size and weight of a hydraulic system is critical when the readily transmitting shock forces. However, the inherent elasticity
importance of a low bulk modulus becomes greater. Poor com- of the mechanical components comprising hydraulic systems has
pressibility requires increased line sizes and actuator cross-sec- the effect of increasing the absolute compressibility of the fluid to
tional areas to compensate for the lower stiffness of the fluid. a rather higher apparent value.
These increases also mean a larger volume of hydraulic fluid and
greater hydraulic system weight.
Different hydraulic fluids have different compressibilities. For David Whitby is chief executive of Pathmaster
example, naphthenic oils have a higher bulk modulus than paraf- Marketing Ltd. in Surrey, England. You can
finic oils. Water is slightly less compressible than mineral oil, contact him at pathmaster@dial.pipex.com.

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AN PUBLICATION | JANUARY 2011

Taking STLE global

Check out our digital TLT—sponsored by Münzing—at www.stle.org.

A veteran engineer with

* Extended abstracts written by winners of the Student Poster

WWW.STLE.ORG TRIBOLOGY & LUBRICATION TECHNOLOGY JANUARY 2011 • 1

Super-strong, ductile aluminum; Thermoplastic sump pump; DESIGN/PRODUCTION MANAGER

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Taking STLE global

W hile STLE is recognized as an international tribology orga-

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The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers is proud to

Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers

Toss leads to oil boom

W hiskey containers play

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T echnical education is nothing new for STLE. This is an organiza-

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TPS and VPS are trademarks of Arkema, Inc.

Super-strong, ductile aluminum

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Figure 2 | The foldamer assumes a favor-

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One-step biodiesel process

T he viability of biodiesel as an alternative fuel is dependent upon reducing the

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catalysts and reaction conditions.’ tion,” tLt, 64 (11), pp. 12–13.

2. socha, a. and sello, J. (2010), “efficient Conversion of

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A 3D Finite Element Model for

therefore, microstructure geometric features have a signifi-

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Performance and service that are

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A veteran engineer with experience in

TLT: Define fluid power and the role of

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TLT: What is the status of the fluid power industry

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Hydraulics: The Reservoir

I n previous articles, we have taken a look at a number of the com-

• The reservoir can perform

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erated contaminants, usually wear de-

Bob Gresham is STLE’s director

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• Properly staged sample collection port. a sample

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take center stage

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PRIMARY RESEARCH AREAS

3. reduce the size of components and systems while

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