CHAPTER II

INTRODUCTION

If a question like “What is a language?” is posed to someone, it is likely that he/she will say that
we communicate with language. But If we probe into this concept and ask someone to explain it,
he or she will say that, with language, we express our thoughts, feelings, concepts and
exchange information. However, a description of this kind does not provide us with a complete
meaning to the question asked above because human language is such a phenomenon that one
may naturally be tempted to explore it further. Therefore, we need to examine language from a
broader perspective. To express that we communicate with language, too, does not reveal
much about language because we are aware that even animals do communicate, even though
they do not have a language. Human beings have other means of communication, in addition to
language. For these possible reasons stated above, it is necessary to investigate how language
differs from other human and non-human communication system.

Literature relevant to human language reveals that language comes under the discipline
called semiotics which is the science of signs or the study of communication systems. Several
concepts in semiotics are embedded in the following explanation by Lyons (1981).
A signal is transmitted from a sender to a receiver along a channel of communication. This
signal will have a particular form and will convey a particular meaning (or message). The
connection between the signal and its meaning is established by the code. Thus, the message
is encoded by the sender and decoded by the receiver.
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A practical application of how communication system operates

These features discussed in the explanation above are common to all communication
systems including language. Some concepts involved in the communication system, when
practically applied to human communication, can be illustrated from a real-world situation as
follows:
Suppose I am thirsty and walk into a restaurant, sit at a table and say to a waiter, “Coca Cola,
please”. The waiter will respond to my request saying either “Right or OK” and he/she will bring
me a coke in a short while. If we analyze what really occurred in the situation described above in
terms of semiotics, it becomes evident that my signal was the sound I produced /kou’,kӘ’ kou.lӘ/.
This signal was transmitted from my mouth to the waiter’s ears, along what is called the oral-
auditory channel. I encoded my signal as /kou’,kӘ’ kou.lӘ/. However, I could have changed its
form as Coco Cola buddy, which would have conveyed a different meaning or message. When
the waiter replied, “Right or OK”, I know that he had decoded my message correctly. This is a
very simple example drawn from our day-to-day happenings.
What has been discussed concerning semiotics has centered so far on some features
common to all communication systems in general but our interest is in human language to which
I now turn. Recorded literature indicates that the attention of linguists, anthropologists and
socio- linguists and psychologists has attracted to different aspects of human language for
generations (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). When talking about human language, the first thing
which strikes our mind is that it is unique among all communication systems. This is to
emphasize that language is
 very versatile. To understand this characteristic of language, let us consider the traffic lights
which can convey only a very few messages such as GO, READY, STOP. Likewise, the number
of messages that animals can convey is limited. However, with human language, people have
the ability to talk about anything existing under the Sun. What enables us to use the language in
such a remarkable manner is worth discussing in detail.
A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols

Bloch and Trager (1942, p. 5) define the language, “A language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates” If we examine this definition, we
find that each key word in this definition is a characteristic of language. Thus, we can conclude
that a language is a set of symbols. For example, (returning back to the restaurant scenario) the
signal transmitted in the restaurant, coca cola consists of at least four symbols:/ kou’,kӘ’ kou.lӘ/.
The substance of these symbols is sound produced by mouth. Hence, they are vocal symbols.
A symbol is a form, which stands for some real thing, i.e. some meaning. Thus, there are
different symbols for different meanings.
The term ‘vocal’ may need further clarification because the language can be written as
well as spoken. When we produce symbols with mouth, we use phonic medium. But we can
also produce the same symbols by drawing bits of lines on a paper with a pen or a pencil. This
method is called graphic medium. This transferability of medium appears to be a special feature
of language.
Then if language can be both spoken and written, the question next arises is as to why
language is defined as vocal symbols. In discussion of language, linguists generally are
concerned with spoken language or what they call ‘primacy’ of language. Primacy of speech
means that speech is basic and writing is only secondary. There are many reasons to justify this
view. Some of them are stated below.
 Structural priority: We write what we speak. This does not mean that spoken language and
written language are identical. It only means that writing is a device to transfer the phonic
medium to graphic medium. Moreover, there are more than 3000 spoken languages in the
world, but only a few hundred of them have writing systems. Based on this premise, one
cannot say that the unwritten languages are not languages. On the other hand, there is no
language, which is only written and not spoken.
 Historical priority: Human beings have had spoken languages for millions of years, but the
history of writing is not even five thousand years old.
 Every human speaks a language every day, but the majority does not either read or write.

