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Road Performance
Of Motor Vehicle
Force acting on vehicle
⚫ Force acting on the vehicle can be classified as
⚫ The force which moves the vehicle
⚫ The force which offers resistance in its motion
⚫ The traction force of the driving wheels arise as a result of
operation of the engine and this force depend on the interaction
b/n the driving wheels and the road.
⚫ The force of resistance includes
⚫ The force of friction in the Drive line (Internal resistance)
⚫ The force of resistance of the road
⚫ The force of resistance of the air
⚫ The gradient resistance
Tractive Force (Ft)
⚫ The tractive force (Ft) is determine as
r = 0.5Dr + Bt (1 − t )
⚫ Where Dr -the dia of the rim
Bt- height of the tyre profile in a free state
λt- radial deformation coefficient of the tyre
0.1-0.16 for standard & broad-profile
0.2-0.3 for arched & pneumatic tyres
INERTIAL RESISTANCE
⚫ While the vehicle is in linear motion, an inertial resistance to
motion due to rotating parts also exists.
⚫ Rotating masses can be grouped into
⚫ Parts rotating at engine speed :
⚫ crankshaft, flywheel, clutch etc.
⚫ Parts rotating at propeller shaft speed:
⚫ transmission shaft, etc.
⚫ Parts rotating at wheel speed :
⚫ Drive axles, wheels, tires, etc.
Transmission Efficiency
⚫ Transmission losses are
⚫ Friction force b/n the gear teeth in the gearbox and
driving axle in the bearings
⚫ Glands and also overcoming friction of the gears
against the oil & on its splashing
Pt = Pe − Pf
⚫ Where Pt- Power deliver to the driving wheels
Pe- Effective engine power (free power)
Pf- the loss of friction power
Transmission Efficiency
⚫ The moment of friction Mf reduce to the driving wheel of
a motor vehicle is
Pf
T f = 1000
w
=Th+ (Teitr(1-x)) Mh
Tt = TGr − T f TeGr − T f Tt
tr = =
= Te (G r ) − T f TeGr TGr
Tt = trTeGr
TeGr = Tt + T f = Tt + (Th + TeGr(1 − x ))
TeGr(1 − (1 − x )) = Tt + Th
TeGr(x ) = Tt + Th
Tt + Th
TeGr =
x
Traction Force (Ft)
⚫ Transmission efficiency
Th T Th
t = x − = x − h = x 1 −
TeGr Tt + Th Tt + Th
x
⚫ Tractive Force
T t TeGr − T f trTeGr
Ft = = =
r r r
TeGr Th v=
e r
Ft = x 1 −
Tt + Th
r itr
Road Resistance
⚫ The interaction b/n a motor vehicle and road involves
an energy expenditure which can be divided in to 3
groups
⚫ Energy spent on traction
⚫ Energy spent on deformation of tyres and road
⚫ Energy spent on vibration of Automotive parts
Traction Characteristics
⚫ Traction characteristics of a motor vehicle is a
graphically represented dependence of the tractive
force on the motor vehicles speed
⚫ If the angular velocityωw of the driving wheels and
their radii Rw are known then it is possible to find the
speed at which the vehicle would move on a road
V = W RW
e = W Gr
e
V = W RW = Gr
Gr
Traction Characteristics
⚫ The torque Tt delivered to the axle shaft is
⚫ Tt=TeGr-Tf
⚫ Tt can also be found as follows
Tt = tr Te Gr
⚫ The tractive force from the equation
Tt Te Gr − T f Te Gr − T f T Gr
Ft = = = tr = tr e
Rw Rw Rw RW
⚫ With the above equation it is possible to
⚫ To find the dependent of the tractive force on the motor
vehicle speed
⚫ Plot a traction characteristics
Traction Characteristics
⚫ When a motor vehicle moves with acceleration or
deceleration in such cases the tractive force can not be
found by the previous equation since its magnitude is
