Chapter 7

BILLINIAR FORMS AND QUADRATIC FORMS

§1. Billinear forms

Let V be a vector space over the field K.

1.1 Definition It is called billinear form over the vector space V an

application g: V × V → K, which satisfies the
conditions:
1) g(αx + βy,z) = α g(x,z) + β g(y,z)
2) g(x,αy + βz) = α g(x,y) + β g(x,z)
∀x , y , z ∈V and ∀α ,β ∈K .

In other words, a billinear form is an application g : V × V → K, in

both of arguments.
Example 1. Canonical scalar product on the vector space Rn
< , > : Rn × Rn → Rn, having the analytic expression <x,y> = x1y1 + x2y2 +
… xnyn in the canonical basis B = { e1,e2,…,en}, is a billinear form.
The set of billinear form defined over the vector space V forms a
vector space over K, with respect to the additive and multiplicative
operations of functions.

1.2 Definition A billinear form g: V × V → K is called

a)symmetrical if g(x,y) = g(y,x) , ∀x ,y ∈ V
b) skew symmetrical if g(x,y)= - g(y,x). ∀x ,y ∈ V.

Let be Vn a n-dimensional vector space , B = {e1,e2,…,en} a basis of

n

∑x e i i
the vector space Vn and two arbitrary vectors x = i =1 and yj =
n

∑y
j =1
j ej .

The expression of the billinear form of g, for the vectors x and y, will be
given by the relation:

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 n

∑x e ∑y ∑∑x y g ( e ,e )
n n n

je j
i i
i j i j
g(x,y)=g( i =1
, j =1 ) = i =1 j =1 .
(1.1)
From (1.1) results that a billinear form g is perfectly determined if its
values are known on the vector basis B .
Denoting aij = g(ei,ej), where i,j = 1,2,…,n, the expression (1.1) can
be written
n

g(x,y) = ∑a ij xi y j (1.2)
i , j =1

called the analytical expression of the billinear form g and the matrix A =
(aij) is called the matrix of the billinear form of g with respect to the basis
B.
If we denote X = ( x1 , x 2 ,...,x n ) and Y = ( y1 , y 2 ,...,y n ) then
t t

(1.2) can be written as a matrix as follows :

g(x,y) = tXAY (1.2)’

The correlation between any billinear form and a square matrix A, is

an isomorphism of vector spaces. Moreover, a symmetrical (skew
symmetrical) billinear form in a given basis of the vector space Vn, can be
associated with a symmetrical (skew symmetrical) matrix.

1.3 Theorem If Ω ∈ Mn ( K ) is the passing matrix from the basis B

to the basis B', in the vector space Vn and A, A' are the
associated matrices to the billinear g form with respect
to the considered bases, then
A' = tΩAΩ (1.3)

Proof. The expression of the billinear form g in the basis B' is given by
g(x,y) = tX′A′Y′. Using the coordinates’ transformation relations:
X= Ω tX, Y= Ω tY ; passing from the basis B to the basis B', we obtain
g(x,y) = t XAY =t(ΩX′)A(ΩY′) = tX(tΩAΩ)Y′,
and from it, by identification, we obtain the relation (1.3) .
From (1.3) results that rank A' = rank A, because the matrix Ω is
non-degenerated .
The rank of the matrix A defines the rank of the billinear form g.
This rank is invariable on base change. In these conditions, the notion of
non-degenerated (degenerated) billinear form is justified as being that

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billinear form g:V × V → K who’s associated matrix A is non-degenerated
(degenerated), with respect to a base B from the vector space V.

1.4 Definition. Let g : V × V → K be a symmetrical billinear form. The

set Ker g = {x ∈ V | g(x,y) = 0 , ∀y ∈ V} is called the
Kernel of the billinear form g . (1.4)

1.5 Proposition. The subset Ker g is a vector subspace of V .

Proof. For ∀x, y ∈ Ker g there is g(x,z) = 0, g(y,z) = 0 , ∀z ∈ V and for

∀ α ,β ∈ K we obtain g(αx + βy,z) = α g(x,z) + β g(y,z) = 0 , ∀z ∈ V ,

then αx + βy ∈ Ker g , meaning that the subset Ker g is a vector subspace.

