HIGH RISE BUILDING

MODULE 1

LOADING, DEAD LOADS, LIVE LOADS, GRAVITY LOADS

SEQUENTIAL LOADING & IMPACT LOADING (ANSU)
LOADING

 Loading on tall buildings is different from low-rise buildings in many ways such as;

 Large accumulation of gravity loads on the floors from top to bottom

 Increased significance of wind loading and greater importance of dynamic effects

 To sustain during its construction and subsequent service life, structures must be
designed to resist the loads (both transient and permanent)

The loading depends on;

 Size of the building ,Shape of the building, Geographic location of the building.
 Maximum probable values must be established before design can proceed

DEAD LOADS (DL)

 Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads

 The dead loads are calculated from the member sizes and estimated material densities

 The assessment of dead loads can be done accurately

 Dead loads consist of the permanent construction material loads comprising the roof,
floor, wall, and foundation systems, including claddings, finishes, and fixed equipment

LIVE LOADS (LL)

 Live loads are also known as imposed loads and are usually temporary, changeable and
dynamic

 Live loads are produced by the use and occupancy of a building

 Loads include those from human occupants, furnishings, non fixed equipment, storage,
and construction and maintenance activities
GRAVITY LOAD

 Caused by dead loads and live loads

 Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple it

 The building should have adequate shear and bending resistance and must not lose its
vertical load carrying capability

Resisting Gravity Load by

 Weight of the building is supported by a group of vertical columns

 Each floor is supported by horizontal steel girders running between vertical columns

 Providing curtain wall made of steel and concrete

SEQUENTIAL LOADING

 The load effects which arise due to the sequence of construction are termed as sequential
loads

 Loads that are applied after the construction of the building like Live load, wind loads
and earthquake loads are independent of the construction sequence

 However, the effect of dead loads depends on the construction sequence

 For dead loads, the construction sequence should be considered to be the worst case

 In construction of high rise RCC buildings, the practice is to shore the freshly placed
floor on previously cast floors
 The construction loads on the supporting floors due to the weight of wet concrete and its
formwork will greatly exceed the loads of normal service conditions

 These loads must be calculated considering the sequence of construction and the rate of
erection

 Because of the cumulative effects over the height of the building, the effects are greater
in the highest levels of the building

 The deformations of a particular floor will be caused by the loads that are applied
subsequent to its construction

 Such sequential effects must be considered if an accurate assessment of the structural

actions due to dead loads is to be achieved

IMPACT LOADING

 The sudden load acting on any structural member is defined as Impact load

 Simplest way to understand Impact load is hammer

 Examples of Impact load:
1) Placing of any heavy body (furniture/Baggage/Other material) by dropping it from any
height over the slab 2) Striking with Hammer. 3) Collision of a car with a wall

 Blast loading is a short duration load also called impulsive loading

LIVE LOAD REDUCTION TECHNIQUES (AKHIL)

 Live loads include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation
cycle not including construction or environmental loads.
 Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and
materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and
people.
 Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge.
 Live load are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load. These dynamic loads may
involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration and material fatigue
 Live loads are specified as the weight per unit area corresponding to the use of the floor.
In terms of their concentration, they are estimated differently, depending on the kind of
structural member.
 Live loads prescribed by codes are empirical and conservative based on experience and
accepted practice. The equivalent minimum loads for office and residential buildings as
per IS 875: Part 2, are as specified in Table shown below.
 The live loads are assumed to be acting uniformly over the whole floor area and the total
live load is proportionally distributed on the wall foundations for the purpose of design.
 The live load is assumed to act on all the floors of a building.
 In the case of multistoryed buildings, some reduction is allowed in different floors as it is
assumed that all the floors of a buildings are not simultaneously loaded.
 A percentage reduction is applied in the design of piers, columns, walls and foundation
of a multistoryed buildings.
 LIVE LOAD REDUCTION TECHNIQUE
 The Building Codes allow reduction in live loads subject to limitations for certain
occupancies and magnitude of live loads.
 As the structural members are considered, whole live load of every floor is not taken at a
time.
 Live loads are reduced as the bottom floors are considered
METHODS OF LIVE LOAD REDUCTION
 Simple percentages may be specified for the reductions and for the limiting amount.
 Example : supporting members may be designed for 100% of the LL on the roof, 85% of
that on the top floor, and further reductions of 5% for each successive floor down to a
minimum of 50% of the LL
 A tributary area formula may be given, allowing a more refined definition of the
reduction, with the limit built into the formula
 Example : supporting members may be designed for a LL = Basic LL (0.3 + 10 )
 More sophisticated formula - type method may define the maximum reduction in terms of
dead to live load ratio
 Example : maximum percentage reduction < [100 x (D + L)]
 4.33L
where, D and L are the intensities of dead and live loading
 This particular limit is intended to ensure that if the full live load should occur over the
full tributary area, the element would not be stressed to the yield point
 ANALYTICAL AND WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTAL METHOD (ROBIN)

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

There are two methods of dynamic analysis

- Wind tunnel experimental method

- Analytical Method

Dynamic method is adopted when

• Building is exceptionally tall ( >50m)

• Located at extremely severe exposure conditions.

• Height to breadth ratio is greater than five.

• First mode frequency is less than 1Hertz.

WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Why wind tunnel?

• For large structures, the generic load provisions derived from analytical methods in
building codes and standards are often insufficiently precise for an optimal design.

• Wind tunnels are widely used to predict the wind loading on the cladding and glazing as
well as on the structural frames of tall buildings.