acted up on by the forces of inertia of the engine
rotating parts
⚫ Non uniform rotation of the crankshaft causes an inertia
moment which is in opposition to the direction of
angular acceleration or deceleration of the fly wheel
Traction Characteristics
⚫ When the motor vehicle is accelerated, this moment equal to
⚫ The torque on the axle shaft during acceleration
I e e
Ta = tr (Te − I e e )Gr a a
Ta = tr Te − I e Gr Gr − I a
Ta = tr (Te − I e e )Gr − I a a RW Rw
a =
a
and e = a Gr =
a
(Gr ) = ( tr Te Gr ) −
a
RW
(
tr I e G 2 r 2 + I a )
Rw RW
⚫ The force acting on the driving wheel in acceleration
T Gr a
Fa =
Ta
= tr e − 2 tr I e G 2 r 2 + I a
RW Rw RW
= Ft −
a
RW2
tr I e G 2 r 2 + I a
Traction Characteristics
⚫ The traction characteristics of a motor vehicle
⚫ is graphically represented,
⚫ dependence on tractive force and speed
⚫ Is plotted from the result of the chassis dynamometer or road
test data
e r
( )
e = witr = w ig (iaux )(imain ) v =
itr
Where ωe- angular velocity of the engine
ωw- Angular velocity of the wheel
itr- Over all gear ratio (G.R of transmission)
ig- Gear ratio of Gear box
iaux- Gear ratio of auxiliary transmission
Imain Gear ratio of final drive
Types of Resistance Force
⚫ The different resistance force acting on the
vehicle
⚫ Rolling resistance
⚫ Air resistance
⚫ Gradient resistance
⚫ Road resistance
⚫ Energy spared on the deformation of tyre
⚫ Vibration of the vehicle parts
ROLLING RESISTANCE (Ref)
⚫ The rolling resistance, Rr is due to deformation of road and tire
and to the dissipation of energy through impact.
⚫ Rr =fr W fr= a +b Vn
⚫ 20% weight reduction will give about 10-15% improvement of fuel
economy which about 4% is due to reduction in rolling resistance
⚫ Its value mainly depends on
⚫ Vehicle speed,
⚫ Tire inflation pressure,
⚫ Vertical load on the tire,
⚫ Types of tire
⚫ the road surface.
ROLLING RESISTANCE
⚫ The power required to overcome the rolling resistance when
the vehicle moves at speed of V
Fr V ( fW )V
Pr = =
1000 1000
⚫ The coefficient of rolling resistance increase when the speed
increase noticeably
V2
f = f 0 + 1 + forV 14 m
s
1500
⚫ Approximate coefficient of rolling resistance:
GRADIENT RESISTANCE
⚫ For a vehicle climbing up a gradient , the component of its
weight parallel to the road surface acts as a resistance to its
motion.
⚫ Since θ is very small (40-50)
⚫ Sinθ=tanθ
F g≈
AV 2
D = cd
2g
AIR RESISTANCE
⚫ Interference drag (12-18 %)
⚫ All the components projecting away from the
basic shape like
⚫ Door handle,
⚫ Rear view mirror
⚫ Causes flow separation or vortices which increase
the drag
To reduce this drag no component should
projected away from the basic body
AIR RESISTANCE
⚫ System drag (internal flow) (10-15 %)
⚫ It is basically air flow inside the body & outside and
interaction
⚫ Air flow through radiator affect this drag
⚫ Side glass windows in open condition is also affect this drag
⚫ Surface drag (8-10 %)
⚫ Fluid friction on over the metal panels
⚫ All surface imperfection will increase
this drag
⚫ fasting bolt and paint quality
AIR RESISTANCE
⚫ Lift Drag (5-8%)
⚫ Lift is a vertical force
⚫ resulting from the pressure difference above and
underneath a car
⚫ Can be reduced by using stabilizers
⚫ It decreases the weight of the car in effect
AIR RESISTANCE
⚫ Drag (i.e. air resistance) and lift are usually mutually exclusive.
