DIGITAL

AND
ANALOG
COMMUNCATION
SYSTEMS

K.SAM SHANMUGAM

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Model of a Communication System 2

1.2 Elements of a Digital Communication System 4
1.2.1 Information Source 5
1.2.2 Source Encoder/Decoder 6
1.2.3 Communication Channel 7
1.2.4 Modulator 8
1.2.5 Demodulator 9
1.2.6 Channel Encoder/Decoder 10
1.2.7 Other Functional Blocks 11
1.3 Analysis and Design of Communication Systems 12
1.3.1 Analysis of Communication Systems 12
1.3.2 Design of Communication Systems 12
1.4 Organization of the Book 14

2 SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL ANALYSIS 16

2.1 Systems and Signals 17

2.1.1 Classification of Signals 17
2.1.2 Classification of Systems 20
2.2 Signal Representation Using Fourier Series 21
2.2.1 Complex Exponential Fourier Series 21
2.2.2 Fourier Series Representation of Periodic Signals 22
2.3 Signal Representation Using Fourier Transforms 26
2.3.1 Fourier Transform Representation of Aperiodic Signals 26
2.3.2 Fourier Transform of Periodic Power Signals 30
2.3.3 Transform Theorems 31
2.4 Power Spectral Density 36
2.5 System Response and Filters 41
2.5.1 Impulse Response, Step Response, and Time Domain Analysis 41
2.5.2 Transfer Function and Frequency Domain Analysis 42
2.5.3 Effect of Transfer Function on Spectral Densities 43
2.5.4 Real and Ideal Filters 43
2.6 Spectral Analysis of Modulation and Demodulation Operations 47
2.6.1 Analysis of a Linear Modulation System 47
2.7 Spectral Measurements and Computations 50
2.7.1 Spectrum Analyzer 50
2.7.2 Numerical Computation of Fourier series Coefficients 51
2.7.3 Numerical Computation of Fourier Transforms 54
2.8 Summary 55

References 57
Problems 58

3 RANDOM SIGNAL THEORY 68

3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Introduction to Probabilities 70
3.2.1 Definitions 70
3.2.2 Probabilities of Random Events 70
3.2.3 Joint and Conditional Probabilities 72
3.3 Discrete Random Variables 74
3.3.1 Probability Mass Functions 74
3.3.2 Statistical Averages 76
3.3.3 Examples of Probability Mass Functions 77
3.4 Continuous Random Variables 79
3.4.1 Probability Density Functions and Statistical Averages 79
3.4.2 Examples of Probability Density Functions 80
3.4.3 Transformation of Random Variables 83
3.5 Random Processes 86
3.5.1 Definitions and Notations 88
3.5.2 Stationarity, Time Averages, and Ergodicity 90
3.5.3 Power Spectral Density of Stationary Random Processes 92
3.5.4 Special Classes of Random Processes 101
3.6 Systems and Random Signals 103
3.6.1 Response of Memoryless Systems 103
3.6.2 Response of Linear Time-Invariant Systems 104
3.7 Noise in Communication Systems 107
3.7.1 Thermal Noise 108
3.7.2 Time Domain Representation of Narrowband Noise 110
3.7.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Probability of Error 117
3.7.4 Noise Equivalent Bandwidth, Effective Noise Temperature, and Noise Figure 119
3.8 Summary 125

References 126
Problems 127

4 INFORMATION AND CHANNEL CAPACITY 138

4.1 Introduction 138

4.2 Measure of Information 140
4.2.1 Information Content of a Message 140
4.2.2 Average Information Content (Entropy) of Symbols
in Long Independent Sequences 142
4.2.3 Average Information Content of Symbols in Long
Dependent Sequences 145
4.2.4 Markoff Statistical Model for Information Sources 145
4.2.5 Entropy and Information Rate of Markoff Sources 150
4.3 Encoding of the Source Output 156
4.3.1 Shannon's Encoding Algorithm 157
4.4 Communication Channels 162
4.5 Discrète Communication Channels 164
4.5.1 Rate of Information Transmission Over a Discrete Channel 167
4.5.2 Capacity of Discrete Memoryless Channels 170
4.5.3 Discrete Channels with Memory 173
4.6 Continuous Channels 174
4.6.1 Shannon-Hartley Theorem and Its Implications 175
4.7 Summary 181