1.6 Theorem. If g: V × V → K is a symmetrical billinear form, then

rank g + dim Ker g = n. (1.5)

Proof: Consider B = {e1,e2,…,en} a basis of the vector space Vn and A=(aij)

the matrix of the billinear form with respect to this basis.
n n

If x = ∑x i ei and y = ∑y j ej are any two vectors from Vn, then

i =1 j =1
n n n
 n 
g(x,y) = ∑∑a ijxiyj =
i =1 j =1
∑  ∑aij xi  yj .
j =1  i =1 

The relation x ∈ Ker g is true if and only if x ∈ Vn is one of solutions of the

linear and homogeneous equations system:
n

∑i =1
aij xi = 0 , j = 1,2,…,n , (1.6)

meaning that the kernel Ker g is the same as the set of solution for the
system (1.6) which is a vector subspace of dimension equal with the number
of secondary unknowns of the system. From rank g = rank A, we obtain
(1.5).

1.6 Consequence The symmetrical billinear form g is no degenerated if

and only if Ker g ={0}.

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 §2. Quadratic forms

2.1 Definition A map h: V → K, defined on a K vector space V, with

the property that a symmetrical billinear form g:V
× V → K exists, such that:
h(x) = g(x,x) , ∀x ∈ V . (2,1)

The symmetrical billinear form g which defines uniquely the

quadratic form h is called a polar form or a halved form associated to h .
If the quadratic form h is known then the associated polar form is
given by the following expression:
1
g(x,y) = [ h(x + y) – h(x) – h(y)] (2.2)
2
Example. The canonical scalar product defined on the arithmetical
space Rn uniquely defines the quadratic form
h(x) =< x,x > = ║x║2 , ∀x∈ R , n

which is the square of Euclidian norm.

Let us consider a finite dimensional vector space Vn, B={e1,e2,…,en} ,
n
one of its bases, and x = ∑x
i =1
i ei an arbitrary vector from Vn.

The analytical expression of the quadratic form h is given by

n n

h(x) = g(x,x) = ∑∑a

i =1 j =1
x x = tXAX,
ij i j (2.3)
where A = (aij), i,j = 1,2, …,n is the associated matrix of the symmetrical
billinear form g.
The matrix and the rank of the symmetrical billinear form g defines
the matrix, respectively the rank of the quadratic form h .

2.2 Definition The vectors x,y ∈ V are called orthogonal to the

symmetrical billinear form g (or to the quadratic form
h) if g(x,y) = 0 .

If U ⊂ Vn is a vector subspace of Vn, then the set U┴ = { y ∈ Vn│

g(x,y) = 0 , ∀x ∈ U } is a vector subspace of V, called the orthogonal
complement of U . Moreover, if g is non-degenerated on the subspace U of
the finite dimensional space Vn then, U ⊕U┴ =Vn .

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 The set U ⊂ V is called orthogonal with respect to the symmetrical
billinear form g if any two vectors of the set U are orthogonal, meaning
g(x,y) = 0 ∀x,y ∈ U, where x ≠ y .
If the subset B ={e1,e2,…,en} ⊂ Vn is an orthogonal base of the vector
space Vn, with respect to g, then the matrix of the billinear form g is a
diagonal matrix. Indeed, aij = g(ei,ej) = 0, ∀i ≠ j.
In this case, the analytical expression of the symmetrical billinear
form g is:
n
g(x,y) = ∑ i =1
aii xi yi (1.10)

and the analytical expression of the quadratic form h is given by

n
h(x) = ∑ i =1
aii xi2 (1.11)
The expressions (1.10) and (1.11) are called canonical forms.

§3. The reduction of the expression of the quadratic forms to

the canonical form

Let K be a vector space, h: Vn → K a quadratic form on Vn and A

the symmetrical matrix which represents the quadratic form h with respect
to the basis B ⊂ Vn. The analytical expression of the quadratic form h in
this basis is:
n

h(x)= ∑a x x
i , j =1
ij i j or using matrices h(x) = tXAX (3.1)

If we change the base of the vector space Vn, the quadratic form h is
caracterised by the matrix A' = t ΩAΩ, where Ω is the passing matrix
from the base B to the base B'. Naturally, there is the problem of finding a
base which has the simplest expression with respect to the quadratic form h.
If the body K has the caracteristic value different than 2 then the
symmetrical matrix A admits a diagonal form, meaning that h admits a
canonical form.

3.1 Theorem Any expression of a quadratic form over a vector space

(Gauss) Vn can be reduced to the canonical form, using a
change of base.