Fa=
AV 2
Fa= D = cd
2g
V 2
q- dynamic pressure q=
2g
CD- dimensionless drag coeff.
Af- frontal area of the vehicle
Vr- vehicle speed relative to air
AIR RESISTANCE
⚫ The typical modern automobile achieves a drag
coefficient of between 0.30–0.35.
AIR RESISTANCE
Design Analysis of G.Box
⚫ Center Distance b/n the main shaft and lay shaft Axis
DC = 1.15 3 Te (cms) for 3 speed G.Box
Dc = 2.81 3 Te (cms) for 4 speed G.Box
Dc
Design Analysis of G.Box
⚫ Modules of the Gear (m) dp1
2 DC
m=
T1 + T2
d p1 d p 2 P1T1 P2T2
DC = + = +
2 2 2 2
P T P T mT mT m
= 1 1 + 2 2 = 1 + 2 = (T1 + T2 )
2 2 2 2 2
2 DC
m =
T1 + T2 dp2
V=
R w
=
(2N )Rw (m )
itr G.r min Rw = 0.5 Drim + H t (1 − t )
2NRw 60
V= (KMPH )
G.r 1000
NRw
V=
2.65 G.r
⚫ Power available at the wheels (Pw, kw)
⚫ Torque available at the wheel=Tw=Te (G. r)
⚫ Driving Force available at the wheel is (Fd)
Te Te (G.r )
Fd = =
Rw Rw
Design Analysis of G.Box
⚫ Power available at the wheel is
2NTe 2 2.65G.r.V Fd Rw
Pw = =
60,000 60,000 Rw G.r
Fd V
Pw =
3604
⚫ Let take
G2 G3
= → G3 = G2G4 = G2 .1
2
G3 G4
G2 = G3
2
Design Analysis of G.Box
⚫ Let take
G2 = G1G3 = G1 (G2 )
G1 G2
=
2 12
G2 G3
G22(2− 12 ) (2− 12 )1.5 1.5 0.66660.6666
G1 = G2 = G2= G2 = G = 2G2= G2
G3
1
G3 = G2 2
G4 = 1
⚫ Example
⚫ Determine all the gear ration for 4 speed Gear box when
G1 =3.51
Acceleration Performance
⚫ Maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a
motor vehicle is determined by one of two limits–
⚫ engine power or
⚫ traction limits on the drive wheel.
⚫ At low speeds tire traction may be the limiting factor.
⚫ At high speeds engine power may account for the
limits.
Power-Limited Acceleration
Power-Limited Acceleration
⚫ The flow of the torque from the engine to
wheels can be derived as follows
ax = wr
Te N tf tf
Fx = 2 2
− (I e + I t )N tf + I d N f + I w 2
ax
r r
ηtf- Combined efficiency of transmission and final drive
Ntf- Combined ratio of transmission and final dive
Power-Limited Acceleration
⚫ The 1st term (Study-state tractive force)
⚫ To overcome the road load forces
⚫ aerodynamics and rolling resistance
⚫ To accelerate
⚫ To climb a grade
⚫ The 2nd term (Loss of Tractive force)
⚫ Due to the inertia of the engine and drive line components
⚫ Amplified by the square of the numerical gear between the
component and wheel
Power-Limited Acceleration
⚫ Knowing the tractive force, it is now possible to predict the
acceleration performance of a vehicle
Ma = Fx − FR
W dV
W
(a ) = = Fx − FR
g g dt
Power-Limited Acceleration
⚫ From the above figure
W
M ax = a x = Fx − Rx − D A − Rhx − W sin
g
W + Wr Te N tf tf
(M + M r )a x = a x = − Rx − DA − Rhx − W sin
g r
⚫ Where Mr is equivalent mass of rotating components
W + Wr Te N tf tf
(M + M r )a x = a x = − Rx − DA − Rhx − W sin
g r
⚫ Except for the grade term, all other forces vary with
speed must be evaluated at each speed.