• The guidelines for wind tunnel experiments are published by ASCE.

• Accurate estimates of wind effects on buildings are obtained through aero elastic model
testing in a boundary layer wind tunnel.

• The elastic structural properties and the mass distribution of the building as well as
relevant characteristics of the wind are modelled and tested.

• In wind tunnel, the wind, the building, its surrounding and in particular cases its
behaviour are modelled on scale.

• Building models are constructed with scales ranging from 1:100 to 1: 1000(usually
1:400)
Usually wind tunnel research to determine the wind loading on building parts is recommended
when,

 Buildings have shapes that are significantly different from those given in wind loading code.
This may be related to the shape of plan, but also to the height of the structure.

 Buildings are situated in complex environments causing interaction effects. This include
cases where a planned building exists of more than one independent structure.

Wind tunnel experiments are used for

• Validation of other methods. (Eg. Computational wind Engineering)

• Gathering of data to apply in the next generation of guidance and codification documents.

• Wind tunnel testing is highly specialized complex and expensive procedure

• so that it can be used only for very high cost projects

Wind tunnel tests currently being conducted on buildings and structures can be divided in to two
major types.

 The first is concerned with the determination of wind loading effects to enable design of
a structure to be wind resistant.

 The second is concerned with the flow fields induced around the structure.

(For example how a structure affects pedestrian comfort and safety at ground level or for
determining air intake concentration levels for exhaust pollutants)

WIND TUNNEL TECHNIQUE

Wind tunnel consists of following elements

• One or more ventilators to develop moving air

• Devices to straighten the flow coming from the ventilator before it enter the test section

• A working section which is usually adjustable, it contains

- Model of the building under consideration

 - A barrier or step at the entrance of the tunnel to generate large
scale turbulences

- An array of spires

- A large fetch of roughness elements to generate a boundary layer flow.

- A test section with a turn table on which the model is placed

• An outlet of the flow

• Depending on the type of wind tunnel, the flow is recirculated or connected to the outside
world for an open section tunnel.

• Open section tunnels can have the fan places before or behind the test section.

• Variations in wind tunnel technique may be adjustments to be made to the ceiling, the
positions of the roughness elements. Some wind tunnels have walls in the test section which
are partially open, to minimize blockage effects.

Three basic types of wind-tunnel test models are commonly used

1. Rigid pressure model (PM)

2. Rigid high-frequency base balance model (H-FBBM)

3. Aero-elastic model (AM)

RIGID MODEL

• Rigid-model tests are used to predict the design wind loads for glass and cladding.
• The data acquired from the wind-tunnel tests may be extrapolated to get the floor-by-floor
shear forces for the design of the overall main wind-force-resisting frame.

• Pressure study models are made from Plexiglas, Lucite.

• This material has several advantages over wooden or aluminium alloy models - accurately
machined and drilled.

• Transparent, facilitating observation of the instrumentation inside the model

• It can also be formed into curved shapes by heating the material to about 200°C.

• Model panels can either be cemented together or joined, using flush-mount screws.

• The wind-tunnel test is run for a duration of about 60 sec which corresponds to
approximately 1 hr in real time.

• The model is mounted on a turntable to allow measurement in any wind direction.

Fig : Rigid models of high-rise buildings in a wind tunnel

AERO-ELASTIC MODEL

• The main objective of conducting aero-elastic model study is to determine a more accurate
design wind load and to predict building oscillations.

• The aero-elastic model is employed for direct measurement of overall loads, deflections, and
accelerations, when the lateral motions of a building are considered to have a large influence
on wind loading.

• The high-frequency model measures overall fluctuating loads for the determination of
dynamic responses.
 Fig : Rigid aero-elastic model with gimbal

LATERAL FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (AMRITHA)

EARTHQUAKE LOADING
 Earthquake loads are the seismic loads basically due to inertial property of the structure
itself
 Earthquake forces are generated by the dynamic response of the building to earthquake
induced ground motion
 This makes earthquake actions fundamentally different from any other imposed loads
 Thus the earthquake forces imposed are directly influenced by the dynamic inelastic
characteristics of the structure itself
 Earthquake resistant design of structures have become integral part of structural design of
any structure
 The guidelines to earthquake resistant design of building and structures are given by IS
1893:2002 in India
LATERAL FORCE RESISTING SYSYTEM
 An effective seismic design generally includes;
 An overall structural concept with a layout of a lateral-force resisting system that is
appropriate to the anticipated level of ground shaking
 Providing a redundant and continuous load path to ensure that a building responds as a
unit when subjected to ground motion
 LOAD PATH
 The paths along which these inertia forces are transferred through building are Load
Paths & Buildings may have multiple load paths running between locations of mass and
foundations.
 The seismic forces that are proportional to the mass of the building elements are
considered to act at their centers of mass.
 All of the inertia forces originating from the masses on and off the structure must be
transmitted to the lateral force-resisting elements, and then to the base of the structure
and into the ground.
 A complete load path is a basic requirement for all buildings.
 There must be a complete lateral-force-resisting system that forms a continuous load path
GENERAL LOAD PATH

LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEMS
 There are several systems that can be used effectively for providing resistance to seismic
lateral forces
 Some of the more common systems are shown in Fig. 2.6.
 All of the systems rely on
 A 3-D space frame
 A coordinated system of moment frames
 Shear walls
 Braced frames with horizontal diaphragms
 A combination of the systems
 PERFORMANCE BASED SEISMIC DESIGN( ANUPAMA)
 Performance based seismic design is an elastic design methodology done on the probable
performance of building under different ground motion
 Structural design based on predicted performance of structure during earthquake
 Also known as performance based earthquake engineering
 PBEE implies design , evaluation ,construction, monitoring, the functions and
maintenance of engineered facilities whose performance under seismic loads response to
diverse needs and objectives of the owners users and society
APPLICATIONS OF PERFORMANCE BASED SEISMIC DESIGN
 Design individual buildings to achieve higher confidence that the performance intended
by present building code will be achieved
 Design individual building that are capable of meeting the performance intended by the
present building code but with lower construction cost
 Design individual buildings to achieve higher performance and lower potential losses
than intended by present building codes
 Assess the potential seismic performance of existing structure and estimate potential
losses in the events of a seismic event
 Assess the potential performance of current prescriptive code requirements for the new
building and serve as the basis for improvements to code based seismic design criteria so
that future building can perform so consistently and reliably
ADVANTAGES OF PERFORMANCE BASED SEISMIC DESIGN
 Multi level seismic hazards are considered with an emphasis on the transparency of
performance objective
 Building performance is guaranteed through limited inelastic deformation in addition to
strength and ductility
 Seismic design is oriented by performance objective interpreted by engineering
parameters as performance criteria
 An analytical method through which the structural behaviour particularly the non linear
behaviour is rationally obtained
 The building will meet the prescribed `performance objective reliably with accepted
confidence
 The design will ensure the minimum life cycle cost
DESIGN PROCEDURE

 Team of decision makers participate in the selection of performance objectives for a

building
 Once the performance objectives are set, series of simulations (analyses of building
response to loading) are performed to estimate the probable performance of the building
under various design scenario events
 If the simulated performance meets or exceeds the performance objectives, the design is
complete otherwise it has to be redesigned.
 After conceptual design completed the numerical design is proceeded for structural
detailing
 Preliminary design conducted in two different approaches
1. Traditional force based design method followed by the check of performance
objectives
2. Direct design method starting from pre qualified performance objectives
  Direct design gives closer to final design and have less computation effort and leads to
evolution of Performance Based Plastic Design method
 Direct design uses preselected target drift and yield mechanism as performance objective
which determine the degree and distribution of expected structural damages

Procurement of the target Drift

Formation plastic hinges of the yield mechanism

 Design base shear for specified hazard level calculated by equating the work needed to
push the structure monotonically up to the target drift to the energy required equivalent
EPSDOF to achieve same state
 Plastic design performed to detail the frame members and connection in order to achieve
the intended yield mechanism and behaviour
 Target drift obtained by intersecting the demand diagram and the capacity diagram of
structure
 Method advantageous for tall frames where lengthy iterative design work in current
practise can be completely eliminates
EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL APPLICATION
 Steel moment Resisting Frame
 Buckling restrained braced frame
 Eccentrically braced frames
 Special truss Moment frame
 Concentric braced frame
 Composite buckling restrained braced frame

MODULE 2
floor system (ashna)
STRUCTURAL FORMS (DEVU)
TUBE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

HYBRID STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

 RIGID FRAME STRUCTURES( ATHULYA)

Rigid frame systems, also called moment frame systems, are used in steel and reinforced
concrete buildings. This system consists of beams and columns

A rigid frame system are comment system using in high rise building that has more
stability and less damage due to natural disasters like earthquake and wind load

A rigid frame is an unbraced frame, that is capable of resisting both vertical and lateral
loads by the bending of beams and columns.

A rigid-frame structure is a structure made up of linear elements, typically beams and

columns, that are connected to one another at their ends with joints that do not allow any
relative rotation to happen between the ends of the members.

RIGID FRAMES
1) The moment-resisting frame (MRF) consists of horizontal (girder) and vertical (column)
members rigidly connected together in a planar grid form
2) The size of the columns is mainly controlled by the gravity loads
3) The size of the girders is controlled by stiffness of the frame in order to ensure acceptable
lateral sway of the building.

 The depths of frame members are often controlled by stiffness

 Story drift is defined as the lateral displacement of one level relative to the level
below
 causes of lateral drift
 deformation due to cantilever bending of the building (bending
deformation),which is approximately 20 percent of the total lateral drift
  deformation due to bending of the beams and columns (shear
deformation),approximately 65% is due to the bending of the beams, and 15% to
the columns, totalling approximately 80 %of the total lateral drift

RIGID FRAME BEHAVIOUR

 Rigid frame action provides the lateral force resistance in the building system
 This action plays the greatest role in determining the height and other dimensions
of the columns and girders

 Lateral force on the building creates flexure in the members. This flexure is transferred
between columns and beams by the rigidity of the column-beam joints.
 The continuity in the joints usually make the sagging moment due to gravity loads in the
girders
 In rigid frames the whole joint rotate as a unit
 All joints transfer moments and this can lead to large hogging moments at the supports.
 MOMENT DISTRIBUTION OF RIGID FRAMES