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 n n

Proof. Let h(x) = ∑∑a

i =1 j =1
x x be the analytical expression of a non-zero
ij i j

quadratic form h. First we consider the case aii = 0 , ∀ i = 1, n . Because h

is not identically zero there is at least an element aij ≠ 0 , where i ≠ j.
Computing the coordinates’ transformation:
 xi = xi ' −xj '

 xj = xi + xj
' '

xk = xk ' , k ≠ i ,
 j

(3.1)
The expression of the quadratic form becomes:
n

h(x) = ∑
i , j =1
a’ijx’i x’j

where at least an element a’ii is non-zero. Any quadratic form can be

expressed analytically into an expression, where at least an element of the
first diagonal line of the matrix A is non-zero, using a coordinate
transformation, meaning a base change in the vector space Vn .
In the following part we will demonstrate, using induction on n, that
a quadratic form with at least one non-zero element on the first diagonal
line, can be reduced to a canonical form, using successive base change of
the vector space Vn .
Without limiting the generality, we assume a’11 ≠ 0 , and in this case
we shall write the analytical expression of h as follows:
n n

h(x) =a ’
11 x ’ 2
1 + 2 ∑ a’1k x x’k + ’
1 ∑
i , j =2
a’ij x’i x’j
k =2
We add to the analytical expression below the necessary terms in
order to have the square of the expression a’11 x’1 + a’12 x’2 + …+ a’1nx’n , and
we obtain:
1
h(x) = ( a’11 x’1 + a’12 x’2 + …+ a’1nx’n )2 +
a '11
n

∑
a" x '
ij = 2
ij i x' j . (3.2)

Computing the change of the coordinates:

x’’1 = a’11 x’1 + a’12 x’2 + …+ a’1nx’n
x’’j = x’j , j= 2, n ,
which is equivalent to a base change in the vector space Vn, the expression
of the quadratic form in this base can be written as follows:

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 n
1
h(x ) =
a '11
x’12 + ∑
i , j =2
a”ij xi’xj’

(3.3)
n

The expression h (x) = ∑

i , j =2
a”ij xi’xj’ from (3.3) is a quadratic
form of n – 1 variables. Repeating the process described above, after no
more than n-1 steps we will obtain the quadratic form h with respect to a
base B*, written as the sum of r = rank h ≤ n square. This expression
represents the canonical quadratic form h . q.e.d.

3.2 Theorem Let h be a quadratic form over Vn and A=(aij) the

(Jacobi) associated matrix with respect to a base B ⊂ Vn .
If all of the main determinants
a11 a12
∆1 = a11, ∆2 = a a
,…, ∆n=det.A
21 22

are non-zero then there is a quadratic form h with

respect to a base B of Vn which admits the canonical
expression:
n
∆n − 1
h( x) = ∑
i =1 ∆n
( xi ) 2 ,
(3.4)
where ∆0=1 and xi , i= 1, n , are the coordinates of
the vector x with respect to the base B .

3.3 Theorem Let Vn be an Euclidian vector space and h : Vn → Rn a

(eigenvalues quadratic form. In the vector space Vn there is an
method) orthonormed base B′ = {e′ 1, e′ 2,…, e′ n} and the
quadratic form h with respect to the base B′ has the
following canonical expression:
n
h(x) = ∑λ
i =1
i (x′ i)2 , (3.5)

where λ 1, λ 2,…, λ n , are eigenvalues of the matrix of

the quadratic form h of a given base, and x′ i are the
coordinates of the vector x in the base B′ .

Proof. Into a given base B, the quadratic form h is caracterized by a

symmetrical real matrix A. If we denote by λ 1, λ 2,…, λ n the n eigenvalues
(some of them may be equal to one another) of the matrix A, then the
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coordinates of orthonormed eigenvectors, written as columns, represents the
diagonalizing matrix H for the matrix A. In a base formed by eigenvectors,
the quadratic form h admits a canonical form given by the relation (3.5),
q.e.d.
Let h : Vn → Rn be a quadratic form and its canonical form

h(x) = a1X12 + a2X22 + . . . +arXr2 , r = rank h, (3.6)

obtained by one of the methods presented above.

If we denote by p, the number of strictly positive coefficients from

the canonical expression (3.6), named positive index of inertia of h, and we
denote by q = r - p the number of strictly negative coefficients (3.6), named
negative index of inertia, then the whole number s = p – q will be called the
signature of the quadratic form h.

