1.

2 - Stress Tensor
Stress Tensor τij: . The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a fluid needs nine components to be
completely specified, since each component of the stress must be defined not only by the direction in
which it acts but also the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. The first index specifies the
direction in which the stress component acts, and the second identifies the orientation of the surface
upon which it is acting. Therefore, the i th component of the force acting on a surface whose outward
normal points in the j th direction is τij .

Cauchy's second law of motion[edit]

According to the principle of conservation of angular momentum, equilibrium requires that the
summation of moments with respect to an arbitrary point is zero, which leads to the conclusion that
the stress tensor is symmetric, thus having only six independent stress components, instead of the
original nine:

Derivation of symmetry of the stress tensor

Summing moments about point O (Figure 4) the resultant moment is zero as the body
is in equilibrium. Thus,

where is the position vector and is expressed as

Knowing that and using Gauss's divergence theorem to

change from a surface integral to a volume integral, we have
 The second integral is zero as it contains the equilibrium equations. This
leaves the first integral, where , therefore

For an arbitrary volume V, we then have

which is satisfied at every point within the body. Expanding this

equation we have
, , and
or in general

This proves that the stress tensor is symmetric

However, in the presence of couple-stresses, i.e. moments per unit volume, the stress tensor is non-
symmetric. This also is the case when the Knudsen number is close to one, , or the
continuum is a non-Newtonian fluid, which can lead to rotationally non-invariant fluids, such
as polymers.

Some very basic concepts associated with advection and diffusion could be reached with
simple examples: pure advection: a plastic being transported in a fluid flow (it will never
spread in the fluid flow) pure difusion: something being spreaded in a static fluid like a drop
of oil in a pool.

Convection refers to the fluid motion that results from forces acting upon/within it
(pressure, viscosity, gravity etc). Diffusion refers to the transport of mass due to the
presence of concentration gradients. NUMERICAL diffusion is a numerical error resulting
from the descritisation of the Navier-Stokes equations, which results in a higher apparent
viscosity. Dispersion is the combination of convective, diffusive and body forces (e.g.
electric fields) acting upon a scalar concentration. For instance we talk about smoke
dispersion from a chimney stack, which is the result of convective (the wind blowing it),
diffusive (smoke diffuses in air) and buoyancy forces (hot air rises). Advection refers to the
convection of a scalar concentration. Hunt around in your books/internet for the Generalised
Tranport Equation. That should cover all the above.

The shock wave is formed at the front of your body because it is travelling faster than the
speed of sound. Any good book on thermo or aerodynamics will have a section on this. Or
search for "compressible flows" on the internet.

Not quite sure what you're asking by your last sentence, but the stagnation of the fluid on
the leading edge will lead to a significant temperature rise, especially when M>3.

The main difference is that advection happens in the horizontal plane and it happens due to bulk
transfer of fluid for example, ocean currents.

To my understanding the difference is quite simple: convection is the movement of a scalar with a
velocity (CONvection), and advection is the movement of velocity itself with the velocity (Advection).

The term advection sometimes serves as a synonym for convection, but

technically, convection covers the sum of transport both by diffusion and by advection. Advective
transport describes the movement of some quantity via the bulk flow of a fluid (as in a river or
pipeline)

The thermal conductivity of liquids is relatively independent of temperature, but for gases it is an
increasing function of temperature similar to the viscosity coefficient.

the thermal conductivity k can be treated as constant, which is a quite good assumption for liquids and a
reasonable assumption for a gas with small temperature gradients

Here we see the dissipation function (the last term) depends not only on the velocity but also on the
Prandtl number. Viscous energy dissipation can be important for high-Prandtl-number fluids (oils, for
example), even for rather moderate velocities and velocity gradients. For gases, on the other hand,
where the Prandtl number is near 1, we shall see later that the velocity must approach the speed of
sound before this term is significant.

Application of Boundary Layer Theory

 The Boundary-Layer Theory is not valid beyond the point of separation.