DEFLECTION CHARACTERISTICS
 The deflection characteristics for rigid frame construction system consist of 2 main
components, cantilever bending and frame racking.
 Cantilever bending usually represent 10-15% of the total lateral displacement.
 Frame racking forms the main component of deflection and accounts for 70% of the total
deflection in a rigid frame.
 Story drift is greatly affected by the frame racking deflection component.
 Drift limits in common usage for wind designs of buildings are of the order of 1/400–
1/500 of the story height.
 Minimize damage to cladding and non-structural walls and partitions.
ADVANTAGES OF RIGID FRAMES
 Moments get redistributed
Deflections are smaller
 Effective column lengths are shorter
 Rigid frame do not have structural walls or vertically oriented diagonal
braces.
 Provide architectural freedom in design.
 Rigid frames typically impose smaller forces on foundations than do other structural
systems.
DISADVANTAGES OF RIGID FRAMES
 Rigid frames not specifically detailed for seismic resistance have no special detailing
criteria
 These frames are not permitted as seismic force resisting systems in Seismic Design
Categories D, E, or F .
 The added cost results from the use of heavier sections in the rigid resisting frames,
requiring increased steel usage and more labour intensive connections than is common in
braced structures.
APPLICATIONS OF RIGID FRAME SYSTEMS
Some examples of tall buildings using the rigid frame system with steel structural
material include:
 The 21-storey, 94m high Lever House(New York, 1952)
 12-storey, 55m high Home Insurance Building (Chicago,1885)
 Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Chicago, USA, 26 stories, 82 m height
Example of tall buildings using the rigid frame system with reinforced concrete
structural material include:
 The 16-storey, 65m high Ingalls Building (Ohio, USA 1903)

TWO CYCLE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION (Divya)

 This is a concise form of moment distribution for estimating girder moments in a
multibay span
 It is more accurate especially in the case of unequal spans and unequal loading in
different spans
ASSUMPTIONS
 A counter clockwise moment on the end of the girder is positive and a clockwise
moment is negative
 The ends of the column above and below are considered girder are fixed
 In the absence of unknown member sizes, DF at each jont are euqal to 1/n
Example- Four span girder AE from rigid frame with its loading as shown below
STEPS :
I) Fixed end moments in each span are calculated for Dead Load and Live Load using the
formulas
II) Find the distribution factor
III) Balance the moment at joints
IV) Carryover the moment to the joint whose moments need to be calculated
V) Add moments in step I & IV ( 1st cycle)
VI) Distribute the moments to each joints
VII) Add the moments in step V& VI ( 2nd cycle)
 SPAN AB having Dead load Live load Total moment
length 8m (KNm)

Con. load 200kN 400kN

600kNm
200kNm 400kNm

UDL 20kN/m 30kN/m

267kNm
107kNm 160kNm

SPAN BC having Dead load Live load Total moment

length 7m
Con. load 150kN& 200kN,200kN
150kN 544kNm
233.165kNm 310.88kNm

UDL= 20kN/m 25kN/m

184kNm
82kNm 102kNm
 SPAN BC having Dead load Live load Total moment
length 7.8m
Con. load 200kN 400kN
585kNm
195kNm 390kNm

UDL 20kN/m 25kN/m

228kNm
101.4kNm 126.75kNm

Different load combination are considered for the maximum moments at each support and a
distribution is made for each combination
Maximum moment at AE

Maximum moment at B
Maximum moment at C

Maximum moment at C
 Combined Two Cycle Moment Distribution

15

PORTAL METHOD (HELIN)

 A frame is liable to be subjected to horizontal forces due to wind pressure and seismic
effects
 This causes direct load in column and BM in all the members of the frame
 So moments and shear may be determined by approximate method
Portal method & Cantilever method
There are two assumptions
 Points of contraflexure occur at the middle points of the members of the frame
 Horizontal shear taken by each interior column is double the horizontal shear taken
by each of the external column
Moments for the columns at the top and bottom of each storey can be easily determined
MA1A2= MA2A1= F2h/2
 Shear for any beam = BM at the beam end / Half span of the beam
Vertical reaction in columns
The end moment of the beam will induce a pull =2M/L in the windward column

PORTAL METHOD PROBLEM (LEKSHMI)

 BEHAVIOUR OF BRACED FRAMES (NAJMA)

 Braced frames are very common form of construction, economic to construct and
simple to analyze
 Economy comes from the inexpensive nominally pinned connections between beams
and columns.
 Bracing provides stability and resists lateral loads from diagonal steel members or
from a concrete core
 In braced construction, beams and columns are designed under vertical load only,
assuming the bracing system carries all lateral loads.
 High stiffness is because of horizontal shear which is primarily absorbed by the web
members and not by the columns
 Web resist lateral forces by developing internal axial actions and relatively small
flexural actions.
 The braces can be configured by using any number of steel shapes such as I-shaped
sections, rectangular or circular tubes, single or double angles stitched together, T-
shape sections, or channels
 Brace connections to the framing systems commonly consist of gusset plates with
bolted or welded connections to the braces
 Frames may considered cantilevered vertical trusses resisting lateral loads primarily
through the axial stiffness of columns and braces
 Columns act as chords in resisting the overturning moment, with tension in the
windward column and compression in the leeward column
 Web members resisting the horizontal shear in axial compression or tension,
depending on the direction of inclination
 Beams act axially when the system is a fully triangulated truss
 They undergo bending only when the braces are eccentrically connected to them
because lateral loads are reversible, braces are subjected to both compression and
tension
 The effect of axial deformation of the columns results in flexural configuration of the
deflection with concavity downwind and a maximum slope at the top
 The axial deformations of the web members, on the other hand, cause shear
configuration of deflection with concavity upwind, a maximum slope at the base, and
a zero slope at the top
 MODULE 3

BEHAVIOUR OF INFILL WALL (SALMA)