References 182
Problems 182

5 BASEBAND DATA TRANSMISSION 189

5.1 Introduction 189

5.2 Baseband Binary PAM Systems 193
5.2.1 Baseband Pulse Shaping 194
5.2.2 Optimum Transmitting and Receiving Filters 197
5.2.3 Design Procedure and Example 201
5.3 Duobinary Baseband PAM System 204
5.3.1 Use of Control/ed ISI in Duobinary Signaling Schemes 205
5.3.2 Transmitting and Receiving Filters for Optimum Performance 206
5.4 Mary Signaling Schemes 208
5.4.1 Analysis and Design of Mary Signaling Schemes 211
5.4.2 Binary Versus Mary Signaling Schemes 218
5.5 Shaping of the Transmitted Signal Spectrum 222
5.5.1 Effect of Precoding on the Spectrum 223
5.5.2 Puise Shaping by Digital Methods 228
5.6 Equalization 230
5.6.1 Transversal Equalizer 230
5.6.2 Automatic Equalizers 233
5.7 Miscellaneous Topics 237
5.7.1 Eye Diagrams 237
5.7.2 Synchronization 240
5.7.3 Scrambler and Unscrambler 242
5.8 Summary 244

References 245
Problems 245

6 ANALOG SIGNAL TRANSMISSION 251

6.1 Introduction 251

6.1.1 Need for Modulation 252
6.1.2 Types of Analog CW Modulation 253
6.2 Analog Baseband Signal Transmission 254
6.2.1 Signal Distortion in Baseband Transmission 255
6.2.2 Linear Distortion 256
6.2.3 Equalization 256
6.2.4 Nonlinear Distortion and Companding 257
6.3 Linear CW Modulation Schemes 259
6.3.1 Double-Sideband Modulation (DSB) 259
6.3.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 264
6.3.3 Suppressed Sideband Modulation (SSB) 268
6.3.4 Frequency Conversion (Mixing) 275
6.4 Angle Modulation 277
6.4.1 Angle Modulated Signals 278
6.4.2 Spectra of Angle Modulated Signals 280
6.4.3 Power and Bandwidth of FM Signals 283
6.4.4 Generation of FM Signals 286
6.4.5 Demodulation of FM Signals 289
6.4.6 Phase-Lock Loops 291
6.5 Frequency Division Multiplexing 297
6.6 Commercial Broadcasting 299
6.6.1 AM Radio Broadcasting and Reception 300
6.6.2 FM Radio Broadcasting and Reception 301
6.6.3 Commercial TV Broadcasting and Reception 304
6.7 Summary 312

References 314
Problems 314
7 NOISE lN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 329

7.1 Introduction 329

7.2 Noise in Baseband Systems 330
7.2.1 System Model and Parameters 330
7.2.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio at the Output of a Baseband System 331
7.2.3 Signal-to-Noise ratio Improvement Through
Preemphasis/Deemphasis Filtering 333
7.3 Noise in Linear CW Modulation Systems 337
7.3.1 System Model and Parameters 338
7.3.2 Noise in DSB and SSB Systems 340
7.3.3 Noise in AM Systems 343
7.4 Noise in Angle Modulation Systems 349
7.4.1 Output Signal-to-Noise Ratios in Angle Modulation Systems 350
7.4.2 Threshold Effects in Angle Modulation Systems 356
7.4.3 Threshold Extention in FM Systems 359
7.5 Preemphasis/Deemphasis Filtering in CW Modulation Systems 360
7.6 Interference in CW Modulation 365
7.6.1 Interference in CW Modulation 365
7.6.2 Interference in Linear Modulation 366
7.6.3 Interference in Angle Modulation 366
7.7 Comparison of CW Modulation Schemes 367
7.8 Summary 372