Acceleration performance
for Manual Transmission
⚫ The constant Engine power line is equal to the maximum power
of the engine, which is the upper limit of tractive effort available,
⚫ The tractive force line for each gear is the image of the engine
torque curve multiplied by the ratios of the gear.
⚫ For maximum acceleration performance the optimum Shift
point between gears is the point where the lines cross
2
3
Pe = N e max e + e − e
N N N
For carburetor engine
e e e
2 3
160
140
P(kw) and T(Nm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
engine speed
Plotting Traction characteristics curve
⚫ Plot the traction curve characteristics for a car from the
following data
⚫ i1=3.51 i2=2.26 i3=1.45 iiv=1.0
⚫ Imain=4.1 r=0.33 ηt=0.9
⚫ The value of the torque at different engine speeds are
tabulated in the pervious example
8000
I Gear
II Gear
7000
III Gear
IV Gear
6000
5000
Traction Force (N)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Speed of wheel (m/s)
Acceleration performance
for Automatic Transmission
⚫ Stall
⚫ The output speed is 0
⚫ Max torque ratio at stall
⚫ Torque ratio decreases as
speed ratio increases
⚫ At torque ratio of 1.0
efficiency is max
Acceleration performance
for Automatic Transmission
= 328 + 10.2 + 22
= 360.2 in − lb − sec2
250
200
Te N tf tf
Fx =
150
Torque
r
201 (4.28 2.92 )(0.966 0.999 )
100
=
12.59 in 12 in / ft 50
= 2290 lb
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 600
rpm
4400 rpm
Solution
⚫ The road speed can be determined
⚫ ωd=ωwNf and ωe=ωdNt=ωwNtNf
⚫ The wheel rotational speed will be
e 4400 rpm 2 rad / rev.1min
w = =
(N N )
t f 4.28 2.92 60 sec
= 36.87 rad / sec
⚫ The corresponding ground speed will be found by converting
the rotational speed to translational speed at the circumference
of the tire
V X = w r = (36.87 rad / sec) (12.59 in ) = 464 .2 in / sec
= 38.7 ft / sec = 26.4 mph
Solution
⚫ The road speed in higher gear
Te N tf tf 201 ft − ln (1.0 2.92 )(0.99 0.97 )
F = =
12.59 in 12 in / ft
X
r
= 537 lb
max
Ftr max =
l
(mg cos )(a − fh ) + F tf max h
a − fh
Ftr max = max (mg cos )
1 − maxh
Max Transmittable Traction Force
⚫ the magnitudes of transmittable traction forces are
influenced by
⚫ Major influences
⚫ The total mass of the vehicle
⚫ Maximum frictional coefficient (μmax)
⚫ The position of C.G
⚫ Minor influences
⚫ Rolling resistance coefficients (f)
⚫ The slope angle (θ)
Max Transmittable Traction Force
⚫ To understand the difference between the front and
rear wheel drives more clearly, the relation of the two
conceptions was developed by
Ftf max b + fh l − max h
=
Ftr max a − fh l + max h
Example
⚫ A passenger car may have a C.G in the middle b/n the
two axles, measuring that the static wheel forces at
leveled road are equal Rf=Rr and a=b =1/2 (L)=1.25 m.
The C.G shall be 0.58m, the rolling resistance
coefficient f=0.015, and the available max friction
coefficient μmax=0.8. Find the relation of transmittable
traction forces for the two cases
⚫ The car is front wheel driven and
⚫ It is rear wheel driven
solution
Ftf max b + fh l − maxh
=
Ftr max a − fh l + maxh
0.625 + 0.015 0.58 1.25 − 0.8 0.58
=
0.625 − 0.015 0.58 1.25 + 0.8 0.58
= 0.7
⚫ With this conditions the car being equipped with a
modern front wheel drive could transmit only 70% of
the tractive forces as compared the traditional
(standard) rear wheel drive
⚫ This is the reason why fast and powerful cars have
rear wheel drives
All wheel Drive
⚫ The absolute max traction forces would be obtainable under
the condition, that all available wheel forces could be utilized
for generation of the traction force.