Infill Wall

• A framework of beams and columns in which some bays of frames are infilled with masonry
walls that may or may not be mechanically connected to the frame

• Consists of a steel or reinforced concrete column and girder frame with infills of brickwork
or concrete blockwork

• Infilled walls are provided within the rc structures without being analyzed as a combination
of concrete and brick elements, though in reality they act as a single unit during earthquakes

• The performance of such structures during earthquakes has proved to be superior in

comparison to the bare frames in terms of stiffness, strength and energy dissipation

• Due to great stiffness and strength in their planes, infill walls do not allow the beams and
columns to bend under horizontal loading

• Frame is designed for gravity loading only and it also contribute to the lateral strength of the
structure for it to withstand the horizontal loading

• Even the infills play significant role in enhancing the lateral stiffness of complete structure,
partially infilled framed structures somehow are affected adversely

Types of Infill Provisions

Behaviour of Infill Wall

• The wall braces the frame partly by its own plane shear resistance and partly by its
behaviour as a diagonal bracing strut in the frame

• When the frame is subjected to horizontal loading, it deforms with double curvature bending
of the columns and girders

• The translation of the upper part of the column in each storey and the shortening of the
leading diagonal of the frame cause the column to lean against the wall as well as to
compress the wall along its diagonal

Behavior of Infilled Frames

Fig 2. (a) Interactive behaviour of frames and infills (b)Analogous braced frames

Modes of Failure

1. The Corner Crushing (CC) mode, which represents crushing of the infill in at least one of its
loaded corners, as shown in Fig. 3(a). This mode is usually associated with in-filled frames
consisting of a weak masonry infill panel surrounded by a frame with weak joints and strong
members.
2. The Sliding Shear (SS) mode, which represents horizontal sliding shear failure through bed
joints of a masonry infill, as shown in Fig. 3(b). This mode is associated with infill of weak
mortar joints and a strong frame.

3. The Diagonal Compression (DC) mode, which represents crushing of the infill within its
central region, as shown in Fig. 3(c). This mode is associated with a relatively slender infill,
where failure results from out-of-plane buckling of the infill.

4. The Diagonal Cracking (DK) mode, which is seen in the form of a crack across the
compressed diagonal of the infill panel and often takes place with simultaneous initiation of
the SS mode, as shown in Fig. 3(d). This mode is associated with a weak frame or a frame
with weak joints and strong members in-filled with a rather strong infill.

Modes of infill failure

Forces in the Frame

• Axial forces in beams and columns of infilled frame can be estimated by a simple
analysis of the analogous braced frame assuming hinges at all joints

• Shear in the columns is given by the horizontal component of the force in the diagonal
strut

• Shear in the beams is given by the vertical component of that force

• Bending moments in the columns and beams caused by the perpendicular thrust from the
infill are small relative to the moments that would occur in a similarly loaded frame
without infills
 • A consecutive nominal moment Qh/20 is suggested as a maximum value

Stresses in Infill

2. Relating to diagonal tensile failure

• Diagonal cracking of the infill is related to the maximum value of diagonal stress in the
infill and also occurs at the centre of the infill

• Diagonal tensile stress;

𝜎d =
 • They are little influenced by the stiffness properties of frame because they occur at the
centre of infill, away from the region of contact with the frame

DESIGN OF INFILLED FRAMES (SHAMNA)

DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN PROCEDURE

Main factors to be considered are:
 In the weakest of its 3 modes of failure(shear, diagonal tensile, compressive) the infill
must be capable of withstanding the stresses induced by the frame bearing on it under
the action of the external shear.
 The frame must be able to transmit the external shear imposed on it to the infill , as
well as be strong enough to withstand the reactions it receives from the infill.
 It is assumed that the lateral stiffness of the infill is much greater than that of the
frame, that the infill carries the total applied shear.

DESIGN OF INFILL
Shear failure
 Occurs along the masonry bed joints
 Is assumed to be initiated at the point in the infill where the ratio of horizontal shear
stress to available shear strength is a maximum.
 Theoretical analysis have indicated & tests have verified that this occurs at the center of
the infill.
 Shear strength of masonry has commonly been represented in codes of practice by a static
friction type of equation together with a limiting maximum value.
fs = fbs + μσy ……………………………….. Eq.1
DIAGONAL TENSILE FAILURE

 Tests have shown that it can be estimated approximately as equal to the one-tenth of
mortar compressive strength.
 Codes of practice give an allowable flexural tensile stress in masonry equal to
approximately one – fortieth of compressive strength of the weakest allowable mortar.
 Assuming a typical factor of safety 4 for brickwork, it is reasonable to take the allowable
diagonal tensile stress in masonry equal to its allowable flexural tensile stress, i.e;

fd = fs ……………….. Eq.6

Thus, equating max. diagonal tensile stress to permissible diagonal tensile stress(Eq.6),

From which,

Qd = 1.7 Lt fs ……………………..8
Comparing the allowable horizontal shear based on maximum allowable shear stress criterion
(Eq.3) with that based on diagonal tensile failure(Eq.8) by substituting values for unreinforced
brick masonry from the Uniform building code, results in a higher allowable horizontal shear and
therefore is less critical. (Eq.8) may be dropped as a design consideration.

COMPRESSIVE FAILURE
DESIGN OF FRAME

 Infilled frame behaves under horizontal loading in approximately the same way as the
analogous diagonally braced truss, so members can be designed directly on the basis of
dead, live, and wind loading.