 Biological priority: spoken language is natural, whereas written is artificial. Written language
can be said as man-made in the sense that every human child acquires spoken language
without any conscious learning.
There is no logical connection between the form and its meaning

Given the reasons above, language is speech to a linguist. With this background
knowledge, I now describe the next important key word ‘arbitrary’ in the definition of Bloch and
Trager (1942). Vocal symbols in natural languages are arbitrary. This means that there is no
logical connection between the form of a symbol and its meaning. For example, there is no
connection whatsoever between the sound /pen/ and the object called pen. There is no reason to
call a ‘chair’, except that speakers of English call it so. Further, a few words in any language can
be onomatopoeic, e.g. The English word ‘crow’, ‘flutter’, ‘splash’ are related to their meanings.
Arbitrariness of language is not limited to words. There is no reason for “He is a doctor”, to be a
statement and “Is he a doctor?” to be a question except the agreement among the speakers of
English to interpret them in that way. It is now evident that the arbitrariness of forms is one of the
factors, which make language so versatile. If we had to match forms with meaning, it would be
impossible to make words for many things. For example, what sounds will suit abstract concepts
such as democracy, kindness and so on. Thanks to arbitrariness, anything could be called
anything.
Duality of human language

Given the understanding of the characteristics of human language, I now move to another
characteristic which makes it much more efficient than any other communication system. That is
called duality. Language forms consist of units. The smallest unit of the language is the phoneme
and syllables are larger than phonemes. Morphemes and words are at a higher level than
syllables. These units belong to two classes: phonemes and syllables have no meaning of their
own, but morphemes and words are meaningful units. In other words, meaningful units are made
of meaningless units. For example, let us examine the word ‘umbrellas’. It consists of nine
phonemes. /Λmbrella:z/ The nine phonemes make three syllables: Λm, brel, la;z. Therefore, we
can see that neither the phonemes nor syllables have any meaning. These phonemes make two
morphemes: umbrella+s. These two morphemes as a full word have meanings as other full
words have. This type of characteristic (duality) is an important feature of language. If each of the
phonemes or syllables had a meaning of its own, we cannot use that phoneme again in another
word. To simplify this, imagine /Λm/ in ‘umbrella’ means the ‘handle’. Then it cannot be used in the
word ‘umpire’. It is because of duality and arbitrariness of language, we can form unlimited
number of words with a small number of phonemes.
The next key word in Bloch and Trager’s definition is ‘System’. A language is a system of
symbols and this does not mean to say that a language not merely a collection of symbols. It was
Ferdinand de Saussure (1959) a Swiss linguist who introduced the concept of language as a
system. A language can be compared to a game of chess. What makes a game of chess a game
of chess? Of course, there is a chessboard, chess pieces and more significantly, the rules for
moving those chess piece, you could use any small object as a dummy piece, and continue the
game. Similarly, the pieces of language games are phonemes, morphemes and words, and a set
of rules of how to use them when speaking or writing. For example, the English language system
allows its users to say or write as, “Peter ate a piece of bread”, but not “ate a piece of bread
Peter”, or “A piece of bread ate Peter. The rules of the system, unlike the symbols, are invisible,
but they can be discovered when they operate. It is the symbols and the rules together that form
the system. Another term which is more or less similar to the meaning of system is ‘structure’.
Human language is productive

According to Chomsky (1965), the most important property of human language is its
productivity because humans can understand and produce indefinitely many utterances that
nobody has either produced or heard previously. It means generally we produce brand new
sentences, except when we use conventional expressions such as “Good morning”, “How are
you?” and so on. The number of phonemes, morphemes and words in a language are limited,
but with these limited symbols, we can create countless sentences which cannot be done in any
other communication system. Animal signals are ready-made fixed messages, perhaps like our
“Good morning”. As Chomsky has pointed out that productivity of language is due to its
structure dependence and recursiveness. “By recursiveness, we mean that certain grammatical
constructions can be extended indefinitely by repeated application of the same rules. Thus, noun
phrases may be coordinated without limit; Jack and Jill and Annie and Frank and went to
dance” (Robins,
1980). Commenting on another characteristic of human language, Firth, (cited in Widdowson,
1971, p. 102) claims,
The moment a conversation is started whatever is said is a determining
condition for what in any reasonable expectation may follow. There is
positive force in what you say, and there is a negative side too,
because what you say shouts out most of the language of your
companion, leaving him only a limited range of possible responses.
Careful analysis of what Firth’s claim informs us is that we are not free to tell what we want or
like as we are bound by social rules, norms and ethics that have established in each society.

Conclusion

To conclude this short article about the nature of human language and its characteristics, I
consider it useful mentioning Brown’s (2000, p. 5) composite definition of language as follows:
1. Language is systematic

2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols.

3. Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be visual.

4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer.

5. Language is used for communication.

6. Language operates in a speech community or culture.

7. Language is essentially human, although possibly not limited to humans.

8. Language is acquired by all people in much the same way; language and language
learning both have universal characteristics
we can say the more we probe into the language the more we see how wonderful and exciting
the language is and this is true for all world languages used across the world today in that there
are no primitive or under-developed languages as such. All languages are equally complex and
productive for all human beings.
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