 At the point of separation, boundary layer thickness becomes quite large for the thin layer
approximation to be valid.
 It is important to note that boundary layer theory can be used to locate the point of seperation
itself.
 In applying the boundary layer theory although U is the free-stream velocity at the outer edge of
the boundary layer, it is interpreted as the fluid velocity at the wall calculated from inviscid flow
considerations ( known as Potential Wall Velocity)
 Mathematically, application of the boundary - layer theory converts the character of governing
Navier-Stroke equations from elliptic to parabolic
 This allows the marching in flow direction, as the solution at any location is independent of the
conditions farther downstream.

The mathematical explanation of flow-separation : The point of separation may be defined as

the limit between forward and reverse flow in the layer very close to the wall, i.e., at the point of
separation

(29.16)

This means that the shear stress at the wall, . But at this point, the adverse pressure
continues to exist and at the downstream of this point the flow acts in a reverse direction resulting
in a back flow.

A fundamental assumption of the boundary-layer approximation is that the fluid immediately

adjacent to the body surface is at rest relative to the body, an assumption that appears to be
valid except for very low-pressure gases when the mean free path of the gas molecules is large
relative to the body.

In this course you have learnt the following

 The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid adjacent to the solid surface.
Phenomenologically, the effect of viscosity is very prominent within this layer.

 The main-stream velocity undergoes a change from zero at the solid surface to the full
magnitude through the boundary layer.Effectively, the boundary layer theory is a
complement to the inviscid flow theory.

 The governing equation for the boundary layer can be obtained through correct reduction of
the Navier-Stokes equations within the thin layer referred above. There is no variation in
pressure in y direction within the boundary layer.

 The pressure is impressed on the boundary layer by the outer inviscid flow which can be
calculated using Bernoulli's equation.

 The boundary layer equation is a second order non-linear partial differential equation. The
exact solution of this equation is known as similarity solution. For the flow over a flat
plate, the similarity solution is often referred to as Blasius solution. Complete analytical
treatment of this solution is beyond the scope of this text. However, the momentum integral
equation can be derived from the boundary layer equation which is amenable to analytical
treatment.

 The solutions of the momentum integral equation are called approx imate solutions of the
boundary layer equation.

 The boundary layer equations are valid up to the point of separation. At the point of
separation, the flow gets detached from the solid surface due to excessive adverse
pressure gradient.

 Beyond the point of separation, the flow reversal produces eddies. During flow past bluff-
bodies, the desired pressure recovery does not take place in a separated flow and the
situation gives rise topressure drag or form drag.

Many authors prefer to develop the boundary-layer momentum equation from the more
general Navier-Stokes equation (4-14), employing an order-of-magnitude argument,
which, in turn, shows that Eq. (8-1) is valid only for Rex= (uoopx/ /1) }> 1.

Thus the boundary-layer approximation would appear to be valid as long as Rex~ 1. Thus,
for example, our boundary-layer approximation would not be valid in the region very close
to the leading edge of the plate.
Dimensional analysis has been found useful in both analytical and experimental work in the
study of fluid mechanics. Some of the uses are listed: 1) Checking the dimensional homogeneity
of any equation of fluid motion. 2) Deriving fluid mechanics equations expressed in terms of
non-dimensional parameters to show the relative significance of each parameter. 3) Planning
tests and presenting experimental results in a systematic manner. 4) Analyzing complex flow
phenomena by use of scale models (model similitude).
An understanding of convection boundary layers is necessary to understanding convective heat
transfer between a surface and a fluid flowing past it. A thermal boundary layer develops if the fluid
free stream temperature and the surface temperatures differ. A temperature profile exists due to the
energy exchange resulting from this temperature difference.

Thermal Boundary Layer

The heat transfer rate can then be written as,

And because heat transfer at the surface is by conduction,

These two terms are equal; thus

Rearranging,

Making it dimensionless by multiplying by representative length L,

The right hand side is now the ratio of the temperature gradient at the surface to
the reference temperature gradient. While the left hand side is similar to the Biot
modulus. This becomes the ratio of conductive thermal resistance to the
convective thermal resistance of the fluid, otherwise known as the Nusselt
number, Nu.
 the rate of deformation tensor defined by 1 A

1. It is also known as the sum of squared residuals (SSR) or the sum ofsquared
errors of prediction (SSE). It is a measure of the discrepancy between the data and an
estimation model. A small RSS indicates a tight fit of the model to the data.