Columns : The design axial force in the columns will be the worst combinations of the forces
from gravity and wind loading, acting on the analogous braced frame.

 On the basis of stress analysis – columns should be assigned to have a bending moment
with a conservative value of Qh/2
 The shear force in the ends of a column should be assumed equal to the horizontal
component of the infill force at that level, i.e; Q.

Beams : The axial force in a beam may also be obtained from the analysis of the analogous
frame.

 Theoretically this will be a tensile or compressive force equal to the external shear at that
level
 If a beam has an infill above & below – it will be restrained against bending in the
vertical plane.
 If a beam does not have an infill above or below –the vertical thrust from the infill will
cause a B.M in the beam.
 Shear force in the ends of the beam may be taken as equal to the vertical component of
the infill diagonal force, i.e; Qh/L.
 In designing for beam moments and shears caused by an infill above, when there is no
infill below, these moments & shears must be added to those from gravity loading on the
beam.
Connections : should be designed to carry axial and shear forces in the connected
members.
Since moment resistance of joints has been found to make only a small difference in the
overall behavior of structure, it is not necessary for beam- column connections to be
designed for moment.
 HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION
 In contrast to the shear configuration of a laterally loaded rigid frame without infills, an
infilled frame deflects in a flexural shape.
 The difference in deflected shape occurs because, the infill greatly reduces the shear
mode deformations.
 In braced and infilled bents, the more slender the structure, relatively greater the
influence of the column axial stiffness on the horizontal top deflection compared with
that of the diagonal bracing stiffness.
 Deflection should be calculated as for the analogous diagonally braced frame, taking the
area of the equivalent diagonal struts as the product of one-tenth of the infills diagonal
length & their thickness.

SHEAR WALL (SUSAN)

• Shear wall is the most efficient structural element to take lateral force acting on a multi-
storey building and to transfer them to foundation

• Horizontal forces are caused by wind, earthquake and uneven settlement loads, in addition to
the weight of structure and occupants, create powerful twisting (torsional) forces. This leads
to the failure of the structures by shear.

 Shear wall used to resist lateral/horizontal/shear forces parallel to the plane of the wall by
: Cantilever action
• Shear walls are typically light-framed or braced wooden walls with shear
panels, reinforced concrete walls, reinforced masonry walls or steel plates

• Shear wall resists loads parallel to the plane of the wall

• They carry horizontal seismic forces downwards to the foundations

• Shear walls should be located so that they carry both the lateral loads and gravity loads
sufficiently to cancel the maximum tensile bending stresses in the bottom of the walls
caused by the lateral loads

Placement of Shear Walls

• Ideally, shear walls should be placed symmetrically around the outermost walls of
buildings.

• Non-symmetric shear walls will create uneven loadings and possible undesirable
torsional effects

• Located symmetrically to reduce ill effects of twist.

• Symmetry can be along one or both the directions.

• Can be located at exterior or interior.

• More effective when located along exterior perimeter of building.

• Shape and plan position of the shear wall influences the behavior of the structure
considerably. It is better to use walls with no openings in them. So, usually, the walls
around lift shafts and stairwells are used

• 1.Good 2. Fair 3.Good 4.Poor 5.Fair 6.Poor

Classification of Shear Walls

1. Simple Rectangular Type , Barbell and Flanged Walls

2. Coupled Walls

3. Rigid Frame Shear Walls

4. Framed Wall With Infilled Frames

5. Column Support Shear Walls

6. Core Type Shear Walls

Simple rectangle and bar bell type free standing walls

Simple Rectangular Type , Barbell And Flanged Walls

 Simple rectangular shear walls ,under the action of vertical loads and horizontal shear along
its length, are subjected to bending and shear.

 Barbell type of wall are formed when a wall is provide monolithically between two column.
The columns at the two ends are then called the boundary elements.
 The barbell type walls are stronger and more ductile than the simple rectangular type of
uniform section. Also they never fail in shear but only by yielding of steel in bending.

 One of the disadvantage of this type of shear walls is that as these walls are rigid during an
earthquake they attract and dissipate a lot of energy by cracking, which is difficult to repair

Coupled Type Walls

If two structural walls are joined together by relatively short spandrel beams, the stiffness of the
resultant wall increases; in addition the structure can dissipate most of the energy by yielding the
coupling beams with no structural damage to the main walls. It is easy repair these coupling
beams than walls. These walls should satisfy the following two requirements:

 The system should develop hinges only in the coupling beam before shear failure

 The coupling beam should be designed to have good energy-dissipation characteristics .

Framed walls with infilled frames

Framed walls are cast monolithically, whereas infilled frames are constructed by casting frames
first and infilling it with masonry or concrete block later.

Column supported shear walls

For architectural reasons to discontinue shear walls at floor level the wall to carry by widely
spaced column. In such column supported shear wall, the discontinuity in geometry that level
should be specially taken care of in the design

Core type shear walls

In some building ,the elevators and other service areas can be grouped in a vertical core which
may serve as device to withstand lateral loads.

Advantages of Shear Walls

• Provide large strength and stiffness in the direction of orientation.* Significantly reduces
lateral sway. * Easy construction and implementation.

• Efficient in terms of construction cost and effectiveness in minimizing earthquake damage. *

Thinner walls. * Light weight. * Fast construction time

• Fast performance. * Enough well distributed reinforcements. * Cost effectiveness.