3.3 Theorem (inertia law ) The signature of a quadratic form h is the

(Sylvester) same in every canonical expression of the quadratic
form (the signature doesn’t depend on the method used
to obtain the canonical expression).

3.4 Definitions A quadratic form h is called :

a) positively defined if h(x) > 0 , ∀ x∈V
b)negatively defined if h(x) < 0 , ∀ x∈V
c)semi-defined • positively if h(x) ≥ 0, ∀ x∈V
• negatively if h(x) ≤ 0, ∀ x∈V
and ∃ y ∈ V such that h(y) = 0
d)undefined if ∃ x, y∈V such that h(x) > 0 and h(y)< 0 .

Remark:
From the previous definition we note that a quadratic form is
positively (negatively) defined if and only if p = n ( q = n ) .

3.3 Theorem If the conditions of the Jacobi theorem are

(Sylvester’s accomplished then a quadratic form h is:
criterion) • positively defined ⇔ ∆ i > 0 ,∀ i = 1, n
• negatively defined ⇔ (-1)k∆ k > 0 ,∀ k = 1, n .

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 Exercises

1. Study which of the following applications are billinear forms:

a) f : R2× R2 → R , f(x,y) = 2x1y1 – 3x2y2

b) f : R3× R3 → R , f(x,y ) = x1y3 +x2y2 – 3x3y1
c) f : R3× R3 → R , f(x,y ) =x12y2 + x3y1

2. Let g : R3× R3 → R be a billinear form defined by:

g(x,y) = x1y2 +x1y3 – 2x2y2 + 2x3y1
Determine :
a) The matrix of g in the canonical base of R3
b) The matrix of g in the following base {e1=(1,1,0), e2=(1,0,1),
e3 =(0,1,1)}.
c) The rank of g .

3. Let g : R3× R3 → R be an application g(x,y) = 2x1y2+2x2y1–3x3y3 .

a) Show that g is a symmetrical billinear form
b) Find the quadratic form associated to g.
c) Determine the matrix of g with respect to the base B =
{e1,e2,e3} where e1=(1,1,0), e2=(1,0,1), e3 =(0,1,1).

4. Determine the symmetrical billinear form attached to the quadratic

form h : R3 → R , h(x) = x12 – 2x22 + 4x1x3 – 6x2x3 and find the analytical
expression of it with respect to the base B = {(1,-1,0) , (1,0,0) , (1,0,1)}.

5. Determine the orthogonal complement of the subspace generated

by the following vectors: e1 =(2,-1,0), e2 = (0,2,-1) with respect to the
quadratic form h : R3 → R, h(x) = x12 + x22 – 2x1x3 .

6. Using the Gauss method, reduce to a canonical form and

determine the corresponding base of the canonical form for the following
quadratic form:
a) h : R3 → R , h(x) = 2x12 + x22 - 4x1x2 – 2x1x3
b) h : R3 → R , h(x) = x1x2 – x1x3 + 2x2x3
Specify the signature of this quadratic form.

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 7. Using the Jacobi method determine the canonical form and
signature and the base of the canonical form found for:
a) h : R3 → R , h(x) = x12 +3 x22 +x32 + 4x1x2 + 6x1x3 + 8x2x3
b) h : R3 → R , h(x) = x12 + x22 + x32 – x42 + 4x2x3 + 2x2x4 + 6x3x4 .
8. Determine the orthonormed base with respect to the following
quadratic form which admits a canonical form:
a) h : R2 → R , h(x) = 5x12 +5x22 + 4x1x2
b) h : R3 → R , h(x) = 2x1x2 +2x1x3 + 2x2x3
c) h : R4 → R , h(x) = x12+x22+x32+x42+2x1x2+2x1x4-2x2x3–2x2x4–2x3x4.
Determine the signature of these quadratic forms.

9. Check the inertia law for the quadratic form h : R3 → R ,

h(x) = -x12 +2x1x2 + 2x22 + 6x2x3 .

10. Determine the real parameter value λ for whom the following
quadratic forms are positively and respectively negatively defined:
a) h : R2 → R , h(x) = x12 +(λ + 3)x22 – 2(λ + 1)x1x2
b) h : R3 → R , h(x) = x12 + x22 + λ x3 2 – 2x1x2 – 4x1x3 .

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