(T − Ts )
Wy = d
t
⚫ The above equation, Td can be related to the drive force because
⚫ Td=Fxr/Nf
⚫ However, it is necessary to determine the roll torque
produced by the suspension, which requires an
analysis of the whole vehicle because the reaction of
the drive torque on the chassis attempts to roll the
chassis on both the front and rear suspensions
Transverse Weight shift due to Drive
Torque
Tsf = K f
Tsr = K r
K = K f + K r
Where- Ts- roll torque on the front or rear suspension
kΦ - roll stiffness
Transverse Weight shift due to Drive
Torque
⚫ Tsr can be related to roll angle and the roll angle can be
related to the drive torque as follows.
⚫ The roll angle is simply the drive torque divided by the
total roll stiffness
T Td the term in brackets collapses to yield
= d =
K (K f + K r ) Fx r K f
Wy =
Td N f t K
Tsr = Kr
K +K
r f
Fx r Kr
Wy = 1−
N ft Kf + Kr
Transverse Weight shift due to Drive
Torque
Wrr = r − (W y )
W
2
Wb Fx h Fx r K f
= + −
2 L 2 L N ft K
Fx = 2Wrr = 2Wrr
Wb Fx h Fx r Kf
= 2 + −
2L 2L N K
ft
Traction Limits
⚫ Solving for Fx gives the final expression for the maximum tractive force
that can be developed by a solid rear axle with a non-locking differential
Wb
Fx max = L
h 2 r K f
1− +
L N ft K
⚫ For a solid rear axle with a locking differential additional tractive force can
be obtained from the other wheel up to its traction limits such that the last
term in the denominator of the above equation drops out.
⚫ This would also be true in the case of an independent rear suspension
because the driveline torque reaction is picked up by the chassis-
mounted differential.
Traction Limits
⚫ In both of these cases the expression for the maximum
tractive force is
wb
Fx max = L
h
1−
L
⚫ For the solid front drive axle with locking differential or the
independent front drive axle as typical of most front wheel drive
cars today W
C
Fx max = L
h
1+
L
Exercise
⚫ Find the traction-limited acceleration for rear-drive
passenger car with and without a locking differential on a
surface of moderate friction level
⚫ The information that will be needed is as follows
⚫ Weight Front 2100 lb Rear-1850 lb Total-3950 lb
⚫ CG height- 21.0 in wheel base-108 in
⚫ Coefficient of friction 0.62 tread-59.0 in
⚫ Final drive ratio- 2.90 tire size-13.0 in
⚫ Roll stiffness Front 1150 ft-lb/deg Rear-280ft-lb/deg
Solution
⚫ The equation for max tractive force of a solid axle rear-
drive vehicle with a non-locking differential given by
Wb
Fx max = L
h 2 r K f
1− +
L N ft K
⚫ In this eq. W b/L is just the axle weight which is known therefore
it is not required to find the value for the parameter b.
⚫ Likewise all the other terms are known and can be substitute in
to the equation to obtain
Solution
0.62(1850lb )
FX max =
21 2(0.62 ) 13 in 1150
1− 0.62 +
108 2.9 59 in 1430
1147 lb 1147
= = = 1201 lb
1 − 0.121 + 0.0758 0.9548
Fx max 1201 lb
ax = = = 0.3041 g ' s = 9.79 ft / sec 2
Mg 3950 lb
Solution
⚫ With a locking differential the third term in the
denominator disappears
0.62(1850lb ) 1147 lb 1147
FX max = = = = 1305 lb
0.62 1 − 0.121 0.879
21
1−
108
Fx max
1305 lb
ax = = = 0.330 g ' s = 10.64 ft / sec 2
Mg 3950 lb
INERTIAL RESISTANCE
⚫ Moment of Inertia (J) : A measure of the resistance
offered by a body to angular acceleration.
The End