• Minimized damages to structural and nonstructural elements

BEHAVIOUR OF SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES (SREEPRIYA)

BEHAVIOUR OF SHEAR WALLS

• Tall shear wall building comprises an assembly of shear walls whose length and thickness
may change or may be discontinued at stages up to height.

• Such variation causes complex redistribution of moments and shears between the walls with
associated horizontal interactive forces in the connecting girders and slabs.

• To understand the behavior of shear wall structures, it is classified as proportionate and non
proportionate systems.

PROPORTIONATE SYSTEM
• Proportionate system - Ratio of flexural rigidities of walls remain constant throughout their
heights.

• No redistribution of shears or moments at the change levels.

• It is statically determinate

NON PROPORTIONATE SYSTEM

• Non proportionate system - Ratio of flexural rigidities of walls are not constant up the
height.

• At levels where rigidities change, redistribution of wall shears and moments occurs with
interactions in connecting members.

• Possibility of very high local shears in the walls.

• Statically indeterminate - much more difficult to visualize their behaviour and analyze.
ANALYSIS OF PROPORTIONATE WALL SYSTEM

• Analyzing a proportionate wall system is uncomplicated because of its statical determinacy.

• Considered in two subcategories of structure - 1) those that twist

2) those do not twist.

1) PROPORTIONATE NON TWISTING STRUCTURES

• A structure symmetrical on plan about the axis of loading will not twist.

• At any level i, the total external shear Qi and the total external moment Mi will be distributed
between the walls in the ratio of their flexural rigidities.

• The resulting shear and moment in a wall j at a level i can be expressed as,

Fig
Symmetric shear wall structure

where,

(EI)ji - flexural rigidity of wall j at level i and

∑( EI ) - Summation of flexural rigidities of all the walls at level i.

• In such a proportionate non-twisting structure, there is no redistribution of shear or moment

at the change levels and no redistributive interactive forces between the walls.

2) Proportionate Twisting Structures

• A structure not symmetric in plan about the axis of loading will generally twist as well as
translate.

• In a proportionate shear wall structure that twists under the action of horizontal loading, the
resulting horizontal displacement of any floor is a combination of a translation and a rotation
of the floor about a center of twist which, in a proportionate structure, is located at the
"centroid" of the flexural rigidities of the walls.

Fig Displacement of asymmetric structure

Fig Asymmetric structure with walls parallel to loading

• In the asymmetric cross-wall structure, the X-location of the center of twist from an arbitrary
origin is (assuming that stiffness of a planar wall transverse to its plane is negligible) :
where, (El)i - sum of flexural rigidity

(Elx)i - sum of the first moments of the flexural rigidities about the origin for all the walls
parallel to the Y axis at level i.

NON PROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES

Behaviour of Non Proportionate Structures

• In case of a non proportionate non twisting shear wall structure as represented by the
equivalent planar structure in fig.(a) the links constrain the walls to have the same curvature
in the uniform regions away from the change levels.

• In those regions, the external moment is distributed between the walls in the same ratio as
their flexural rigidities, as would be the case if the structure were proportionate.

• In the transition from above to below a change level, a redistribution of the wall moments
must take place to satisfy the change in the ratio of the wall rigidities.

Fig : (a) Allocation of moment b/w nonproportionate walls ; (b) Resulting interaction

• Because the only mechanism allowing a force transfer between the walls is by horizontal
forces in the connecting links, the moment redistribution must occur by couples consisting of
horizontal forces and reverse forces in the links at successive levels around the exchange
level, as in fig. b

• The size of the moments transferred is usually large enough to cause the interactive forces at
the change level to be very large.
• Locally the shear in a wall and the reverse shear in another wall may easily exceed the total
external shear at that level.

• The severe local effects on the walls' loading close to the change level due to the moment
transfer give rise to carryover effects above and below, which diminish within one or two
stories before becoming negligible.

NON PROPORTIONATE SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES THAT TWIST AND

TRANSLATE

• Under horizontal loading also behave similarly to proportionate structures in regions away
from the change levels, with the walls' resulting moments being a combination of the
moments from their flexural and flexural torsion rigidity effects.

• At the change levels, transfers of moment occur with severe disturbances in the walls'
interactions and shears.

• Because of the twist, the transfer of moment at the change levels have to accommodate the
effects of both the walls' flexural resistance to twisting of the structure which involves the
plan locations of the walls as well as the walls' resistance to the structure's bending.

BEHAVIOUR OF COUPLEDWALLSTRUCTURES (VRINDA CHECHI)

• Coupled shear walls consist of two shear walls connected intermittently by beams along the
height.

• Commonly used in medium and high rise structures in combination with RC or steel moment
frames

• Provide lateral resistance against external horizontal loads arising from wind or earthquakes

• The behavior of coupled shear walls is mainly governed by the coupling beams

• The coupling beams are designed for ductile inelastic behavior in order to dissipate energy.
Coupling beams provides transfer of vertical forces between adjacent walls.
• Creates a frame like coupling action that resists a portion of the total overturning moment
induced by the seismic action.

• The reinforcement in coupling beam can be provided in conventional and diagonal manner.

• The diagonal arrangement of reinforcement is generally preferred over the conventional one.

• If Shear stress exceeds 0.1ls√fck /D diagonal reinforcement is provided or when 𝑙𝑠 /𝐷 is less

than or equal to 3. The diagonally reinforced coupling beam design principle is based on the
assumption that shear force itself is resolved into diagonal compression and diagonal tension
forces.