References 372
Problems 373

8 DIGITAL CARRIER MODULATION SCHEMES 380

8.1 Introduction 380

8.2 Optimum Receiver for Binary Digital Modulation Schemes 382
8.2.1 Description of Binary ASK, PSK, and FSK Schemes 383
8.2.2 Probability of Error 384
8.2.3 Transfer Function of the Optimum Filter 388
8.3 Binary ASK Signaling Schemes 394
8.3.1 Coherent ASK 396
8.3.2 Noncoherent ASK 398
8.4 Binary PSK Signaling Schemes 402
8.4.1 Coherent PSK 403
8.4.2 Differentially Coherent PSK 404
8.5 Binary FSK Signaling Schemes 408
8.5.1 Coherent FSK 410
8.5.2 Noncoherent FSK 412
8.6 Comparison of Digital Modulation Schemes 414
8.6.1 Bandwidth Requirements 414
8.6.2 Power Requirements 414
8.6.3 Immunity to Channel lmpairments 417
8.6.4 Equipment Complexity 417
8.7 Mary Signaling Schemes 418
8.7.1 Mary Coherent PSK 418
8.7.2 Mary Differential PSK 424
8.7.3 Mary Wideband FSK Scheme 427
8.8 Synchronization Methods 432
8.9 Summary 434

References 434
Problems 435

9 ERROR CONTROL CODING 443

9.1 Introduction 443

9.1.1 Example of Error Control Coding 445
9.1.2 Methods of Controlling Errors 447
9.1.3 Types of Errors 448
9.1.4 Types of Codes 448
9.2 Linear Block Codes 449
9.2.1 Matrix Description of Linear Block Codes 450
 9.2.2 Error Detection and Error Correction Capabilities of
Linear Block Codes 454
9.2.3 Single Error-Correcting Hamming Codes 456
9.2.4 Table Lookup Decoding Using the Standard Array 458
9.3 Binary Cyclic Codes 461
9.3.1 Aigebraic Structure of Cyclic Codes 462
9.3.2 Encoding Using an (n-k) Bit Shift Register r465
9.3.3 Syndrome Calculation, Error Detection, and Error Correction 468
9.3.4 Special Classes of Cyclic Codes:
Bose-Chaudhuri​Hocquenghem (BCH) Codes 471
9.4 Burst-Error-Correcting modes 473
9.5 Burst- and Random-Error-Correcting Codes 476
9.6 Convolutional Codes 478
9.6.1 Encoders for Convolutional Codes 479
9.6.2 Decoders for Convolutional Codes 480
9.6.3 Performance of Convolutional Codes 486
9.7 Performance of Block Codes-Error correction 486
9.8 Performance of Block Codes-Error Detection 490
9.8.1 Stop and Wait Transmission Method 491
9.8.2 Continuous Transmission Method 493
9.9 Summary 496

References 496
Problems 497

10 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG SIGNALS 505

10.1 Introduction 505

10.2 Sampling Theory and Practice 507
10.2.1 Sampling Theory507
10.2.2 Ideal Sampling and Reconstruction of Lowpass Signals 510
10.2.3 Ideal Sampling and Reconstruction of Bandpass SignaIs 512
10.2.4 Sampling Theorem for Random Signals 514
10.2.5 Practical Sampling 516
10.3 Quantizing of Analog Signals 518
10.3.1 Uniform Quantizing 520
10.3.2 Nonuniform Quantizing 523
10.3.3 Differential Quantizing 526
10.4 Coded Transmission of Analog Signals 529
10.4.1 The PCM System 531
10.4.2 Bandwidth Requirements of PCM 533
10.4.3 Noise in PCM Systems 534
10.4.4 Differential PCM Systems 539
10.4.5 Delta Modulation Systems 539
10.4.6 Noise in Delta Modulation Systems 544
10.4.7 Comparison of PCM and DM Systems 546
10.4.8 Q-Level Differential PCM Systems 548
10.5 Time-Division Multiplexing 549
10.5.1 TDM-PCM Telephone System 551
10.5.2 Comparison of TOM and FDM 553
10.5.3 Asynchronous TOM 554
10.6 Comparison of Methods for Analog Signal Transmission 556
10.6.1 PCM Versus Analog Modulation 556
10.6.2 Comparison of Communication Systems: Power Bandwidth Exchange 558
10.7 Summary 565

References 565
Problems 565

APPENDIX A
History of Electrical Communication 575

APPENDIX B
Broadcast Frequency Bands 577

APPENDIX C
Trigonometric Identities and Fourier Transforms 580
 APPENDIX D
Gaussian Probabilities 583

APPENDIX E
Glossary of Symbols, Notations, and Abbreviations 585

INDEX 591
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