Coupled shear wall

• In general, the wall reinforcement consists of two layers of distributed reinforcement

(horizontal and vertical) throughout the wall length

• In addition, vertical reinforcement bars are provided close to the door and window openings,
as well as at the wall end zones (also known as boundary elements or barbells)
• The efficiency of coupled shear wall can be emphasized in terms of stiffness

BEHAVIOUR OF COUPLING BEAM

In general reinforced concrete bending members (RC beams) are classified according their shear-
span/depth ratio (a/h) into four categories,

1) deep (a/h ≤1), 2) short (1< a/h ≤ 2.5), 3) slender (2.5 < a/h ≤ 6),

4) very slender (6 < a/h), where (a/h) is the shear span to depth ratio

AXIAL LOAD RATIO

• Very slender beams fail in flexure, while slender beams without any stirrups experience
diagonal tension failure.

• The most common mode of failure in deep beams is anchorage failure at the end of the
tension tie combined with dowel splitting.

• For coupling beam, direct loads have no significant effect in the same tie beam internal
forces are induced mainly due to coupling action.

• According it is reasonable to consider that the shear span is the total length of the beam (i.e. a
= Lb) and this can be only considered for coupling beams which governed mainly by
coupling action.

• Coupling beams with aspect ratio, (Lb /h) ≥ 4, have to satisfy the requirements of flexural
members of Special Moment Frames (SMF).
COUPLED SHEAR WALL – BEHAVIOUR

• If a pair of shear walls is connected by pin – ended links, transmits only axial forces

• Any applied moments will be resisted by the individual moments in the two walls

• The magnitudes of these moments will be proportional to the wall rigidities

• The bending stress are distributed linearly across each wall, with maximum tensile and
compressive stresses on opposite edges

COUPLED SHEAR WALL - BEHAVIOUR

 Shears also induces axial forces in the two walls

1)Tensile in the windward wall

2)Compressive in the leeward wall

 Wind moment, ‘M’ at any level is resisted by the sum of BM, M1 & M2 in the two wall at
that level and the moments of the axial forces ‘Nl’

N = axial force in each wall at that level

l = distance b/w centroidal axis

M = M1 + M2 + Nl

Nl represents the reverse moment caused by the bending of the connecting beams
 It opposes the free bending of the individual walls

 For linked beams, Nl = 0

 For infinitely rigid beams, Nl = maximum

 The lateral forces have been resisted by a dual system consisting of special moment resisting
frames (SMRF) and reinforced concrete coupled shear walls

 The coupled shear wall and the SMRF system are designed to resist the total design lateral
forces in proportion to their rigidities considering the interaction of the dual system at all
floor levels

 The SMRF are to be designed independently considering not less than 25% of the design
lateral forces as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002

COUPLED SHEAR WALL – METHOD OF ANALYSIS

 Possible to analyze coupled shear wall structure by either approximate or more exact
technique

 Approximate methods are simpler and more amenable to hand calculation – deals with
regular structures

 Computational methods deals with irregular structures and complex loadings, but require the
services of a digital computer

 Important approximate method is continuous medium technique/continuous connection

method/continuum method/shear connection method

CONTINUOUS MEDIUM TECHNIQUE

 Structure is simplified by making the assumption

 All horizontal connecting elements are effectively smeared over the height of the building to
produce an equivalent continuous connecting medium b/w the vertical elements
 Achieved with reasonable accuracy only for a uniform system of connecting beams or floor
slabs

 2-D plane structure is transformed into an essentially 1-D one, in which all major actions
depend on the height coordinate

 Enables the behavior of the structure to be expressed in the form of an ordinary linear
differential equation

In many practical situations, The building layout will involve walls that are:

 Not uniform over their height

 Changes in width or thickness

 Disposition of the openings

 The base support condition may be complex due to discontinuation of the walls at the first
storey level form of substructure employed

 Such discontinuities do not lend themselves to a uniform smeared representation

 Thus this approach cannot be used with any confidence

 Such irregular systems are most conveniently and accurately analyzed by using a equivalent
frame approach

 The analyst must use his skill and experience to replace the coupled shear wall structure by
an equivalent plane frame work of beams and columns

 If the walls contains irregular openings or has a complex support system – difficult to
represent by a plane frame model

 Better to use a finite element model

MODELLING OF COUPLED SHEAR WALLS

CONTINOUS MEDIUM METHOD

 The continous medium method is convenient for integration with fixed point analysis of
initial analysis of coupled wall properties

 More complex nonlinear methods are required then to verify the expected behavior of these
optimizations

 In this method, the connecting members are replaced by a continuum with bending and shear
properties equivalent to those of the coupling beams.

 The continuous medium method results in closed-form solutions for the internal forces and
global deformations of the system.

 The derivation and resulting closed-form solutions are based on an elastic analysis of a two-
dimensional coupled wall structure having two piers and one row of coupling beams

EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD

 The frame analogy method is more convenient for modelling

 Complex coupled wall system than continous medium method

 Coupled wall systems comprised of more than two wall piers or an irregular wall
configuration make the closed-form solutions difficult to apply
 The equivalent frame method is versatile, relatively simple and accommodates the nonlinear
analysis necessary for performance-based design approaches

ADVANTAGES OF COUPLED SHEAR WALL

 They provide an architecturally practical structural system ; Large lateral stiffness and
strength is provided by the coupling effect

 Coupling beams provides an ideal energy dissipation mechanism, distributed along the
height of the structure

 A tolerable level of damage can be specified in the coupling beams to balance the
construction and post-earthquake repair costs.